# Scholar-official

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Learned men in government in Imperial China

‹[See RfD](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Redirects_for_discussion/Log/2026_May_22#Template:Chinese)›

Scholar-official Painting that depicts the career of a civil servant. The career path starts with passing the civil service examinations (left side) and progresses to a high position in the government (right side). Chinese name Traditional Chinese 士大夫 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Shìdàfū Vietnamese name Vietnamese alphabet Sĩ đại phu Chữ Hán 士大夫 Korean name Hangul 사대부 Hanja 士大夫 Transcriptions Revised Romanization Sadaebu McCune–Reischauer Sadaebu Japanese name Kanji 士大夫 Hiragana したいふ Transcriptions Revised Hepburn Shitaifu Kunrei-shiki Sitaihu

A 15th-century portrait of the [Ming](/source/Ming_dynasty) official [Jiang Shunfu](/source/Jiang_Shunfu). The decoration of two [egrets](/source/Egret) on his chest are a "[mandarin square](/source/Mandarin_square)", indicating that he was a civil official of the sixth rank.

The **scholar-officials**, also known as **literati**, **scholar-gentlemen** or **scholar-bureaucrats** ([Chinese](/source/Chinese_language): 士大夫; [pinyin](/source/Pinyin): *shì dàfū*), were government officials and prestigious scholars in Chinese society, forming a distinct social class.

Scholar-officials were politicians and government officials appointed by the [emperor of China](/source/Emperor_of_China) to perform day-to-day political duties from the [Han dynasty](/source/Han_dynasty) to the end of the [Qing dynasty](/source/Qing_dynasty) in 1912, [China](/source/China)'s last imperial dynasty. After the [Sui dynasty](/source/Sui_dynasty) these officials mostly came from the [scholar-gentry](/source/Landed_gentry_in_China) (紳士 *shēnshì*) who had earned academic degrees (such as *xiucai*, *juren*, or *[jinshi](/source/Jinshi_(imperial_examination))*) by passing the [imperial examinations](/source/Imperial_examination). Scholar-officials were the elite class of imperial China. They were highly educated, especially in literature and the arts, including [calligraphy](/source/Calligraphy) and [Confucian](/source/Confucianism) texts. They dominated the government administration and local life of China until the early 20th century.[1]

## Origins and formations

Government officials in *Changfu* during the [Wanli era](/source/Wanli_Emperor), Ming dynasty

### Origins of *Shi* (士) and *Da fu* (大夫)

See also: [Chinese nobility § Pre-imperial aristocracy](/source/Chinese_nobility#Pre-imperial_aristocracy)

*Scholar-official* as a concept and social class first appeared during the [Warring States period](/source/Warring_States_period); before that, the Shi and Da Fu were two different classes. During the [Western Zhou](/source/Western_Zhou) dynasty, the Duke of Zhou divided the social classes into the king, feudal lords, Da Fu, Shi, ordinary people, and slaves. Da Fu were people from the aristocracy who served as officers and were a higher class than Shi, who were people from the social class between Da Fu and ordinary people and could only serve as low-level officials.

During the Warring States period, with the annexation wars between states and the rise of bureaucracy, many talented individuals from the Shi class provided valuable services to their lords. Shi became more influential and Da Fu gradually evolved into an official position in the bureaucracy, not a hereditary peerage. The Shi and Da Fu gradually merged and became the Scholar-officials (士大夫 Shi Da Fu).

### Ancient social classes

The feudal social structure came to divide ordinary people into four categories, with scholar-officials at its top level, this structure is another important institutional basis of the formation and prosperity of scholar-officials. The order of these [Four Occupations](/source/Four_occupations) were scholar-officials, farmers, artisans, and craftsmen/merchants.

A [Western Han](/source/Western_Han) [fresco](/source/Fresco) depicting Confucius (and [Laozi](/source/Laozi)), and his students

### Interaction with Confucianism

Further information: [Junzi](/source/Junzi) and [Four arts](/source/Four_arts)

[Confucianism](/source/Confucianism) is the core of traditional Chinese culture and the theoretical basis of the autocratic feudal monarchy.[2] The Confucian school of thought became the mainstream of traditional Chinese society, and Confucian education also became the mainstay of selecting officials at most levels of administration.

Despite the hierarchical tendencies of Confucianism, scholar-officials and ministers are not mere obedient subordinates of the ruler, but theoretically have equal roles in the maintenance of social order. This includes the possibility of running counter against or opposing the ruler, should he prove to be unfit to uphold righteous principles and fail to provide and promote well-being for the people. Thus, the balance of power is ideally split between the meritocratic Confucian scholars and the dynastic emperors, and a ruler should maintain power with the acceptance of their ministers, who have the ultimate right to sanction and forcibly depose a tyrannical or failing ruler.[3][4]

During the [Song](/source/Song_dynasty) and [Ming](/source/Ming_dynasty) dynasties, Confucian philosophers combined [Taoist](/source/Taoism) and [Buddhist](/source/Buddhism) thought to produce the [Neo-Confucian school](/source/Neo-Confucianism), further enriching the Confucian ideological system. This directly increased the prosperity of the scholar-official class and also contributed to the unique moral code of the scholar-officials, which had a huge impact on the Chinese literati of later generations.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

### Talent selection systems in Ancient China

The traditional Chinese official selection systems are the institutional basis of the formation of scholar-officials.

- [Recommendatory system](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Recommendatory_system&action=edit&redlink=1)

- [Nine-rank system](/source/Nine-rank_system)

- [Imperial examination](/source/Imperial_examination)

## Developments

### Han to Northern and Southern dynasties (202 BC – 589 AD)

Scholars depicted on Han dynasty pictorial brick, discovered in Chengdu. Scholars wore hats called *Jinxian Guan* (进贤冠) to denominate educational status.[5]

Using the Recommendatory System and Nine-rank System to select governments officials and candidates were popular during the long period beginning with the [Han dynasty](/source/Han_dynasty) and ending after the [Northern and Southern dynasties](/source/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties) period. Scholars-officials during this period usually from prominent clans,[6] including the [Zheng clan of Xingyang](/source/Zheng_clan_of_Xingyang), [Xie clan of Chen Commandery](/source/Xie_clan_of_Chen), [Cui clan of Qinghe](/source/Cui_clan_of_Qinghe), [Cui clan of Boling](/source/Cui_clan_of_Boling), [Wang clan of Langya](/source/Wang_clan_of_Langya), [Wang clan of Taiyuan](/source/Wang_clan_of_Taiyuan), and the [Lu clan of Fanyang](/source/Lu_clan_of_Fanyang). These clans were prominent in having Confucian scholars and high-ranking government officials, with male family members serving as official for generations and some clans or families serving several chancellors. They formed a huge network through political marriages with each other or the imperial family and also formed a monopoly on education and government officials.[7][8]

### Sui and Tang Dynasties (581–907)

[Du Shenyan](/source/Du_Shenyan), a politician and noted poet

Officially established in 587, the Civil Service Examination allowed for selection of scholar-officials. Beginning with the [Sui dynasty](/source/Sui_dynasty), those with the right family background who passed this examination would become scholar-officials. In the early part of the [Tang dynasty](/source/Tang_dynasty), empress [Wu Zetian](/source/Wu_Zetian) reformed and improved the Imperial Examination system by establishing the [Metropolitan Exam](/source/Metropolitan_exam); people who passed it were called *[Jinshi](/source/Jinshi)* (metropolitan graduates, highest degree), and people passed the Provincial Exam were called *[Juren](/source/Juren)* (provincial graduates).[9] Wu's reforms gradually led to today's concept of scholar-officials and the intellectual class.[10] The government would select scholar-officials by examining their poems and essays writings for knowledge of Confucian texts and some Buddhist texts.[11] Intellectuals who passed the exam served as officials. Many famous Tang poets were scholar-officials, such as [Du Mu](/source/Du_Mu). However, because the Tang Dynasty was a rapidly changing period for the final formation of the structure and composition of scholar-officials, there is some ambiguity of the usage of the words "scholar-officials": according to the *[Old Book of Tang](/source/Old_Book_of_Tang)*, scholars/intellectuals who passed the imperial exam but took no official position could only be referred to *Shi* 士; according to the *[New Book of Tang](/source/New_Book_of_Tang)*, as long as they were scholars, whether official or not, they could be called scholar-officials.[12]

### Song Dynasty (960–1279)

Zhou Wenju's *Literary Garden* (文苑图), depicting the gathering of poets

The [Song dynasty](/source/Song_dynasty) was the golden age for scholar-officials. By this time, passing the Imperial Examination had become the major path for people to hold an official position in the government. With the continuous improvements and reforms of Imperial Examination, the bureaucracy completely replaced the aristocracy, and the scholar-officer's polity was completely established.[13][14] Song was the only dynasty in Chinese history that provided scholar-officials judicial privilege. Due to the influence of the founding emperor of Song [Zhao Kuangyin](/source/Emperor_Taizu_of_Song), almost all Song emperors showed great respect to intellectuals. If a scholar-official from the Song dynasty committed a crime, he couldn't be held accountable directly. Instead, an internal impeachment replaced the formal judicial process. If his crime wasn't serious, he only needed to be punished with a reprimand instead of a criminal penalty.[15]

### Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties (1271–1912)

Candidates gathering around the wall where the results are posted. This announcement was known as "releasing the roll" (放榜). (c. 1540, by [Qiu Ying](/source/Qiu_Ying))

*[Lanshan](/source/Panling_Lanshan)* (襴衫) worn by scholars and students

During the [Yuan](/source/Yuan_dynasty), [Ming](/source/Ming_dynasty) and [Qing](/source/Qing_dynasty) dynasties, the stereotyped writing style of the [eight-legged essay](/source/Eight-legged_essay) (八股文) format dominated the Imperial Examination,[16] and scholar-officials from this period were relatively unable to speak and create freely due to the harsh political environment. The strong relationship between Imperial Examination and the official position were still present, though the entire society formed a climate of "studying well so as to become an official" 学而优则仕.[17]

In 1905, the Qing government abolished the imperial examination system, leading to the gradual disappearance of scholar-officials.

## Non-governmental functions

Since only a select few could become court or local officials, the majority of the scholar-literati stayed in villages or cities as social leaders. The scholar-gentry carried out [social welfare](/source/Welfare_spending) measures, taught in private schools, helped negotiate minor legal disputes, supervised community projects, maintained local law and order, conducted Confucian ceremonies, assisted in the government's collection of taxes, and preached Confucian moral teachings. As a class, these scholars claimed to represent morality and virtue. The [district magistrate](/source/County_magistrate), who by regulation was not allowed to serve in his home district, depended on the local gentry for advice and for carrying out projects, which gave them the power to benefit themselves and their clients.

## Evaluations

Further information: [Imperial examinations](/source/Imperial_examinations)

Theoretically, this system would create a [meritocratic](/source/Meritocracy) ruling class, with the best students running the country. The [imperial examinations](/source/Imperial_examinations) gave many people the opportunity to pursue political power and honor and thus encouraged serious pursuit of formal education. Since the system did not formally discriminate based on social status, it provided an avenue for upward social mobility. However, even though the examination-based bureaucracy's heavy emphasis on Confucian literature ensured that the most eloquent writers and erudite scholars achieved high positions, the system lacked formal safeguards against political corruption, only the Confucian moral[18] teachings tested by the examinations. Once their political futures were secured by success in the examinations, officials were tempted by corruption and abuse of power.

The Princeton scholar [Benjamin Elman](/source/Benjamin_Elman) writes that some criticized the examination elite as hindering China's development over the last century but that preparing for the examinations trained government officials in a common culture and that "classical examinations were an effective cultural, social, political, and educational construction that met the needs of the dynastic bureaucracy while simultaneously supporting late imperial social structure."[19]

With the development of international influence of Civil Service Examination system in ancient East Asia region, Scholar-officials also became an important social backbone of ancient Korea (include [Goguryeo](/source/Goguryeo), [Silla](/source/Silla), and [Baekje](/source/Baekje)), [Ryukyu Kingdom](/source/Ryukyu_Kingdom), and Vietnam.

## See also

- [Auxiliary academician](/source/Auxiliary_academician)

- [Bildungsbürgertum](/source/Bildungsb%C3%BCrgertum)

- [Cabang Atas](/source/Cabang_Atas), the Chinese gentry of colonial Indonesia

- [County magistrate](/source/County_magistrate), the official in charge of the county

- [Four arts](/source/Four_arts)

- [Junzi](/source/Junzi)

- [Kuge](/source/Kuge)

- [Landed gentry in China](/source/Landed_gentry_in_China)

- [Mandarin (bureaucrat)](/source/Mandarin_(bureaucrat))

- [Yangban](/source/Yangban), the Korean form of the scholar-official

## Notes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** Li, Su (2018). "Scholar-Officials". In Yongle, Zhang; Bell, Daniel A. (eds.). *The Constitution of Ancient China*. pp. 98–138. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.23943/9781400889778-006](https://doi.org/10.23943%2F9781400889778-006). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4008-8977-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-8977-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** DiCicco, Joel M (2003). "The Development of Leaders in Ancient China, Rome, and Persia". *Public Administration Quarterly*. **27** (1/2): 6–40. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/073491490302700102](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F073491490302700102). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [41288186](https://www.jstor.org/stable/41288186).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** Yü, Ying-Shih (2021). "Confucian Culture vs. Dynastic Power in Chinese History". *Asia Major*. **34** (1): 1–10. [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [45451724](https://www.jstor.org/stable/45451724).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** Gardner, Daniel K. (2014). *Confucianism: A Very Short Introduction*. pp. 33–44, 54–58, 98–100. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/actrade/9780195398915.001.0001](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Factrade%2F9780195398915.001.0001). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-539891-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-539891-5).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** "120". [*Book of Later Han*](https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hans/%E5%BE%8C%E6%BC%A2%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7120). 进贤冠，古缁布冠也，文儒者之服也。前高七寸，后高三寸，长八寸。公侯三梁，中二千石以下至博士两梁，自博士以下至小史私学弟子，皆一梁。宗室刘氏亦两梁冠，示加服也。

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** Wang, Yongping (2010). "Rupture and Continuity: Scholar-Official Clan Culture in the Six Dynasties and the Legacy of Chinese Civilization". *Frontiers of History in China*. **5** (4): 549–575. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/s11462-010-0111-y](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11462-010-0111-y).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** Holcombe, Charles (2019). ["Eastern Jin"](https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-china/eastern-jin/26B36E30FF9DDF420EE4B53D3D3E1752). In Dien, Albert E; Knapp, Keith N (eds.). *The Cambridge History of China*. pp. 96–118. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/9781139107334](https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781139107334). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-139-10733-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-10733-4). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [1126543297](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1126543297).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** Wang, Rui (2012). *The Chinese Imperial Examination System: An Annotated Bibliography*. Scarecrow Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8108-8703-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-8703-9).[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** Wang, Rui (2012-11-08). [*The Chinese Imperial Examination System: An Annotated Bibliography*](https://books.google.com/books?id=wEbcRUzJvLkC). Scarecrow Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8108-8703-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-8703-9).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** ["The Evolution of the Officials Selection System and Literary Creation--"Journal of Peking University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)" 2017年06期"](http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTotal-BDZK201706008.htm). *en.cnki.com.cn*. Retrieved 2020-12-18.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** Sokolova, Anna (2020). "Mid-Tang Scholar-Officials as Local Patrons of Buddhist Monasteries". *Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft*. **170** (2): 467–490. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.13173/zeitdeutmorggese.170.2.0467](https://doi.org/10.13173%2Fzeitdeutmorggese.170.2.0467). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[1854/LU-8677170](https://hdl.handle.net/1854%2FLU-8677170).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** ["唐代"士大夫"的特色及其变化"](https://www.1xuezhe.exuezhe.com/Qk/art/322359?dbcode=1&flag=2&logohome=1). *www.1xuezhe.exuezhe.com*. Retrieved 2020-12-18.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** ["Combination of scholars and bureaucracy: the establishment of the scholar-officer's civilian polity in the Song Dynasty--*Journal of Anhui Normal University(Philosophy & Social Sciences*2005年05期"](http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTotal-AHSD200505015.htm). *en.cnki.com.cn*. Retrieved 2020-12-18.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** Wang, Rui (2012). *The Chinese Imperial Examination System: An Annotated Bibliography*. Scarecrow Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8108-8703-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-8703-9).[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** Wu, Chin-shan (2008). *Subordinates and evildoers: Song scholar-officials' perceptions of clerks* (Thesis). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [312130272](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/312130272). [ProQuest](/source/ProQuest) [304329586](https://www.proquest.com/docview/304329586).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** Wang, Rui (2012). *The Chinese Imperial Examination System: An Annotated Bibliography*. Scarecrow Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8108-8703-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-8703-9).[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** ["The Evolution of the Officials Selection System and Literary Creation--*Journal of Peking University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)*2017年06期"](http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTotal-BDZK201706008.htm). *en.cnki.com.cn*. Retrieved 2020-12-18.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** ["Remonstrance: The Moral Imperative of the Chinese Scholar-Official"](https://www.asianstudies.org/publications/eaa/archives/remonstrance-the-moral-imperative-of-the-chinese-scholar-official/). *Association for Asian Studies*. Retrieved 2020-10-09.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElman2016405_19-0)** [Elman (2016)](#CITEREFElman2016), p. 405.

### Sources

- Elman, Benjamin A (2016). ["Civil Service Examinations Kējǔ 科举‎"](https://www.princeton.edu/~elman/documents/Civil%20Service%20Examinations.pdf) (PDF). In Cheng, Linsun (ed.). *Berkshire Encyclopedia of China*. pp. 405–410. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/acref/9780190622671.001.0001](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780190622671.001.0001). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-9770159-4-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9770159-4-8).

- Li, Su (2018). "Scholar-Officials". In Li, Su; Ryden, Edmund (eds.). *The Constitution of Ancient China*. Princeton University Press. pp. 98–138. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-691-17159-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-17159-3). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [j.ctt20fw8c6.8](https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt20fw8c6.8).

- Liu, Bo (2014). "The Multivalent Imagery of the Ox in Song Painting". *Journal of Song-Yuan Studies*. **44**: 33–84. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1353/sys.2014.0015](https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fsys.2014.0015). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [44511239](https://www.jstor.org/stable/44511239).

- Zhang, Dewei (2020). "Scholar-Officials: Struggling for the Right Position". *Thriving in Crisis: Buddhism and Political Disruption in China, 1522–1620*. Columbia University Press. pp. 119–155. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.7312/zhan19700](https://doi.org/10.7312%2Fzhan19700). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-231-19700-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-19700-7). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [10.7312/zhan19700.13](https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7312/zhan19700.13).

- Wang, Rui (2008). [*Wu Zetian's Contribution to the Cultural Development of the Tang Dynasty*](https://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/thesescanada/vol2/002/MR44981.PDF) (PDF) (Thesis). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-494-44981-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-494-44981-3). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [696906426](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/696906426).

## Further reading

- *Chinese Local Elites and Patterns of Dominance*. University of California Press. 1990. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-520-06763-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06763-9).

- [Max Weber](/source/Max_Weber), *[The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism](/source/The_Religion_of_China%3A_Confucianism_and_Taoism)* (1916; transl. 1951)

- Jerry Bentley and Herb Ziegler. *Traditions and Encounters - A Global Perspective on the Past*.

- Zhang, Zhongli (1955). *The Chinese Gentry; Studies on Their Role in Nineteenth-Century Chinese Society*. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

## External links

Look up ***[scholar-official](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/scholar-official)*** in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

- [Late Qing China: Reform and Rebellion (1898 -1900)](http://www.thecorner.org/hist/china/hdreform.htm)

- [Reunification and Renaissance in Chinese Civilization: The Era of the Tang and Song Dynasties](https://web.archive.org/web/20070716091108/http://occawlonline.pearsoned.com/bookbind/pubbooks/stearns_awl/chapter18/objectives/deluxe-content.html)

- [The Chinese Scholar-Official](http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_600ce_scholar.htm) Education About Asia, Columbia University.

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v t e Education in China Education system History Imperial examination Mandarin (bureaucrat) Scholar-bureaucrats Taixue Academies of Classical Learning Chinese educators Burning of books and burying of scholars Guozijian Beijing Guozijian Hundred Schools of Thought Scouting in China Digital divide in China Challenge Cup Competition of Science Achievement in China May Fourth Movement 1952 reorganization Simplified Chinese Education inequality in China Academies Chinese Academy of Sciences Chinese Academy of Social Sciences Chinese Academy of Engineering Projects Plan 111 Project 211 Project 985 Double First-Class Construction Project Hope Thousand Talents Plan Administration Ministry of Education National Education Examinations Authority Basic Primary education Secondary education Boarding schools Private and public schools Zhongkao Vocational Vocation education Higher Gaokao National Key Disciplines College English Test National Key Universities Academic grading in China State Key Laboratories JUPAS for HKSAR students Academic ranks in China Self-Taught Higher Education Examinations Libraries Archives in China Book collecting in China National Library of China Nanjing Library Shanghai Library Specialist Medical schools Business schools Law schools Foreign-language schools Schools of Journalism and Communication Int'l cooperation Association of East Asian Research Universities Association of Pacific Rim Universities Global U8 Consortium International Alliance of Research Universities Universitas 21 Worldwide Universities Network Subject areas English education Ideological and political education Morality and the Rule of Law Patriotic education Exams Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi Putonghua Proficiency Test Zhíyè Hànyŭ Nénglì Cèshì Common Recruitment Examination Language Proficiency Assessment for Teachers College English Test Quanguo Waiyu Shuiping Kaoshi Public English Test System Rankings List of universities and colleges ARWU BCUR Wu Shulian CUAA Netbig See also: Rankings of universities in China, Science and technology in China, and Types of universities and colleges in China

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Scholar-official](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholar-official) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholar-official?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.