# Saqiyah

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Mechanical water lifting device

"Tablia" redirects here. For the Byzantine decorative element, see [tablion](/source/Tablion). For the Filipino chocolate tablet, see [Tsokolate § Tabliya](/source/Tsokolate#Tabliya).

The Saqiyah, c. 1905

'Punjab Wheel', India c.1917

A **sāqiyah** or **saqiya** ([Arabic](/source/Arabic_language): ساقية), also spelled **sakia** or **saqia**) is a mechanical water lifting device. It is also called a **Persian wheel**, **tablia**, **rehat**, and in [Latin](/source/Latin) **tympanum**.[1] It is similar in function to a [scoop wheel](/source/Scoop_wheel), which uses buckets, jars, or scoops fastened either directly to a vertical wheel, or to an endless belt activated by such a wheel. The vertical wheel is itself attached by a [drive shaft](/source/Drive_shaft) to a horizontal wheel, which is traditionally set in motion by animal power ([oxen](/source/Ox), donkeys, etc.) Because it is not using [the power of flowing water](/source/Hydropower), the sāqiyah is different from a [noria](/source/Noria) and any other type of water wheel.

The sāqiyah is still used in [India](/source/India), [Egypt](/source/Egypt) and other parts of the [Middle East](/source/Middle_East), and in the [Iberian Peninsula](/source/Iberian_Peninsula) and the [Balearic Islands](/source/Balearic_Islands). It may have been invented in [Ptolemaic Kingdom](/source/Ptolemaic_Kingdom) of Egypt, [Iran](/source/Iran), [Kush](/source/Kingdom_of_Kush) or [India](/source/India). The sāqiyah was mainly used for irrigation, but not exclusively, as the example of [Qusayr 'Amra](/source/Qusayr_'Amra) shows, where it was used at least in part to provide water for a royal bathhouse.[2]

## Name and meaning

### Etymology and related meanings

The Arabic word *saqiya* ([Arabic](/source/Arabic_language): ساقية) is derived from the root verb *saqa* ([Arabic](/source/Arabic_language): سقى), meaning to "give to drink" or "make (someone/something) drink".[3] From this, the word *saqiya* (often transliterated as *seguia* in [Morocco](/source/Morocco) or the [Maghreb](/source/Maghreb)[4][5][6]) has the sense of "one that gives water" or "irrigator". Its general meaning is to denote a water channel for irrigation or for city water supplies, but by extension it applies to a device which provides water for such irrigation.[3][7] Likewise, [Spanish](/source/Spanish_language) *[acequia](/source/Acequia)*, derived from the same word, is used to denote an irrigation canal or water channel in Spain.[8][9] In the Maghreb and Morocco, the related word *saqqaya* ([Arabic](/source/Arabic_language): سقاية) also denotes a public fountain where residents could take water (similar in function to a *[sabil](/source/Sebil_(fountain))*).[10][11] The English term *Persian wheel* is first attested in the 17th century (but in the earliest case for a water-driven wheel).[12]

### *Saqiya* versus *noria*

The term *saqiyah* or *saqiya* is the usual term for water-raising devices powered by animals.[13] The term ***[noria](/source/Noria)*** is commonly used for devices which use the power of moving water to turn the wheel instead.[14] Other types of similar devices are grouped under the name of **[chain pumps](/source/Chain_pump)**. A *noria* in contrast uses the water power obtained from the flow of a river. The noria consists of a large [undershot water-wheel](/source/Undershot_wheel) whose rim is made up of a series of containers which lift water from the river to an aqueduct at the top of the wheel.[14][15] Some famous examples are the [norias of Hama](/source/Norias_of_Hama) in [Syria](/source/Syria) or the [Albolafia](/source/Albolafia) noria in [Cordoba](/source/C%C3%B3rdoba%2C_Spain), [Spain](/source/Spain).[16]

However, the names of traditional water-raising devices used in the [Middle East](/source/Middle_East), [India](/source/India), Spain and other areas are often used loosely and overlappingly, or vary depending on region. [Al-Jazari](/source/Ismail_al-Jazari)'s famous book on mechanical devices, for example, groups the water-driven wheel and several other types of water-lifting devices under the general term *saqiya*.[17][18] In [Spain](/source/Spain), by contrast, the term *noria* is used for both types of wheels, whether powered by animals or water current.[14]

## Description

### With buckets directly on the wheel

The saqiya is a large hollow wheel, traditionally made of wood. One type has its clay pots or buckets attached directly to the periphery of the wheel, which limits the depth it can scoop water from to less than half its diameter. The modern version also known as *zawaffa* or *jhallan* is normally made of [galvanized sheet steel](/source/Hot-dip_galvanizing) and consists of a series of scoops. The modern type dispenses the water near the hub rather than from the top, the opposite of the traditional types. These devices were in widespread use in China, India, Pakistan, Syria and Egypt.[19]

Saqiya wheels range in diameter from two to five metres. Though traditionally driven by [draught animals](/source/Working_animal), they are also attached to an [engine](/source/Engine) or electric motor. While animal-driven saqiyas can rotate at 2–4 [rpm](/source/Revolutions_per_minute), motorised ones can make as much as 8–15 rpm. Formerly hundreds of thousands were in use in the Nile valley and delta.[19]

Schematic of a modern saqiya as described by the [FAO](/source/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization))

### With buckets attached to endless belt

The historical Middle-Eastern device known in Arabic as *saqiya* usually had its buckets attached to a double chain, creating a so-called "pot garland". This allowed scooping water out of a much deeper well.

An animal-driven saqiya can raise water from 10 to 20 metres depth, and is thus considerably more efficient than a swape[*[clarification needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify)*] or *[shadoof](/source/Shadoof)*, as it is known in Arabic, which can only pump water from 3 metres.

### Spanish type also wind-powered

In Spanish an animal-driven saqiya is named aceña, with the exception of the Cartagena area, where it is called a noria de sangre, or "waterwheel of blood". There is also a much rarer type of saqiya which is driven by wind. [*[clarification needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify)*]

## History

### Kingdom of Kush

A Nubian saqiyah in the 19th century

The saqiya was known in Meroitic Nubia ([Kingdom of Kush](/source/Kingdom_of_Kush)) from the 3rd century BC, where it was known as *Kolē*.[20] The [Ancient Nubians](/source/Nubia) used the saqiya to improve irrigation during the [Meroitic period](/source/Meroitic_period). The introduction of this machine had a decisive influence on agriculture as this wheel lifted water 3 to 8 metres faster than the *[Shaduf](/source/Shadoof)*, which was the previous irrigation device in the Kingdom. The Shaduf relied on [human work](/source/Manual_labour) while the saqiya was driven by buffalos or other animals.[20]

### India

Watercolour painting titled 'Persian wheel near [Amritsar](/source/Amritsar)', painted in 1864–65 by [William Simpson](/source/William_Simpson_(Scottish_artist))

The sāqiyah might, according to [Ananda Coomaraswamy](/source/Ananda_Coomaraswamy), have been invented in India, where the earliest reference to it is found in the *[Panchatantra](/source/Panchatantra)* (c. 3rd century BC), where it was known as an *araghaṭṭa*;[21] which is a combination or the words *ara* (speedy or a spoked[wheel]) and *ghaṭṭa* "pot"[22] in [Sanskrit](/source/Sanskrit). That device was either used like a sāqiyah, to lift water from a well while being powered by [oxen](/source/Ox) or people, or it was used to [irrigate](/source/Irrigation) fields when it was powered in the manner of a water-wheel by being placed in a stream or large irrigation channel. In the latter case we usually speak of a noria as opposed to a sāqiyah.[23]

In [Ranjit Sitaram Pandit](/source/Ranjit_Sitaram_Pandit)'s translation of [Kalhana](/source/Kalhana)'s 12th century chronicle *[Rajatarangini](/source/Rajatarangini)*, this mechanism is alluded to when describing a [yantra](/source/Yantra) used for drawing water from a well.[24] According to [Jagtar Singh Grewal](/source/J._S._Grewal), the introduction of artificial irrigation by well (*Sakiyah*) in the 11th century in Punjab after the Turkic conquest of the area allowed for an increased population in the northern sections of the region's *[doabs](/source/Doab)*.[25]

### Egypt

Water wheel used for irrigation in [Nubia](/source/Nubia), painted by [David Roberts](/source/David_Roberts_(painter)) in 1838

Paddle-driven water-lifting wheels had appeared in [ancient Egypt](/source/Ancient_Egyptian_technology) by the 4th century BC.[26] According to [John Peter Oleson](/source/John_Peter_Oleson), both the compartmented wheel and the hydraulic noria appeared in [Egypt](/source/Egypt) by the 4th century BC, with the saqiya being invented there a century later. This is supported by archeological finds at [Faiyum](/source/Faiyum), where the oldest archeological evidence of a [water wheel](/source/Water_wheel) has been found, in the form of a saqiya dating back to the 3rd century BC. A [papyrus](/source/Papyrus) dating to the 2nd century BC also found in Faiyum mentions a water wheel used for irrigation, a 2nd-century BC [fresco](/source/Fresco) found at [Alexandria](/source/Alexandria) depicts a compartmented saqiya, and the writings of [Callixenus of Rhodes](/source/Callixenus_of_Rhodes) mention the use of a saqiya in the [Ptolemaic Kingdom](/source/Ptolemaic_Kingdom) during the reign of [Ptolemy IV Philopator](/source/Ptolemy_IV_Philopator) in the late 3rd century BC.[27]

Early Mediterranean evidence of a saqiya is from a tomb painting in Ptolemaic Egypt that dates to the 2nd century BC. It shows a pair of yoked oxen driving a compartmented waterwheel. The saqiya gear system is already shown fully developed to the point that "modern Egyptian devices are virtually identical".[28] It is assumed that the scientists of the [Musaeum](/source/Musaeum), at the time the most active Greek research center, may have been involved in its implementation.[29] An episode from [Caesar's Civil War](/source/Caesar's_Civil_War) in 48 BC tells of how Caesar's enemies employed geared waterwheels to pour sea water from elevated places on the position of the trapped Romans.[30]

The saqiya was sufficiently iconic in the Egyptian mind that a style of earring named after it was produced between the 1830s and 1950s, which is still worn today by enthusiasts and collectors of vintage Egyptian jewelry.[31]

### Roman Empire

[Philo of Byzantium](/source/Philo_of_Byzantium) wrote of such a device in the 2nd century BC;[32] the historian [Vitruvius](/source/Vitruvius) mentioned them around 30 BC; remains of tread wheel driven, bucket chains, dating from the 2nd century BC, have been found in baths at [Pompeii](/source/Pompeii),[33] and Costa, Italy; fragments of the buckets and a lead pipe, from a crank handle operated, chain driven, [bilge pump](/source/Bilge_pump), were found one of the 1st century AD [Nemi ships](/source/Nemi_ships), of [Lake Nemi](/source/Lake_Nemi);[34][35][36] and a preserved 2nd century AD example, used to raise water from a well, to an aquifer in London, has also been unearthed.[37]

### Talmudic sources

The term used by [Talmudic](/source/Talmud) sources for a saqiya is '*antelayyā*-wheel.[38]

### Medieval Islamic realm

[Al-Jazari](/source/Al-Jazari)'s advanced saqiya, both animal- and water-wheel-driven (1206).

A manuscript by [Ismail al-Jazari](/source/Ismail_al-Jazari) featured an intricate device based on a saqiya, powered in part by the pull of an [ox](/source/Ox) walking on the roof of an upper-level reservoir, but also by [water falling](/source/Hydropower) onto the spoon-shaped pallets of a [water wheel](/source/Water_wheel) placed in a lower-level [reservoir](/source/Reservoir).[39]

Complex saqiyas consisting of more than 200 separate components were used extensively by [Muslim inventors](/source/Inventions_in_the_Islamic_world) and [engineers](/source/Timeline_of_Muslim_scientists_and_engineers) in the [medieval Islamic world](/source/Islamic_Golden_Age).[40] The mechanical [flywheel](/source/Flywheel), used to smooth out the delivery of power from a driving device to a driven machine and, essentially, to allow lifting water from far greater depths (up to 200 metres), was employed by [ibn Bassal](/source/Ibn_Bassal) ([*fl.*](/source/Floruit) 1038–1075), of [al-Andalus](/source/Al-Andalus).[41]

The first known use of a [crank](/source/Crank_(mechanism)) in a saqiya was featured in another one of al-Jazari's machines.[42][43] The concept of minimising the intermittence is also first implied in one of al-Jazari's saqiya devices, which was to maximise the efficiency of the saqiya.[42] Al-Jazari also constructed a water-raising device that was run by [hydropower](/source/Hydropower), though the Chinese had been using hydropower for the same purpose before him. Animal-powered saqiyas and water-powered [norias](/source/Noria) similar to the ones he described have been supplying water in [Damascus](/source/Damascus) since the 13th century,[44] and were in everyday use throughout the medieval Islamic world.[42]

## See also

- [Man engine](/source/Man_engine)

## Notes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:fao_1-0)** ["Water lifting devices"](https://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ah810e/AH810E05.htm#5.4.2). Retrieved 28 May 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** ["Qusayr 'Amra : Site Management Plan"](https://whc.unesco.org/document/127108) (PDF). *Whc.unesco.org*. January 2014. Retrieved 2016-05-28.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:1_3-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:1_3-1) Wehr, Hans (1979). [*A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic*](https://books.google.com/books?id=WTak55pG-_IC&q=drink&pg=PP1). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 485. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9783447020022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783447020022).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** El Faiz, Mohammed; Ruf, Thierry (2010). "An Introduction to the Khettara in Morocco: Two Contrasting Cases". *Water and Sustainability in Arid Regions: Bridging the Gap Between Physical and Social Sciences*. Springer. pp. 151–163. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-481-2776-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-481-2776-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:0_5-0)** Ait Khandouch, Mohamed (2000). ["L'eau, facteur limitant de l'espace oasien. Le cas des oasis de Skoura et Amkchoud au sud du Maroc"](https://www.persee.fr/doc/bagf_0004-5322_2000_num_77_1_2147). *Bulletin de l'Association de géographes français*. **77** (1): 69–77.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:32_6-0)** Madani, Tariq (1999). "Le réseau hydraulique de la ville de Fès". *Archéologie islamique*. **8–9**: 119–142.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** Decker, Michael (2008). ["Water into Wine: Trade and Technology in Late Antiquity"](https://books.google.com/books?id=ij2wCQAAQBAJ&pg=PR4). *Technology in Transition A.D. 300-650*. Brill. p. 87. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9789047433040](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789047433040).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:2_8-0)** Bloom, Jonathan M. (2020). [*Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700-1800*](https://books.google.com/books?id=IRHbDwAAQBAJ&q=Architecture+of+the+Islamic+West%3A+North+Africa+and+the+Iberian+Peninsula%2C+700-1800&pg=PP1). Yale University Press. p. 164. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780300218701](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300218701).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** ["Definition of ACEQUIA"](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/acequia). *www.merriam-webster.com*. Retrieved 2021-03-03.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:17_10-0)** El Khammar, Abdeltif (2005). "Mosquées et oratoires de Meknès (IXe-XVIIIe siècle) : géographie religieuse, architecture et problème de la Qibla". PhD Thesis. Université Lumière-Lyon 2.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** Ferhat, Halima (2008). ["Marinid Fez: Zenith And Signs Of Decline"](https://books.google.com/books?id=nY2DqJNPmioC&pg=PP1). *The City in the Islamic World*. Brill. pp. 247–267. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9789004162402](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004162402).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** Blith, Walter (1653). [*The English improver improved, or, The svrvey of hvsbandry svrveyed discovering the improueableness of all lands some to be under a double and treble, ...*](https://name.umdl.umich.edu/A28382.0001.001) Chapter XIX, etc.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** Glick, Thomas F. (2010). "saqiya". In Bjork, Robert E. (ed.). *The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages*. Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780198662624](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198662624).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:3_14-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:3_14-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-:3_14-2) Glick, Thomas F. (2010). "noria". In Bjork, Robert E. (ed.). *The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages*. Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780198662624](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198662624).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** Burke III, Edmund (2009). "Islam at the Center: Technological Complexes and the Roots of Modernity". *Journal of World History*. **20** (2): 165–186. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1353/jwh.0.0045](https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjwh.0.0045). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [143484233](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143484233).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Miranda22_16-0)** de Miranda, Adriana (2007). [*Water architecture in the lands of Syria: the water-wheels*](https://books.google.com/books?id=D6rsB59RRZkC&q=cordoba&pg=PA55). L'Erma di Bretschneider. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-88-8265-433-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-8265-433-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** Casulleras, Josep (2014). "Mechanics and Engineering". In Kalin, Ibrahim (ed.). *The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam*. Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780199812578](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199812578).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:4_18-0)** Dallal, Ahmad; [Shefer-Mossensohn, Miri](/source/Miri_Shefer-Mossensohn) (2003). "Science, Medicine, and Technology". In Esposito, John L. (ed.). *The Oxford History of Islam*. Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780195125580](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195125580).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-fao_19-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-fao_19-1) ["Water lifting devices"](https://www.fao.org/4/ah810e/AH810E05.htm#Fig.%2026). Retrieved 5 October 2024.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-G._Mokhtar_309_20-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-G._Mokhtar_309_20-1) G. Mokhtar (1981-01-01). [*Ancient civilizations of Africa*](https://books.google.com/books?id=gB6DcMU94GUC&q=ancient+irrigation+Africa&pg=PA309). Unesco. International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa. p. 309. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780435948054](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780435948054). Retrieved 2012-06-19 – via Books.google.com.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** ["The Persian Wheel in India"](http://base.d-p-h.info/en/fiches/dph/fiche-dph-7866.html). Base.d-p-h.info. Retrieved 2016-05-28.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** Klaus Glashoff. ["Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit"](http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?script=HK&beginning=0+&tinput=+ara&trans=Translate&direction=AU). Spokensanskrit.de. Retrieved 2016-05-28.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** ["The Persian Wheel revisited- Araghatta | Harvesting Rainwater"](https://rainwaterharvesting.wordpress.com/2008/02/23/the-persian-wheel-revisited-araghatta/). Rainwaterharvesting.wordpress.com. 23 February 2008. Retrieved 2016-05-28.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** Pandit, Ranjit Sitaram (2021), [*Kalhana's Rajatarangini*](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.282688), Sahitya Akademi, p. 39, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-260-1236-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-260-1236-7), archived from [the original](https://books.google.com/books?id=-up5gN8RRWUC) on 2017-01-16

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:22_25-0)** Grewal, Jagtar Singh (1999). *The Sikhs of the Punjab* (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 3. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [8175960701](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/8175960701).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Wikander_26-0)** [Örjan Wikander](/source/%C3%96rjan_Wikander) (2008). "Chapter 6: Sources of Energy and Exploitation of Power". In [John Peter Oleson](/source/John_Peter_Oleson) (ed.). *The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World*. [Oxford University Press](/source/Oxford_University_Press). pp. 141–2. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-518731-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518731-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Miranda_27-0)** Adriana de Miranda (2007). *Water architecture in the lands of Syria: the water-wheels*. L'Erma di Bretschneider. pp. 38–9. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-88-8265-433-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-8265-433-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** [Oleson 2000](#CITEREFOleson2000), pp. 234, 270

1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** [Oleson 2000](#CITEREFOleson2000), pp. 271f.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** [Oleson 2000](#CITEREFOleson2000), p. 271

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** Fahmy, Azza. *The Traditional Jewelry of Egypt*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** ["The chained pump of Philon (*mangani*)"](https://web.archive.org/web/20211103013326/http://kotsanas.com/gb/exh.php?exhibit=1001005). *kotsanas.com*. Archived from [the original](http://kotsanas.com/gb/exh.php?exhibit=1001005) on 2021-11-03. Retrieved 2021-11-03.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** *Development of gymnasia and Graeco-Roman cityscapes*. Ulrich Mania, Monika Trümper. Berlin: Edition Topoi. 2018. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-9819685-0-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-9819685-0-7). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [1100399313](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1100399313).{{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: CS1 maint: others ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others))

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-35)** Oleson, John Peter (1984-06-30). [*Greek and Roman Mechanical Water-Lifting Devices: The History of a Technology*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ynejM1-TATMC&dq=Nemi+ships+%22crank%22+handle&pg=PA231). Springer Science & Business Media. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-277-1693-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-277-1693-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_109_36-0)** Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, p. 109.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** Blair, Ian; Spain, Robert; Taylor, Tony (2019-04-08), Bouet, Alain (ed.), ["The technology of the 1st – and 2nd – century roman bucket chains from London: from excavation to reconstruction"](https://books.openedition.org/ausonius/10458), *Aquam in altum exprimere : Les machines élévatrices d’eau dans l’Antiquité*, Scripta Antiqua, Pessac: Ausonius Éditions, pp. 85–114, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-2-35613-295-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-35613-295-6), retrieved 2021-11-03{{[citation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Citation)}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_work_parameter_with_ISBN))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-38)** Robert R. Stieglitz (2006). ["Tel Tanninim"](http://www.bibleinterp.com/excavations/Tanninim_032901.shtml). The Bible and Interpretation. Retrieved 16 September 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_353_39-0)** Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, p. 353.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-40)** [Donald Hill](/source/Donald_Hill) (1996), "Engineering", in Roshdi Rashed, *Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science*, Vol. 3, pp. 751–795 [771].

1. **[^](#cite_ref-41)** ["Flywheel"](http://themechanic.weebly.com/uploads/4/3/5/7/4357357/flywheel.pdf) (PDF). *themechanic.weebly.com*.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Hill-776_42-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Hill-776_42-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Hill-776_42-2) [Donald Hill](/source/Donald_Hill), "Engineering", p. 776, in Roshdi Rashed, ed., *[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science](/source/Encyclopedia_of_the_History_of_Arabic_Science)*, Vol. 2, pp. 751–795, [Routledge](/source/Routledge), London and New York

1. **[^](#cite_ref-43)** Ceccarelli, Marco (1 December 2009). [*Distinguished Figures in Mechanism and Machine Science: Their Contributions and Legacies, Part 2*](https://books.google.com/books?id=73OZi_L_CdkC&dq=first+crank+saqiya+al-Jazari&pg=PA5). Springer Science & Business Media. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-481-2346-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-481-2346-9).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hassan_44-0)** ["History of Science and Technology in Islam"](https://web.archive.org/web/20140208205525/http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%206.htm). Archived from [the original](http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%206.htm) on February 8, 2014. Retrieved February 16, 2015.

## References

- [Oleson, John Peter](/source/John_Peter_Oleson) (2000), "Water-Lifting", in [Wikander, Örjan](/source/%C3%96rjan_Wikander) (ed.), *Handbook of Ancient Water Technology*, Technology and Change in History, vol. 2, Leiden: Brill, pp. 217–302, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [90-04-11123-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-11123-9)

## Further reading

- Fraenkel, P., (1990) "Water-Pumping Devices: A Handbook for users and choosers" *Intermediate Technology Publications*.

- Molenaar, A., (1956) "Water lifting devices for irrigation" *FAO Agricultural Development Paper* No. 60, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.

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