# Sangha

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For other uses, see [Sangha (disambiguation)](/source/Sangha_(disambiguation)).

**Saṅgha** or **saṃgha** (sɐŋɡʱɐ) is a term meaning "association", "assembly", "company" or "community". In a political context, it was historically used to denote a governing assembly in a republic or a kingdom, and for a long time, it has been used by religious associations, including [Buddhists](/source/Buddhism), [Jains](/source/Jainism) and [Sikhs](/source/Sikhism). Given this history, some Buddhists have stated that the tradition of the *sangha* represents humanity's oldest surviving [democratic](/source/Democracy) institution.[3]

In Buddhism, *sangha* refers to the [monastic communities](/source/Buddhist_monasticism) of *[bhikkhu](/source/Bhikkhu)* (monks) and *[bhikkhuni](/source/Bhikkhuni)* (nuns). These communities are traditionally referred to as the *bhikkhu-sangha* or the *bhikkhuni-sangha*. As a separate category, those Buddhists who have attained any of the [four stages of enlightenment](/source/Four_stages_of_enlightenment), whether or not they are members of the monastic community, are referred to as the [*āryasaṅgha*](/source/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka#The_community_of_disciples) ("noble Sangha").[4][5]

According to the [Theravada](/source/Theravada) school and [Nichiren Shoshu Buddhism](/source/Nichiren_Shoshu_Buddhism), the term *sangha* does not refer to the community of unenlightened [sāvakas](/source/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka) (lay followers) nor does it refer to the community of Buddhists as a whole. Presumably, therefore, they reserve the use of the term *sangha* for individuals they regard as being enlightened. The Theravada school uses the term *[parisā](/source/Paris%C4%81)* ("assembly") or *catuparisā* ("fourfold assembly") to refer to the *[bhikkhu](/source/Bhikkhu)*, *[bhikkhunī](/source/Bhikkhun%C4%AB)*, *[upāsaka](/source/Up%C4%81saka)*, and *upāsikā* as a collective.[6][7][5]

## Definitions

In a glossary of Buddhist terms,[8] Richard Robinson et al. define sangha as:

Sangha. Community. This word has two levels of meaning: (1) on the ideal (*arya*) level, it denotes all of the Buddha’s followers, lay or ordained, who have at least attained the level of [srotāpanna](/source/Sot%C4%81panna);

(2) on the conventional (*saṃvṛti*) level, it denotes the orders of the Bhikṣus and Bhikṣunis.

[Mahayana](/source/Mahayana) practitioners may use the word "sangha" as a collective term for all Buddhists, but the Theravada [Pāli Canon](/source/P%C4%81li_Canon) uses the word *[parisā](/source/Paris%C4%81)* (Sanskrit *pariṣad*) for the larger Buddhist community—the monks, nuns, lay men, and lay women who have taken the [Three Refuges](/source/Three_Jewels)—with a few exceptions[9] reserving "sangha" for its original use in the [Pāli Canon](/source/P%C4%81li_Canon)—the ideal (*arya*) and the conventional.[5][10][11]

The two meanings overlap but are not necessarily identical. Some members of the ideal Sangha are not ordained; some monastics have yet to acquire the Dharma-eye.[10]

Unlike the present Sangha, the original Sangha viewed itself as following the mission laid down by the Master, viz, to go forth "…on tour for the blessing of the manyfolk, for the happiness of the manyfolk out of compassion for the world, for the welfare, the blessing, the happiness of deva and men".[12]

## Qualities of the Sangha

The *Sangha* is the third of the Three Refuges in Buddhism.[13] Common over all schools is that the [*āryasaṅgha*](/source/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka#The_community_of_disciples) is the foremost form of this third jewel. As for its recognizable contemporary forms, the interpretation of what is the Jewel is often dependent on how a school defines Sangha. In many schools, for example, monastic life is considered to provide the safest and most suitable environment for advancing toward [enlightenment](/source/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism) and liberation due to the temptations and vicissitudes of life in the world.

In [Buddhism](/source/Buddhism), [Gautama Buddha](/source/Gautama_Buddha), the [Dharma](/source/Dharma#Buddhism) and the Sangha each are described as having certain characteristics. These characteristics are chanted either on a daily basis and/or on [Uposatha](/source/Uposatha) days, depending on the school of Buddhism. In [Theravada](/source/Theravada) tradition they are a part of daily chanting:

The Sangha: The Sangha of the Blessed One's disciples ([sāvakas](/source/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka)) is:

1. practicing the good way (*Suppaṭipanno*)
1. practicing the upright way (*Ujuppaṭipanno*)
1. practicing the knowledgeable or logical way (*Ñāyappaṭipanno*)
1. practicing the proper way (*Sāmīcippaṭipanno*)

That is, the [four pairs](/source/Four_stages_of_enlightenment) of persons, the eight types of individuals - This Sangha of the Blessed One's disciples is:

1. worthy of gifts (*Āhuneyyo*)
1. worthy of hospitality (*Pāhuneyyo*)
1. worthy of offerings (*Dakkhiṇeyyo*)
1. worthy of reverential salutation (*Añjalikaraṇīyo*)
1. the unsurpassed field of merit for the world (*Anuttaraṃ puññakkhettaṃ lokassa*).[14][15]

## Monastic tradition

Main article: [Buddhist monasticism](/source/Buddhist_monasticism)

The Sangha was originally established by [Gautama Buddha](/source/Gautama_Buddha) in the fifth century BCE in order to provide a means for those who wish to practice full-time in a direct and highly disciplined way, free from the restrictions and responsibilities of the household life.[16] The Sangha also fulfils the function of preserving the Buddha's original teachings and of providing spiritual support for the Buddhist lay-community. The Sangha has historically assumed responsibility for maintaining the integrity of the doctrine as well as the translation and [propagation of the teachings](/source/Missionary#Buddhist_missions) of the Buddha.

The key feature of Buddhist monasticism is the adherence to the [vinaya](/source/Vinaya) which contains an elaborate set of "227 main rules of conduct" (known as *Patimokkha* in Pāli) including complete chastity, eating only before noon, and not indulging in malicious or salacious talk.[17] Between midday and the next day, a strict life of scripture study, chanting, [meditation](/source/Meditation), and occasional cleaning forms most of the duties for members of the *sangha*.[18] Transgression of rules carries penalties ranging from confession to permanent expulsion from the *sangha*.

### Japanese monastic regulations

[Saichō](/source/Saich%C5%8D), the founder of the Japanese school of [Tendai](/source/Tendai), decided to reduce the number of rules down to about 60 based on the Bodhisattva Precepts. In the [Kamakura](/source/Kamakura), many Japanese schools that originated in or were influenced by the Tendai such as [Zen](/source/Zen), [Pure Land Buddhism](/source/Pure_Land_Buddhism) and [Nichiren Buddhism](/source/Nichiren_Buddhism) abolished traditional ordination in favor of this new model of the monastic regulations.

### The Fourteen Precepts of the Order of Interbeing

The [Order of Interbeing](/source/Order_of_Interbeing), established in 1964 and associated with the [Plum Village Tradition](/source/Plum_Village_Tradition), has fourteen precepts observed by all monastics.[19] They were written by [Thích Nhất Hạnh](/source/Th%C3%ADch_Nh%E1%BA%A5t_H%E1%BA%A1nh).

### Possessions

Monks and nuns generally own a minimum of possessions due to their *[samaya](/source/Samaya)* as renunciants, including three robes, an alms bowl, a cloth belt, a needle and thread, a razor for shaving the head, and a water filter. In practice, they often have a few additional personal possessions.

Traditionally, Buddhist monks, nuns, and novices eschew ordinary clothes and wear robes. Originally the robes were sewn together from rags and stained with earth or other available dyes. The color of modern robes varies from community to community: [saffron](/source/Saffron_(color)) is characteristic for Theravada groups; blue, grey or brown for Mahayana Sangha members in [Vietnam](/source/Buddhism_in_Vietnam), [maroon](/source/Maroon) in [Tibetan Buddhism](/source/Tibetan_Buddhism), [grey](/source/Grey) in [Korea](/source/Buddhism_in_Korea), and [black](/source/Black) in [Japan](/source/Buddhism_in_Japan).

### Attitudes regarding food and work

A Buddhist monk is a *bhikkhu* in [Pali](/source/Pali), Sanskrit *bhikṣu*, while a nun is a *bhikkhuni*, Sanskrit *bhikṣuṇī*. These words literally mean "beggar" or "one who lives by [alms](/source/D%C4%81na)",[2]: 115[20] and it was traditional in [early Buddhism](/source/Early_Buddhist_schools) for the Sangha to go on "alms round" for food, walking or standing quietly in populated areas with alms bowls ready to receive food offerings each day. Although in the *[vinaya](/source/Vinaya)* laid down by the Gautama Buddha, the *sangha* was not allowed to engage directly in agriculture, this later changed in some Mahayana schools when Buddhism moved to East Asia, so that in the [East Asian cultural sphere](/source/East_Asian_cultural_sphere), the monastic community traditionally has engaged in agriculture. An emphasis on working for food is attributed to additional training guidelines laid down by a [Chan Buddhist](/source/Chan_Buddhism) master, [Baizhang Huaihai](/source/Baizhang_Huaihai), notably the phrase, "A day without work is a day without food" ().

The idea that all Buddhists, especially *sangha* members, practice [vegetarianism](/source/Vegetarianism) is a Western misperception. In the Pali Canon, the Buddha rejected a suggestion by [Devadatta](/source/Devadatta) to impose vegetarianism on the *sangha*. According to the Pali Texts, the Buddha ate meat as long as the animal was not killed specifically for him. The [Pāli Canon](/source/P%C4%81li_Canon) allowed Sangha members to eat whatever food is donated to them by laypeople, except that they may not eat meat if they know or suspect the animal was killed specifically for them. Consequently, the Theravada tradition does not practice strict vegetarianism, although an individual may do so as his or her personal choice.[21]

Both Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions vary depending on their interpretation of their scriptures. In some [Mahayana sutras](/source/Mahayana_sutras), meat-eating is strongly discouraged and it is stated that the Buddha did not eat meat. In particular, East Asian *sangha* members take on the [Bodhisattva Precepts](/source/Bodhisattva_Precepts#Brahma_Net_Sutra) originating in the *[Brahmajāla Sūtra](/source/Brahmaj%C4%81la_S%C5%ABtra)*, which has a vow of vegetarianism as part of the Triple Platform Ordination, where they receive the three sets of vows: [śrāmaṇera](/source/Samanera)/[śrāmaṇerī](/source/%C5%9Ar%C4%81ma%E1%B9%87er%C4%AB) (novitiate), monastic, and then the *Brahmajāla Sūtra* Bodhisattva Precepts, whereas the Tibetan lineages transmit a [tradition of Bodhisattva Precepts](/source/Bodhisattva_Precepts#Bodhisattvabhumi) from [Asanga](/source/Asanga)'s *[Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra](/source/Yogacarabhumi-sastra)*, which do not include a vow of vegetarianism.

According to Mahayana sutras, [Shakyamuni Buddha](/source/Shakyamuni_Buddha) always maintained that lay persons were capable of great wisdom and of reaching enlightenment. In some areas there has been a misconception that Theravada regards enlightenment to be an impossible goal for those outside the *sangha*, but in Theravada suttas it is clearly recorded that the Buddha's uncle, a lay follower, reached enlightenment by hearing the Buddha's discourse, and there are many other such instances described in the Pāli Canon. Accordingly, emphasis on lay persons, as well as Sangha members, practicing the Buddhist path of morality, meditation, and wisdom is present in all major Buddhist schools.

## The *Sangha* as any Buddhist community

Some liberal scholars opine that *sangha* is frequently (and according to them, mistakenly) used in the West to refer to any sort of Buddhist community.[22]

- The terms *[Parisā](/source/Paris%C4%81)* and *[Gaṇa](/source/Gana)* are suggested as being more appropriate references to a wider and generalized community of Buddhists. *Pariṣā* means "following" and it refers to the four groups of the Buddha's followers: monks, nuns, laymen and laywomen.[23]
- The Sanskrit term *gana* has meanings of "flock, troop, multitude, number, tribe, series, class", and is usable as well in more mundane senses.[24]

## In Nichiren Buddhism

Accordingly, the [Nichiren Shōshū](/source/Nichiren_Sh%C5%8Dsh%C5%AB) sect maintains the [traditionalist](/source/Tradition) definition of the *sangha* as the Head Temple [Taisekiji](/source/Taisekiji) priesthood collective as the sole custodians and arbiters of Buddhist doctrine.[25][26]

The [Soka Gakkai](/source/Soka_Gakkai), a [new religious movement](/source/New_religious_movement) which began as a lay organization previously associated with Nichiren Shōshū in Japan, disputes the traditional definition of sangha. The organization interprets the meaning of the Three Jewels of Buddhism, in particular the "treasure of the Sangha", to include all people who practice Buddhism according to its own interpretation within their organization, whether lay or clerical. After its formal expulsion from its parent religion in December 1991 due to conflicts of religious doctrine, the organization re—published newer literature which revised the terms such as "Treasure of the Priesthood" to "The Buddhist Order".[27][28]

Some modernist sects of [Nichiren-shu](/source/Nichiren-shu) holds a position that any Buddhist community is also called Sangha,[29] along with both liberal and progressive Mahayana lay movements as well claiming this new definition.[30][31][32]

## See also

- [Bhikkhu](/source/Bhikkhu)
- [Bhikkhuni](/source/Bhikkhuni)
- [Buddhamitra](/source/Buddhamitra)
- [Buddhism and democracy](/source/Buddhism_and_democracy)
- [Buddhist monasticism](/source/Buddhist_monasticism)
- [Monastery](/source/Monastery)
- [Monastic](/source/Monastic)
- [Monasticism](/source/Monasticism)
- [Ngagpa](/source/Ngagpa)
- [Pabbajja](/source/Pabbajja)
- [Sanga Monastery](/source/Sanga_Monastery)
- [Sangha (Jainism)](/source/Sangha_(Jainism))
- [Satsang](/source/Satsang)
- [Upasampada](/source/Upasampada)
- [World Buddhist Sangha Council](/source/World_Buddhist_Sangha_Council)

## References

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1. Robinson et al. (2005). *Buddhist Religions: A Historical Introduction*. Fifth Edition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson, p. 327

1. Todd Lewis, *Buddhists: Understanding Buddhism Through the Lives of Practitioners*, Chicester, 2014, p. 30 mentions this too. An example of such a sutra is AN II.1.vii Catukka nipata, Bhandagamavaggo [https://archive.today/20130222111223/http://www.what-buddha-taught.net/tipitaka/2Sutta-Pitaka/4Anguttara-Nikaya/Anguttara2/4-catukkanipata/001-bhandagamavaggo-e.html](https://archive.today/20130222111223/http://www.what-buddha-taught.net/tipitaka/2Sutta-Pitaka/4Anguttara-Nikaya/Anguttara2/4-catukkanipata/001-bhandagamavaggo-e.html)

1. Robinson et al. (2005). *Buddhist Religions: A Historical Introduction*. Fifth Edition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson, p. 32.

1. ["A Glossary of Pali and Buddhist Terms"](http://www.accesstoinsight.org/glossary.html). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200708143211/https://www.accesstoinsight.org/glossary.html) 8 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 3 August 2009.

1. Spiro, Melford: *Buddhism and Society: A Great Tradition and Its Burmese Vicissitudes* (1982). Berkeley: University of California. p. 279.

1. Going for Refuge and Taking the Precepts, Kandy 1981, Wheel leaflet 282/284, Bhikku Bodhi, P 49 (Of the Collected Wheel publications XIX)

1. ["Qualities of Triple Gems"](http://www.tathagata.org/sites/default/files/Qualities%20of%20Triple%20Gems.pdf). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190712222600/http://www.tathagata.org/sites/default/files/Qualities%20of%20Triple%20Gems.pdf) 12 July 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 12 October 2019.

1. [*The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya*](https://books.google.com/books?id=MEA6AwAAQBAJ). Simon and Schuster. 2005-06-10. p. 579. ISBN 9780861719730.

1. Robinson et al. (2005). "Buddhist Religions: A Historical Introduction". Fifth Edition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson, p. 36.

1. *Religions in the Modern World: Traditions and Transformations*, Third Edition. Linda Woodhead. P. 273

1. Ajaan Lee Dhammadharo (1995). ["Duties of the Sangha"](http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/thai/lee/duties.html#pq). Translated by [Thanissaro Bhikkhu](/source/Thanissaro_Bhikkhu). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20080705165440/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/thai/lee/duties.html#pq) 5 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 12 December 2011.

1. ["Order of Interbeing History"](http://www.orderofinterbeing.org/about/our-history/). *Order of Interbeing | Tiep Hien*. 2011-07-12. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20171015053642/https://orderofinterbeing.org/about/our-history/) 15 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2017-06-17.

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1. *The Buddhist Religion: A Historical Introduction* (fourth edition) by R. H. Robinson & W. L. Johnson (Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 1997), p. 307.

1. ["A Glossary of Pali and Buddhist Terms"](http://www.accesstoinsight.org/glossary.html#pq). *www.accesstoinsight.org*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200708143211/https://www.accesstoinsight.org/glossary.html#pq) 8 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 3 August 2009.

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1. Seager, Richard Hughes (2012). [*Buddhism in America*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ex4pG4KuW1MC&q=%22nichiren+shoshu%22+sangha&pg=PA106). Rev. and expanded ed. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 106. ISBN 9780231159739. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20221020124509/https://books.google.com/books?id=ex4pG4KuW1MC&q=%22nichiren+shoshu%22+sangha&pg=PA106) 20 October 2022 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 20 October 2020.

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1. Arai, Nissatsu (1893). [*Outlines of the Doctrine of the Nichiren Sect*](https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=WE0uAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&output=reader&hl=en&pg=GBS.PT1). Tokyo, Japan: Central Office of the Nichiren Sect. p. 18. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210308160002/https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=WE0uAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&output=reader&hl=en&pg=GBS.PT1) 8 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 30 October 2017. The Holy Book says: "We ought to know that this place is the Kaidan." This means that whatever a place, where we practice the doctrines of the Holy Book, is fit for a "Kaidan." If it is fit for a "Kaidan," it is inhabited by all Buddhas. Such is the nature of the "Kaidan" taught by our Sect.

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## Bibliography

- Buswell, Robert E. (ed.) (2004). [*Encyclopedia of Buddhism*](https://archive.org/details/encyclopediabudd00busw_933). Macmillan Reference USA. pp. [740](https://archive.org/details/encyclopediabudd00busw_933/page/n767)–744. ISBN 0-02-865718-7.

## External links

- ["The Bhikkhus' Rules, A Guide for Laypeople"](https://web.archive.org/web/20011126134530/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/modern/ariyesako/layguide.html) by Bhikkhu Ariyesako (archived 26 November 2001)
- ["Duties of the Sangha"](http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/thai/lee/duties.html) by Ajaan Lee Dhammadharo

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