# Samtskhe-Saatabago

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Principality

Samtskhe saatabago სამცხე-საათაბაგო 1266–1625 Flag according to Vakhushti Coat of arms boundaries of the Samtskhe-Saatabago in the 2nd half of the 13th and the 1st quarter of the 14th centuries. Capital Akhaltsikhe 41°38′20″N 42°59′10″E / 41.63889°N 42.98611°E / 41.63889; 42.98611 Common languages Georgian Religion Eastern Orthodox Christianity Government Principality Prince of Meskheti • 1260–1285 Sargis I (first) • 1607–1625 Manuchar III (last) Historical era Late Middle Ages • Established 1266 • Vassal of Mongol Empire 1266–1334 • Reunited with Kingdom of Georgia 1334–1535 • Peace of Amasya 1555 • Disestablished 1625 Preceded by Succeeded by Kingdom of Georgia Childir Eyalet Today part of Armenia Georgia Turkey

The **Samtskhe-Saatabago** or **Samtskhe Atabegate** ([Georgian](/source/Georgian_language): სამცხე-საათაბაგო), also called the **Principality of Samtskhe** (სამცხის სამთავრო), was a Georgian feudal [principality](/source/Principality) in [Zemo Kartli](/source/Zemo_Kartli), ruled by an [atabeg](/source/Atabeg) (tutor) of [Georgia](/source/Kingdom_of_Georgia) for nearly three and a half centuries, between 1268 and 1625. Its territory consisted of the modern-day [Samtskhe-Javakheti](/source/Samtskhe%E2%80%93Javakheti) region and the historical region of [Tao-Klarjeti](/source/Tao-Klarjeti_(historical_region)).

## History

### Duchy of Samtskhe

By the early 13th century, members of the [House of Jaqeli](/source/House_of_Jaqeli) were one among many powerful [marcher lords](/source/Marcher_Lord), and certainly not the most significant. The title [atabeg](/source/Atabeg), by which the Jaqelis would later be known, was as yet reserved for the [Mkhargrdzelis](/source/Zakarids-Mkhargrzeli), the Armenian family that controlled [Ani](/source/Ani). The rise of the Jaqeli line was intimately bound up with the [Mongol invasion of Georgia](/source/Mongol_invasions_of_Georgia). In this initial phase of conquest, most of the Georgian and Armenian nobles, who held military posts along the frontier regions submitted without any serious opposition or confined their resistance to their castles while others preferred to flee to safer areas. Queen [Rusudan](/source/Rusudan_of_Georgia) had to evacuate [Tbilisi](/source/Tbilisi) for [Kutaisi](/source/Kutaisi), leaving [eastern Georgia](/source/Eastern_Georgia_(country)) in the hands of [atabeg](/source/Atabeg) Avag Mkhargrdzeli and Egarslan Bakurtsikheli, who made peace with the Mongols and agreed to pay them tribute. The only Georgian great noble to have resisted was [Ivane I Jaqeli](/source/Ivane_I_Jaqeli), prince of [Samtskhe](/source/Meskheti). His extensive possessions were fearfully devastated, and Ivane had to finally, with the consent of Queen Rusudan, submit to the invaders in 1238.

Map of [Samtskhe](/source/Samtskhe) (1240-1320), during the rule of the House of Jaqeli.[1]

Taking advantage of Georgia's weakness, Turkmen incursions started to south-western Georgia. The population of [Tao](/source/Tao_(historical_region)), [Klarjeti](/source/Klarjeti) and [Kola](/source/G%C3%B6le) called on [Qvarqvare](/source/Qvarqvare_I_Jaqeli), lord of Samtskhe, to assist them against the Turkmens. Qvarqvare subsequently sent his grandson Sargis to seize [Oltisi](/source/Oltu). Although an Arabic chronicler [Baybars al-Mansuri](/source/Baybars_al-Mansuri) states that the Georgians took advantage of the [Mongol invasion of Anatolia](/source/Mongol_invasions_of_Anatolia) (1243) to seize the castles of [Babrawan](/source/Narman), Washlawan, and [Bayburt](/source/Bayburt_Province). By the mid-13th century, the Jaqelis realm thus incorporated most of the mountainous areas of north eastern Anatolia south of the [Black Sea](/source/Black_Sea) coast up to the edge of the plain of [Erzurum](/source/Erzurum). The Jaqelis' lands became a stronghold of opposition to Mongol rule.

[Sargis I Jaqeli](/source/Sargis_I_Jaqeli) and [David VII of Georgia](/source/David_VII_of_Georgia) "Ulu" rebelled against their Mongol overlords, a huge army of Mongols led by [Arghun Noyan](/source/Arghun_Aqa) attacked the southern Georgian province of Samtskhe, defeated the king and his spasalar (general) Sargis Jaqeli, but could not capture the rebels’ main strongholds and left the country in June 1261. Nevertheless, the forces were unequal and David Ulu had to take refuge at his cousin, [David VI Narin](/source/David_VI_of_Georgia)’s court at [Kutaisi](/source/Kutaisi). In 1262, he had to make peace with the Mongols and returned to [Tbilisi](/source/Tbilisi), effectively splitting the country into two parts with both rulers titled as kings of Georgia.

### Establishment of the Princedom

A group portrait of Princes Jaqeli (from left to right: [Sargis I Jaqeli](/source/Sargis_I_Jaqeli) (Sabas), [Beka](/source/Beka_I_Jaqeli), [Sargis](/source/Sargis_II_Jaqeli), and [Kvarkvare](/source/Qvarqvare_I_Jaqeli)). [Sapara monastery](/source/Sapara_monastery), 14th c

By the [Ilkhan](/source/Ilkhanate) request, David Ulu's army was dispatched to defend the fortifications of *Siba* against the [Golden Horde](/source/Golden_Horde) in 1263. In 1265, the Georgian forces serving as a vanguard of the Ilkhanid army, defeated [Berke](/source/Berke), Khan of the Golden Horde, and expelled his troops from [Shirvan](/source/Shirvan). Sargis Jaqeli distinguished himself in battle against the Horde, even saving Hulagu's life, for which Hulagu offered him rich rewards, including the city of [Erzurum](/source/Erzurum). David Ulu subsequently persuaded Hulegu to revoke that award on the basis that it would make Sargis too powerful. As a result of a dispute with the royal court, the province of Samtskhe seceded and submitted directly to the Ilkhan rule in 1266. Thus, Georgia further disintegrated to form three separate political entities. Samtskhe managed to remain a culturally developed part of Georgia as well as maintaining territorial integrity, sometimes even expanding along its borders.

Despite being independent, Samtskhe still maintained some kind of relations with Georgia and Beka himself was given a title of *[Mandaturukhutsesi](/source/Mandaturtukhutsesi)* ([Mandator](/source/Mandator)) by Georgian king.[2] At the time of Beka's rule, the Turks became more active the Southwest borders, from the [Sultanate of Rum](/source/Sultanate_of_Rum). After a series of invasions, he managed to [fend off the attacks](/source/Azat_Mousa's_invasion_of_Georgia). Beka was a supporter of maintaining Georgian political influence over the [Empire of Trebizond](/source/Empire_of_Trebizond). For this cause, he married off his daughter [Jiajak](/source/Jiajak_Jaqeli) to the [Trapezuntine](/source/Empire_of_Trebizond) Emperor [Alexios II](/source/Alexios_II_of_Trebizond), who granted him [Lazia](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lazia_(Pontus)&action=edit&redlink=1). Another daughter of Beka, - Natela, became the consort of [Demetrius II of Georgia](/source/Demetrius_II_of_Georgia) and bore him a son and [the successor](/source/George_V_of_Georgia) to the throne. After the execution of Demetrius, future king [George V](/source/George_V_of_Georgia) was raised by his grandfather at his court.

[Qvarqvare I Jaqeli](/source/Qvarqvare_I_Jaqeli) (r.1334–1361)

In 1334 [George V of Georgia](/source/George_V_of_Georgia) reasserted royal authority over the virtually independent principality of Samtskhe, ruled by his cousin [Qvarqvare I Jaqeli](/source/Qvarqvare_I_Jaqeli). George granted the Jaqelis their title of [atabeg](/source/Atabeg), not only appropriate for their role in raising him but also a title of great prestige.

### Timurid invasions

Between 1386 and 1403 Timur launched a [series of campaigns](/source/Timur's_invasions_of_Georgia) against Georgia. The official history of Timur's reign, *[Zafarnama](/source/Zafarnama_(Yazdi_biography))*, represents this campaign as a [jihad](/source/Jihad). Samtskhe was in the frontline of these attacks. Timur set out from [Kars](/source/Kars) and assailed [Akhaltsikhe](/source/Akhaltsikhe). From there, he [marched against Tbilisi](/source/Siege_of_Tbilisi_(1386)) which the Georgian king [Bagrat V](/source/Bagrat_V_of_Georgia) had fortified. The city fell on November 21, 1386, and King Bagrat V was captured and converted to [Islam](/source/Islam) at sword point. Bagrat was given some 12,000 troops to reestablish himself in Georgia whose government was run by Bagrat's son and co-ruler [George VII](/source/George_VII_of_Georgia) during his father's absence at Timur's court. The old king, however, entered in secret negotiations with George who ambushed Bagrat's Islamic escort, and freed his father.[3]

[Timur](/source/Timur)'s army attacks the survivors of the town of [Nerges](/source/Mingrelia), in Samtskhe-Saatabago, in the spring of 1396. [*Garrett Zafarnama*](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Garrett_Zafarnama)  (c. 1480)

In the spring of 1387, Timur returned in Georgia to take revenge, however, Khan [Tokhtamysh](/source/Tokhtamysh)’s reappearance in Iran forced Timur to temporarily withdraw. As soon as the [Golden Horde](/source/Golden_Horde) was defeated, Timur returned to attack Georgia again. In 1394, he dispatched four generals to the province of Samtskhe, with orders to apply the Islamic law of [ghaza](/source/Ghazi_(warrior)) (i.e. the systematic raiding of non-Muslim lands). Timur launched a further attack on possessions of [Ivane II Jaqeli](/source/Ivane_II_Jaqeli) in 1399. The attack on Samtskhe was followed by an expedition into [Tao](/source/Tao_(historical_region)) that reached as far as Panaskert, where a great battle between Timur and the Georgians took place.

In late 1401, Timur invaded Georgia once again. George VII had to sue for peace, and sent his brother with the contributions. Timur was preparing for a major confrontation with the [Ottoman dynasty](/source/Ottoman_dynasty) and apparently wished to freeze the currently prevailing situation in Georgia. Thus, he made peace with George on condition that the king of Georgia supplied him with troops and granted the Muslims special privileges.[4] Timur nonetheless undertook some preventive measures and attacked the Georgian garrison of [Tortumi](/source/Tortum), demolishing the citadel and looting the surrounding area.[3] Once the Ottomans were [defeated](/source/Battle_of_Ankara), Timur, back to [Erzurum](/source/Erzurum) in 1402, decided to punish the king of Georgia for not having come to present his congratulations on his victory. Ivane Jaqeli, however, arrived with gifts, which offered Timur a good cause for keeping on reasonable terms with the rulers of Samtskhe.

### Turkmen invasions

After the devastating invasions by Timur and subsequent enfeeblement of the Kingdom of Georgia, it soon faced a new threat. Timurid hegemony was not to last, for on Timur's death in 1405, the [Kara Koyunlu](/source/Kara_Koyunlu) re-established their empire. They took advantage of the temporary weakness of Georgians and launched attacks against them, apparently in which, [George VII](/source/George_VII_of_Georgia) was killed. In response [Constantine I](/source/Constantine_I_of_Georgia) engaged Turkomans at the [Battle of Chalagan](/source/Battle_of_Chalagan), in which he was defeated and executed. [Alexander I](/source/Alexander_I_of_Georgia) who sought to strengthen and restore his declining Kingdom, faced constant invasions by the tribal Turkomans. They sacked [Akhaltsikhe](/source/Akhaltsikhe) several times, the first under [Qara Yusuf](/source/Qara_Yusuf) in 1414, the second under [Jahan Shah](/source/Jahan_Shah) in 1444, whose forces met those of Alexander's successor, King [Vakhtang IV](/source/Vakhtang_IV_of_Georgia) at Akhaltsikhe, but the fighting was inconclusive and Jahan Shah returned to [Tabriz](/source/Tabriz). With the decline of the Kara Koyunlu after Jahan Shah's defeat at the hands of [Uzun Hasan](/source/Uzun_Hasan) in 1467, the [Aq Qoyunlu](/source/Aq_Qoyunlu) became the major power in eastern Anatolia.

### Secession from Georgia

Portrait of [Qvarqvare IV Jaqeli](/source/Qvarqvare_IV_Jaqeli) (1554 – 1581) from the book written by [Salomon Schweigger](/source/Salomon_Schweigger)

The political [split of the Kingdom of Georgia](/source/Triarchy_and_collapse_of_the_Kingdom_of_Georgia) was speeded up by the [Qvarqvare II Jaqeli](/source/Qvarqvare_II_Jaqeli), like his [father](/source/Ivane_II_Jaqeli) he fought against [Royal house of Georgia](/source/Bagrationi_dynasty) for the independence of Samstkhe. In 1462 Qvarqvare II Jaqeli called against the king of Georgia [Uzun Hasan](/source/Uzun_Hasan), the leader of the [Aq Qoyunlu](/source/Aq_Qoyunlu). In 1465 he defeated Georgian King [George VIII](/source/George_VIII_of_Georgia) at the battle near [Paravani lake](/source/Paravani_Lake) and separated from Georgia. He also participated in the [Georgian civil war](/source/Kingdom_of_Georgia#Final_disintegration), after which United Georgian monarchy fell. Qvarqvare's independent reign was marked by warfare with the powerful Muslim states that surrounded the principality. The Aq Qoyunlu launched major attacks in 1466, 1476–1477 and 1485 and from 1479 the [Ottoman Empire](/source/Ottoman_Empire) started to encroach on the territories. In 1479 he ravaged the land around [Erzurum](/source/Erzurum), reducing the city to tributary status.[5] Unlike his father [Kaikhosro I](/source/Kaikhosro_I_Jaqeli) held peace with the other Georgian kingdoms ([Kartli](/source/Kingdom_of_Kartli), [Kakheti](/source/Kingdom_of_Kakheti) and [Imereti](/source/Kingdom_of_Imereti)). Kaikhosro with King [Alexander I of Kakheti](/source/Alexander_I_of_Kakheti) and [Constantine of Kartli](/source/Constantine_II_of_Georgia) agreed to assist first [Safavid](/source/Safavid_dynasty) shah [Ismail](/source/Ismail_I) to destroy [Aq Koyunlu](/source/Aq_Qoyunlu) rule in [Persia](/source/Iran).[6]

[Ali Pasha](/source/Occhiali)'s conquest of [Poti (Faş) Castle](/source/Poti) and repair of the castle in 1578-1579 during the [Ottoman–Safavid War (1578–1590)](/source/Ottoman%E2%80%93Safavid_War_(1578%E2%80%931590)). *[Şahanşahname](/source/%C5%9Eahan%C5%9Fahname)* (TSKM B.200, 1592)

When [Qvarqvare II's](/source/Qvarqvare_II_Jaqeli) son [Kaikhosro I](/source/Kaikhosro_I_Jaqeli) died two years after he ascended the throne, and was succeeded by his equally pious brother [Mzetchabuk](/source/Mzetchabuk_Jaqeli), like his [father](/source/Qvarqvare_II_Jaqeli) and [grandfather](/source/Ivane_II_Jaqeli), Mzetchabuk demanded the separation of the Meskhetian church from the [Georgian Orthodox church](/source/Georgian_Orthodox_church). Atabeg Mzetchabuk Strived to strengthen Samtskhe. He nominally obeyed [Ottoman sultan](/source/Ottoman_Empire) [Selim I](/source/Selim_I) and with his help [Adjara](/source/Adjara) came fully under Meskhetian rule.[7] In 1515 old Mzetchabuk abdicated and became a monk, received a monastic name Jacob. After Mzetchabuk [Atabeg's](/source/Atabeg) title would be given to his nephew [Qvarqvare](/source/Qvarqvare_III_Jaqeli), the son of [Kaikhosro I](/source/Kaikhosro_I_Jaqeli), but Mzetchabuk's younger brother [Manuchar](/source/Manuchar_I_Jaqeli) rebelled against him. During his brief reign Manuchar sent many gifts to the [Ottoman sultan](/source/List_of_sultans_of_the_Ottoman_empire) [Selim I](/source/Selim_I) and claimed himself as an admirer of Ottomans. In 1518 the new revolt started. Prince [Qvarqvare](/source/Qvarqvare_III_Jaqeli) with the help of [Safavid](/source/Safavid_dynasty) troops attacked Samtskhe. Manuchar was overthrown and Qvarqvare became the new ruler of Meskheti. After this Manuchar asked his suzerain [Sultan Selim](/source/Selim_I) for help of which Sultan Selim then gave him a huge army. Manuchar had tried to restore himself as Atabeg, but was defeated by Qvarqvare's forces at the battle near [Erzurum](/source/Erzurum).

Samtskhe-Saatabago was abolished in years 1535-1545 and carved up between the Kingdoms of Kartli and Imereti

During [Qvarqvare III](/source/Qvarqvare_III_Jaqeli)'s reign [Persian](/source/Safavid_dynasty) influence on Samtskhe was growing day by day. Because of that Ottomans greatly damaged the country and especially its southwestern region. Meskhetian lords had recognized that under Qvarqvare's rule Samtskhe would finally turn to the Enemy's hands. They made an alliance with the [Georgian](/source/Georgians) kings, [Bagrat III of Imereti](/source/Bagrat_III_of_Imereti) and [Luarsab I of Kartli](/source/Luarsab_I_of_Kartli) (c.1510–1565) to end up [Jaqelian](/source/House_of_Jaqeli) rule and protect Samtskhe from dominant Muslim empires ([Ottomans](/source/Ottoman_Empire) and [Safavids](/source/Safavid_dynasty)).[8] In 1535 King Bagrat III with help of prince [Rostom Gurieli](/source/Rostom_Gurieli) and [Odishian](/source/Principality_of_Mingrelia) allies invaded [Samtskhe](/source/Meskheti). He defeated and captured [Qvarqvare III](/source/Qvarqvare_III_Jaqeli) at the [Battle of Murjakheti](/source/Battle_of_Murjakheti) near [Akhalkalaki](/source/Akhalkalaki). Georgians had annexed Principality of Samtskhe. Qvarqvare died in prison, while Rostom was awarded his share of Samtskhe: [Adjara](/source/Adjara) and [Lazeti](/source/Lazistan_Sanjak), long sought after by the [Gurieli dynasty](/source/House_of_Gurieli). A few years later, Qvarqvare's survived youngest son [Kaikhosro II](/source/Kaikhosro_II_Jaqeli) requested Ottomans to expel [Imeretian](/source/Imereti) and [Kartlian](/source/Kartli) forces from Samtskhe. The Ottomans retaliated with a major invasion: Bagrat and Rostom were [victorious at Karagak](/source/Battle_of_Karagak) in 1543, but decisively defeated, in 1545, at [Sokhoista](/source/Battle_of_Sokhoista). Samtskhe became vassal of the [Ottoman Empire](/source/Ottoman_Empire).[9] Qvarqvare III's descendants ruled Samtskhe-Saatabago (until 1628) and then [Childir Eyalet](/source/Childir_Eyalet) until 1820s.

## Princes/Atabegs of Samtskhe

Atabeg/Prince Reign Notes 1. Sargis I 1268–1285 2. Beka I 1285–1306 3. Sargis II 1306–1334 4. Qvarqvare I 1334–1361 5. Beka II 1361-1391 (ruled with Shalva during 1372–1389) 6. Shalva 1372–1389 (co-ruler with Beka II) 7. Aghbugha I 1389–1395 (ruled with Beka II and Ivane II) 8. Ivane II 1391–1444 (from 1391 to 1395 ruled with Aghbugha I) 9. Aghbugha II 1444–1451 10. Qvarqvare II 1451–1498 11. Kaikhosro I 1498–1500 12. Mzetchabuki 1500–1515 13. Manuchar I 1515–1518 14. Qvarqvare III 1518–1535 15. Kaikhosro II 1545–1573 16. Qvarqvare IV 1573–1581 17. Manuchar II 1581–1607 18. Manuchar III 1607–1625

## References

History of Georgia List of topics by the categories Prehistoric Georgia Legend of Kartlos Trialetian Mesolithic Shulaveri–Shomu culture Trialeti-Vanadzor culture Kura–Araxes culture Colchian culture Diauehi Mushki Ancient history Colchis Aryan Kartli Kingdom of Iberia Pharnavazid dynasty Georgia in the Roman era Artaxiad dynasty of Iberia Campaign of Pompey Iberian–Armenian War Abasgia Lazica Arsacid dynasty of Iberia Sasanian Iberia Chosroid dynasty Christianization of Iberia Middle Ages Iberian War Lazic War Principality of Iberia Umayyad invasion of Georgia Arab rule in Georgia Emirate of Tbilisi Duchy of Tao Duchy of Klarjeti Bagrationi dynasty (biblical claim) Kingdom of Hereti Kingdom of the Iberians Kingdom of Abkhazia Theme of Iberia Duchy of Kldekari Unification of the Georgian realm Kingdom of Georgia Duchy of Racha Kingdom of Kakheti-Hereti Byzantine–Georgian wars Great Turkish Invasion Georgian–Seljuk wars Georgian Golden Age Khwarazmian–Georgian wars Mongol invasions of Georgia Kingdom of Eastern Georgia Kingdom of Western Georgia Armenia within the Kingdom of Georgia Timurid invasions of Georgia Turkoman invasions of Georgia Duchy of Aragvi Georgian civil war of 1463–1490 Collapse of the Georgian realm Early modern history Duchy of Ksani Samtskhe-Saatabago Kingdom of Kartli Kingdom of Kakheti Kingdom of Imereti Georgian civil war of 1623–1658 Principality of Guria Principality of Svaneti Principality of Mingrelia Principality of Abkhazia Safavid Georgia Childir Eyalet Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti Modern history Georgia within the Russian Empire 1832 Georgian plot Gurian Republic Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic Democratic Republic of Georgia Red Army invasion of Georgia Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic Georgian civil war of 1991–1993 Russo-Georgian War History by topic Etymology Monarchs States Tbilisi Military history Wars Battles Chronology v t e

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** *Kartlis Tskhovreba*. Tbilisi: Meridiani, Artanuji. 2008. pp. 570–571. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9941-10-086-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9941-10-086-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** [Georgian Soviet Encyclopedia](/source/Georgian_Soviet_Encyclopedia), Volume 2, page 345-346, Tbilisi, 1977

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-EncIslam2_3-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-EncIslam2_3-1) [Minorsky, Vladimir](/source/Vladimir_Minorsky), "Tiflis", in: M. Th. Houtsma, E. van Donzel (1993), *E. J. Brill's First [Encyclopaedia of Islam](/source/Encyclopaedia_of_Islam), 1913–1936*, p. 757. Brill, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [90-04-08265-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-08265-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** Sicker, Martin (2000), *The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna*, p. 155. Praeger, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-275-96892-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-275-96892-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** Sharashidze, K. (1961). *Sak'art'velos Istoriis Masalebi (XV-XVI ss.)*. Tbilisi: Mec‘nierebata Akademiis Gamomc‘emloba. pp. 81–82.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** [Georgian Soviet Encyclopedia](/source/Georgian_Soviet_Encyclopedia), Volume 2, page 48, Tbilisi, 1977

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** [Georgian Soviet encyclopedia](/source/Georgian_Soviet_encyclopedia), volume 6, page 658, Tbilisi, 1983

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** [Georgian Soviet encyclopedia](/source/Georgian_Soviet_encyclopedia), volume 10, page 638, Tbilisi, 1986

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** [Georgian Soviet encyclopedia](/source/Georgian_Soviet_encyclopedia), volume 10, page 658, Tbilisi, 1986

## External links

- Georgian Soviet Encyclopedia, vol. 9, pp. 48–49, Tb., 1985

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Samtskhe-Saatabago](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samtskhe-Saatabago) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samtskhe-Saatabago?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.