# Sansei

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Not to be confused with [Sensei](/source/Sensei).

Grandchildren of Japanese-born emigrants

***Sansei*** (三世, "third generation") is a [Japanese](/source/Japanese_language) and North American English term[1] used in parts of the world (mainly in [South America](/source/South_America) and [North America](/source/North_America)) to refer to the children of children born to ethnically Japanese emigrants (*[Issei](/source/Issei)*) in a new country of residence, outside of Japan. The *[nisei](/source/Nisei)* are considered the second generation, while grandchildren of the Japanese-born emigrants are called *Sansei*. The fourth generation is referred to as *[yonsei](/source/Yonsei_(Japanese_diaspora))*.[2] The children of at least one *nisei* parent are called *Sansei*; they are usually the first generation of whom a high percentage are mixed-race, given that their parents were (usually), themselves, born and raised in America.[3]

The character and uniqueness of the *sansei* is recognized in its social history.[4]

## By country

The grandchildren of these Japanese-Brazilian (*Nipo-brasileiros*) immigrants are called *Sansei*.

Although the earliest organized group of Japanese emigrants settled in [Mexico](/source/Mexico) in 1897,[5] the four largest populations of Japanese and their descendants are in [Brazil](/source/Brazil), the [United States](/source/United_States), [Canada](/source/Canada), and [Peru](/source/Peru).

### Brazilian *Sansei*

Main article: [Japanese Brazilians](/source/Japanese_Brazilians)

Brazil is home to the largest Japanese population outside of [Japan](/source/Japan), with an estimate of more than 1.5 million people (including those of mixed-race or mixed-ethnicity),[6] more than that of the 1.2 million in the [United States](/source/United_States).[7] The *Sansei* Japanese of Brazil are an important ethnic minority in the South American nation.[8]

### American *Sansei*

Main article: [Japanese Americans](/source/Japanese_Americans)

Most American *Sansei* were born during the [Baby Boom](/source/Baby_Boom) after the end of [World War II](/source/World_War_II); older *Sansei*, who were living in the western United States during the war, were forcibly incarcerated with their parents (*Nisei*) and grandparents (*[Issei](/source/Issei)*) after [Executive Order 9066](/source/Executive_Order_9066) was promulgated to exclude everyone of Japanese descent from the [West Coast](/source/West_Coast_of_the_United_States) and from [Southern Arizona](/source/Southern_Arizona). The *Sansei* were forceful activists in the [redress movement](/source/Japanese_American_redress_and_court_cases) of the 1980s, which resulted in an [official apology](/source/Civil_Liberties_Act_of_1988) to the internees.[9] In some senses, the *Sansei* seem to feel they are caught in a dilemma between their "quiet" Nisei parents and their other identity model of "verbal" and outspoken Americans.[10]

In the United States, an iconic *Sansei* is General [Eric Shinseki](/source/Eric_Shinseki) (born November 28, 1942, 34th [Chief of Staff of the United States Army](/source/Chief_of_Staff_of_the_United_States_Army) (1999–2003) and former [United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs](/source/United_States_Secretary_of_Veterans_Affairs). He is the first [Asian American](/source/Asian_American) in U.S. history to be a [four-star general](/source/Four-star_general), and the first to lead one of the four U.S. military services.[11]

### Canadian *Sansei*

Main article: [Japanese Canadians](/source/Japanese_Canadians)

Within Japanese-Canadian communities across Canada, three distinct subgroups developed, each with different sociocultural referents, generational identities, and wartime experiences.[12]

### Peruvian *Sansei*

Main article: [Japanese Peruvians](/source/Japanese_Peruvians)

Among the approximately 80,000 Peruvians of Japanese descent, the *Sansei* Japanese Peruvians comprise the largest number. Former Peruvian President [Alberto Fujimori](/source/Alberto_Fujimori), who was in office from 28 July 1990 until 22 November 2000, was the *nisei* son of *Issei* emigrants from [Kumamoto City](/source/Kumamoto), [Kumamoto Prefecture](/source/Kumamoto_Prefecture), Japan.

## Cultural profile

### Generations

Japanese-Americans and Japanese-Canadians have special names for each of their generations in North America. These are formed by combining one of the [Japanese numbers](/source/Japanese_numbers) corresponding to the [generation](/source/Generation) with the Japanese word for generation (*sei* 世). The Japanese-American and Japanese-Canadian communities have themselves distinguished their members with terms like *Issei*, *Nisei* and *Sansei* which describe the first, second and third generation of immigrants. The fourth generation is called *Yonsei* (四世) and the fifth is called *Gosei* (五世). The *Issei*, *Nisei* and *Sansei* generations reflect distinctly different attitudes to authority, gender, non-Japanese involvement, religious belief and practice and other matters.[13] The age when individuals faced the wartime evacuation and internment is the single, most significant factor which explains these variations in their experiences, attitudes and behaviour patterns.[12]

The term *[Nikkei](/source/Japanese_diaspora)* (日系) encompasses all of the world's Japanese immigrants across generations.[14] The collective memory of the *Issei* and older *Nisei* was an image of Meiji Japan from 1870 through 1911, which contrasted sharply with the Japan that newer immigrants had more recently left. These differing attitudes, social values and associations with Japan were often incompatible with each other.[15] In this context, the significant differences in post-war experiences and opportunities did nothing to mitigate the gaps which separated generational perspectives.

Generation Cohort description Issei (一世) The generation of people born in Japan who later immigrated to another country. Nisei (二世) The generation of people born outside Japan to at least one Issei parent. Sansei (三世) The generation of people born to at least one Nisei parent. Yonsei (四世) The generation of people born to at least one Sansei parent. Gosei (五世) The generation of people born to at least one Yonsei parent.[16]

In North America since the redress victory in 1988, a significant evolutionary change has occurred. The *Sansei*, their parents, their grandparents, and their children are changing the way they look at themselves and their pattern of accommodation to the non-Japanese majority.[17]

There are currently just over one hundred thousand [British Japanese](/source/Japanese_in_the_United_Kingdom), mostly in [London](/source/London); but unlike other *[Nikkei](/source/Japanese_diaspora)* communities elsewhere in the world, these Britons do not conventionally parse their communities in generational terms as *Issei*, *Nisei* or *Sansei*.[18][19]

#### Sansei

The third generation of immigrants, born in the United States or Canada to parents born in the United States or Canada, is called *Sansei* (三世). Children born to the *Nisei* were generally born after 1945. They speak English as their first language and are completely acculturized in the contexts of Canadian or American society. They tend to identify with Canadian or American values, norms and expectations. Few speak Japanese and most tend to express their identity as Canadian or American rather than Japanese. Among the *Sansei* there is an overwhelming percentage of marriages to persons of non-Japanese ancestry.[15]

#### Aging

The *[kanreki](/source/Kanreki)* (還暦), a traditional, pre-modern Japanese rite of passage to old age at 60, was sometimes celebrated by the *Issei* and is now being celebrated by increasing numbers of *Nisei* and a few *Sansei*. Rituals are enactments of shared meanings, norms, and values and this Japanese rite of passage highlights a collective response among the Nisei to the conventional dilemmas of growing older.[20]

## History

Main articles: [Japanese diaspora](/source/Japanese_diaspora) and [Japanese American history](/source/Japanese_American_history)

### Internment and redress

Main articles: [Internment of Japanese Americans](/source/Internment_of_Japanese_Americans), [Japanese American redress and court cases](/source/Japanese_American_redress_and_court_cases), and [Internment of Japanese Canadians](/source/Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians)

Some responded to internment with lawsuits and political action; and for others, poetry became an unplanned consequence:

With new hope. We build new lives. Why complain when it rains? This is what it means to be free. [Lawson Fusao Inada](/source/Lawson_Fusao_Inada), [Japanese American Historical Plaza](/source/Tom_McCall_Waterfront_Park#Japanese_American_Historical_Plaza), Portland, Oregon.[21]

### Life under United States policies before and after World War II

Main articles: [Japanese American life before World War II](/source/Japanese_American_life_before_World_War_II) and [Japanese American life after World War II](/source/Japanese_American_life_after_World_War_II)

## Politics

See also: [Anti-Japanese sentiment in the United States](/source/Anti-Japanese_sentiment_in_the_United_States)

The *sansei* became known as the "activist generation"[22] because of their large hand in the [redress movement](/source/Japanese_American_redress_and_court_cases) and individuals that have become a part of the American mainstream political landscape.

## Notable individuals

See also: [List of Japanese Americans](/source/List_of_Japanese_Americans)

The numbers of *sansei* who have earned some degree of public recognition has continued to increase over time; but the quiet lives of those whose names are known only to family and friends are no less important in understanding the broader narrative of the *Nikkei.* Although the names highlighted here are over-represented by *sansei* from North America, the Latin American member countries of the [Pan American Nikkei Association](/source/Pan_American_Nikkei_Association) (PANA) include [Argentina](/source/Argentina), [Bolivia](/source/Bolivia), [Brazil](/source/Brazil), [Chile](/source/Chile), [Colombia](/source/Colombia), [Mexico](/source/Mexico), [Paraguay](/source/Paraguay), [Peru](/source/Peru), [Uruguay](/source/Uruguay), in addition to the English-speaking [United States](/source/United_States) and [Canada](/source/Canada).[23]

This is a [dynamic list](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Lists#Dynamic_lists) and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by [editing the page](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Sansei) to add missing items, with references to [reliable sources](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources).

Francis Fukuyama[24] Robert S. Hamada[25] Ryan Higa Kyle Higashioka Mike Honda[26] Kaisei Ichiro Lawson Fusao Inada Michio Kaku Soji Kashiwagi Ken Kashiwahara[27] Janice Kawaye Kyle Larson Doris Matsui Robert Matsui[28] Dale Minami[29] Patsy Mink[30] Kent Nagano[31] Suzy Nakamura Desmond Nakano Lane Nishikawa[32] Linda Nishio Bev Oda Sophie Oda Steven Okazaki[33] Yuji Okumoto Ellison Onizuka[34] Pete Rouse[35] Lenn Sakata[36] Roger Shimomura Mike Shinoda[37][38] Eric Shinseki[39] David Suzuki Ronald Takaki[40] Mark Takano[41] Dan Tani[42] Chris Tashima David Tsubouchi Gedde Watanabe Kristi Yamaguchi Jan Yanehiro

## See also

- [Asian American](/source/Asian_American)

- [Asian Canadian](/source/Asian_Canadian)

- [Hyphenated American](/source/Hyphenated_American)

- [Japanese American Citizens League](/source/Japanese_American_Citizens_League)

- [Japanese American National Library](/source/Japanese_American_National_Library)

- [Japanese American Internment Museum](/source/Japanese_American_Internment_Museum)

- [Japanese American National Museum](/source/Japanese_American_National_Museum)

- [Japanese Canadian](/source/Japanese_Canadian)

- [Japanese Brazilian](/source/Japanese_Brazilian)

- [Japanese community in the United Kingdom](/source/Japanese_community_in_the_United_Kingdom)

- [Japanese people](/source/Japanese_people)

- [List of Japanese Americans](/source/List_of_Japanese_Americans)

- [Model minority](/source/Model_minority)

- [Nisei Baseball Research Project](/source/Nisei_Baseball_Research_Project)

- [Pacific Movement of the Eastern World](/source/Pacific_Movement_of_the_Eastern_World)

- [Japanese American internment](/source/Japanese_American_internment)

- [Gila River War Relocation Center](/source/Gila_River_War_Relocation_Center)

- [Granada War Relocation Center](/source/Granada_War_Relocation_Center)

- [Heart Mountain War Relocation Center](/source/Heart_Mountain_War_Relocation_Center)

- [Jerome War Relocation Center](/source/Jerome_War_Relocation_Center)

- [Manzanar National Historic Site](/source/Manzanar)

- [Minidoka National Historic Site](/source/Minidoka_National_Historic_Site)

- [Poston War Relocation Center](/source/Poston_War_Relocation_Center)

- [Rohwer War Relocation Center](/source/Rohwer_War_Relocation_Center)

- [Topaz War Relocation Center](/source/Topaz_War_Relocation_Center)

- [Tule Lake War Relocation Center](/source/Tule_Lake_War_Relocation_Center)

- [100th Infantry Battalion (United States)](/source/100th_Infantry_Battalion_(United_States))

- [442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)](/source/442nd_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States))

- [Go For Broke Monument](/source/Go_For_Broke_Monument)

## Notes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** ["Definition of SANSEI"](http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sansei). *www.merriam-webster.com*. Retrieved 21 April 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** In Japanese counting, "one, two, three, four" is "ichi, ni, san, yon"—*see* [Japanese numerals](/source/Japanese_numerals)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** Nomura, Gail M. (1998). "Japanese American Women," in [The Reader's Companion to U.S. Women's History*(Mankiller, Barbara Smith, ed.), pp. 288-290.*](https://books.google.com/books?id=d9lhBw8t410C&pg=PA288), p. 288, at [Google Books](/source/Google_Books)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** Numrich, Paul David. (2008). North [*American Buddhists in Social Context,* p. 110](https://books.google.com/books?id=sAy1s626lE0C&pg=PA127).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-mofa-Mexico_5-0)** Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA), [*Japan-Mexico Relations*](http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/latin/mexico/index.html); retrieved 2011-05-17

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** MOFA, ["Japan-Brazil Relations"](http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/latin/brazil/index.html); retrieved 2011-05-17

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** US Census, ["Selected Population Profile in the United States; Japanese alone or in any combination," 2005](http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/IPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201PR&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201T&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201TPR&-reg=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201PR:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201T:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201TPR:041&-ds_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_&-_lang=en) [Deprecated link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Archive.today_guidance) archived 2020-02-12 at [archive.today](/source/Archive.today); retrieved 2011-05-17

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** Simons, Marlise. ["Japanese Gone Brazilian: Unhurried Workaholics,"](https://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/08/world/japanese-gone-brazilian-unhurried-workaholics.html) *New York Times.* May 8, 1988; retrieved 2011-05-17

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** Sowell, Thomas. (1981). [*Ethnic America: A History,* p. 176.](https://books.google.com/books?id=m60q57zoReUC&dq=sansei&pg=PA176)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** Miyoshi, Nobu. (1978). ["Identity Crisis of the Sansei and the Concentration Camp,"](http://www.momomedia.com/CLPEF/sansei/identity.htm) Sansei Legacy Project (NIMH Grant No. 1 R13 MH25655-01); retrieved 2011-05-17

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** Zweigenhaft, Richard L. *et al.* (2006). [Diversity in the Power Elite: How it Happened, why it Matters,*pp. 191-192*](https://books.google.com/books?id=0V0gO8tArK8C&pg=PA191), p. 191, at [Google Books](/source/Google_Books); US Army, Center of Military History, [Eric Ken Shinksei](https://web.archive.org/web/20080109055503/http://www.history.army.mil/books/cg%26csa/Shinseki.htm); retrieved 2011-05-17

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-mclellan36_12-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-mclellan36_12-1) McLellan, Janet. (1999). [Many Petals of the Lotus: Five Asian Buddhist Communities in Toronto,*p. 36*](https://books.google.com/books?id=NMm024458s4C&pg=PA36), p. 36, at [Google Books](/source/Google_Books); Ikawa, Fumiko. ["Reviews: *Umi o Watatta Nippon no Mura* by Masao Gamo and "*Steveston Monogatari: Sekai no Naka no Nipponjin*" by Kazuko Tsurumi](https://www.jstor.org/pss/667278), *American Anthropologist* (US). New Series, Vol. 65, No. 1 (Feb., 1963), pp. 152-156; retrieved 2011-05-17

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** McLellan, *[p. 59.](https://books.google.com/books?id=NMm024458s4C&pg=PA59)*, p. 59, at [Google Books](/source/Google_Books)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** Japanese American National Museum, ["What is Nikkei?"](http://www.discovernikkei.org/en/what/) retrieved 2011-05-17

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-mclellan37_15-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-mclellan37_15-1) McLellan, *[p. 37.](https://books.google.com/books?id=NMm024458s4C&pg=PA37)*, p. 37, at [Google Books](/source/Google_Books)

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** McLellan, *[p. 68.](https://books.google.com/books?id=NMm024458s4C&pg=PA68)*, p. 68, at [Google Books](/source/Google_Books)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** Itoh, Keiko. (2001). [The Japanese Community in Pre-War Britain: From Integration to Disintegration,*p. 7.*](https://books.google.com/books?id=VBijCPLvWyUC&pg=PA7), p. 7, at [Google Books](/source/Google_Books)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** See also “Japan is Not Invited to Lord Mountbatten’s Funeral,” New York Times (September 5, 1979).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** Doi, Mary L. ["A Transformation of Ritual: The Nisei 60th Birthday."](https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00056753) *Journal Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology.* Vol. 6, No. 2 (April, 1991); retrieved 2011-05-17

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** [PBS](/source/Public_Broadcasting_Service): ["Oregon Laureate Reflects on Japanese Internment,"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100903042034/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/indepth_coverage/entertainment/poetry/profiles/poet_inada.html) [NewsHour](/source/The_NewsHour_with_Jim_Lehrer). October 3, 2008; retrieved 2011-05-17

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** US Congresswoman Nancy Pelosi website: ["Japantown Represents More than 100 Years of a Unique Immigrant Experience,"](http://pelosi.house.gov/news/press-releases/2006/09/releases-Sept06-Japantown.shtml) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20110116163128/http://pelosi.house.gov/news/press-releases/2006/09/releases-Sept06-Japantown.shtml) 2011-01-16 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) inserted into the Congressional Record to commemorate the 100th anniversary of San Francisco's Japantown. September 19, 2006; excerpt, "... the emergence of the activist third generation — the Sansei — who are now "baby boomers" and the parents and grandparents of the fourth and fifth generations — the Yonsei and Gosei"; retrieved 2011-05-17

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** National Association of Japanese Canadians: [Pan American Nikkei Association](http://www.najc.ca/thenandnow/relations_pana.php) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20090218195725/http://www.najc.ca/thenandnow/relations_pana.php) 2009-02-18 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) (PANA); retrieved 2011-05-17

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** Discover Nikkei: [Francis Fukuyama bio](https://archive.today/20120731082159/http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama); retrieved 2011-05-17

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** Zweigenhaft, *[p. 182.](https://books.google.com/books?id=0V0gO8tArK8C&pg=PA182)*, p. 182, at [Google Books](/source/Google_Books)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** DiscoverNikkei: [Mike Honda bio](http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/Mike_Honda) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20081203213647/http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/Mike_Honda) 2008-12-03 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine); retrieved 2011-05-17

1. **[^](#cite_ref-mcwhorter_27-0)** McWhorter, A.J. (April 5, 2010), ["Kauai-born journalist covered globe"](https://archives.starbulletin.com/content/20100405_kauai_born_journalist_covered_globe), *[Honolulu Star-Bulletin](/source/Honolulu_Star-Bulletin)*

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** Minami, Dale. (2005). [University of Washington Law School, Commencement Address](http://www.law.washington.edu/News/Articles/Default.aspx?YR=2005&ID=Commencement2005); retrieved 2011-05-17

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** DiscoverNikkei: [Mink bio](https://archive.today/20120803115026/http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/Patsy_Takemoto_Mink); Nomura, *[pp. 288-290.](https://books.google.com/books?id=d9lhBw8t410C&pg=PA288)*, p. 288, at [Google Books](/source/Google_Books); retrieved 2011-05-17

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** Zia, Helen *et al.* (1995). "Kent Nagano" in [*Notable Asian Americans,* p. 273.](https://books.google.com/books?id=dZsYAAAAIAAJ&q=kent+nagano)

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-40)** ["*In Depth* with Ronald Takaki"](http://www.c-span.org/video/?284353-1/depth-ronald-takaki). [C-SPAN](/source/C-SPAN). 28 February 2009. Retrieved 19 April 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-41)** Goad, Ben. ["Congress District 41: Takano beats Tavaglione in nationally watched race,"](http://www.pe.com/local-news/politics/ben-goad-headlines/20121106-congress-district-41-takano-beats-tavaglione-in-nationally-watched-race.ece) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20121110100509/http://www.pe.com/local-news/politics/ben-goad-headlines/20121106-congress-district-41-takano-beats-tavaglione-in-nationally-watched-race.ece) 2012-11-10 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) *Press-Enterprise*(Riverside, California). November 6, 2012; retrieved 2012-12-2.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-42)** Seigel, Shizue. ["Dan Tani: NASA’s Newest Japanese American Astronaut,"](http://www.nikkeiheritage.org/nh/nhvxin4.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20120316154408/http://www.nikkeiheritage.org/nh/nhvxin4.html) 2012-03-16 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) *Nikkei Heritage* (US). Vol. XI, No. 4, Fall 1999; retrieved 2011-05-17

## References

- Harth, Erica. (2003). *Last Witnesses: Reflections on the Wartime Internment of Japanese Americans.* New York: Macmillan. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780312221997](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780312221997); [OCLC 46364694](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/46364694)

- Hosokowa, Fumiko. (1978). *The Sansei: Social Interaction and Ethnic Identification Among the Third Generation Japanese.* San Francisco: R & E Research Associates. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780882474908](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780882474908); [OCLC 4057372](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4057372)

- Itoh, Keiko. (2001). *The Japanese Community in Pre-War Britain: From Integration to Disintegration.* Richmond, Surrey: Curzon. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780700714872](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780700714872); [OCLC 48937604](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/48937604)

- Leslie, Gerald R. and Sheila K. Korman. (1967). *The Family in Social Context.* New York: Oxford University Press. [OCLC 530549](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/530549)

- Makabe, Tomoko. (1998). *The Canadian Sansei.* Toronto: University of Toronto Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780802041791](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802041791); [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780802080387](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802080387); [OCLC 39523777](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/39523777)

- McLellan, Janet. (1999). *Many Petals of the Lotus: Five Asian Buddhist Communities in Toronto.* Toronto: University of Toronto Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780802044211](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802044211); [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780802082251](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802082251); [OCLC 43521129](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/43521129)

- Nomura, Gail M. (1998). ["Japanese American Women,"](http://www.credoreference.com/entry/rcuswh/japanese_american_women) in *The Reader's Companion to U.S. Women's History* (Mankiller, Barbara Smith, ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780618001828](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780618001828); [OCLC 43338598](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/43338598)

- [Sowell](/source/Thomas_Sowell), Thomas. (1981). *Ethnic America: A History.* New York: [Basic Books](/source/Basic_Books). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780465020744](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780465020744); [OCLC 7306301](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/7306301)

- Takahashi, Jere. (1997). *Nisei Sansei: Shifting Japanese American Identities and Politics.* Philadelphia: Temple University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781566395502](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781566395502); [OCLC 37180842](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37180842)

- Tamura, Eileen and Roger Daniels. (1994). *Americanization, Acculturation, and Ethnic Identity: The Nisei Generation in Hawaii.* Urbana: University of Illinois Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780252020315](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780252020315); [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780252063589](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780252063589); [OCLC 27383373](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/27383373)

- Zweigenhaft, Richard L. and G. William Domhoff. (2006). *Diversity in the Power Elite: How it Happened, Why it Matters.* Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780742536982](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780742536982); [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780742536999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780742536999); [OCLC 62281556](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/62281556)

## Further reading

- Gehrie, Mark Joshua. (1973). *Sansei: An Ethnography of Experience* (Ph.D. thesis, Anthropology). Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University. [OCLC 71849646](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/71849646)

- Kaihara, Rodney and Patricia Morgan. (1973). *Sansei Experience*. San Fullerton, Calif. : Oral History Program, California State University, Fullerton. [OCLC 23352676](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/23459152)

- Oana, Leilani Kyoko. (1984). *Ethnocultural Identification in Sansei (Third Generation Japanese American) Females: An Evaluation of Alternative Measures* (M.A. thesis). Washington, D.C.: George Washington University. [OCLC 12726534](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8702688)

- Okamura, Randall F. (1978). *The Contemporary Sansei* (M.A. thesis, Community Development and Public Service). San Francisco: Lone Mountain College. [OCLC 13182634](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/13182634)

- Tanaka, Shaun Naomi. (2003). *Ethnic Identity in the Absence of Propinquity Sansei and the Transformation of the Japanese-Canadian Community* (M.A. thesis). Kingston, Ontario: Queen's University Press. [OCLC 60673221](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/60673221)

## External links

- [Japanese American National Museum](http://www.janm.org); [JANM generational teas](https://web.archive.org/web/20101224165059/http://blogs.laweekly.com/squidink/2010/12/janm_chado_intro_5_new_generational_teas.php)

- [Embassy of Japan](http://www.us.emb-japan.go.jp/english/html/index.htm) in [Washington, DC](/source/Washington%2C_DC)

- [Japanese American Citizens League](http://www.jacl.org)

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Sansei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sansei) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sansei?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.