# Samarkand

> Mediated Wiki article. Canonical URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Samarkand
> Markdown URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Samarkand.md
> Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarkand
> Source revision: 1355014598
> License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/)

City in southeastern Uzbekistan

"Markanda" redirects here. For other uses, see [Markanda (disambiguation)](/source/Markanda_(disambiguation)).

City in Samarqand Vilayat, Uzbekistan

Samarkand Самарқанд / Samarqand (Uzbek) City Clockwise from the top: Registan square, Shah-i-Zinda necropolis, Bibi-Khanym Mosque, view inside Shah-i-Zinda, Sherdar Madrasa in the Registan, Gur-e-Amir (Timur's Mausoleum) Seal Samarkand Location in Uzbekistan Coordinates: 39°39′02″N 66°57′55″E / 39.65056°N 66.96528°E / 39.65056; 66.96528 Country Uzbekistan Vilayat Samarqand Vilayat Settled 8th century BC Government • Type City Administration • Body Hakim (Mayor) Area • City 120 km2 (46 sq mi) Elevation 705 m (2,313 ft) Population (1 January 2025) • City 595,200[1] • Density 5,000/km2 (13,000/sq mi) • Metro 1,300,000 Demonym Samarkandian / Samarkandi Time zone UTC+05:00 (UZT) Postal code 140100 Website samarkand.uz UNESCO World Heritage Site Official name Samarkand – Crossroads of Cultures Criteria Cultural: i, ii, iv Reference 603 Inscription 2001 (25th Session) Area 1,123 ha Buffer zone 1,369 ha

**This article contains [Sogdian text](/source/Sogdian_alphabet).** Without proper [rendering support](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Multilingual_support#Sogdian), you may see [question marks, boxes, or other symbols](/source/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character) instead of Sogdian characters.

**Samarkand**[a] is a city in southeastern [Uzbekistan](/source/Uzbekistan) and among the [oldest continuously inhabited cities](/source/List_of_oldest_continuously_inhabited_cities) in [Central Asia](/source/Central_Asia). Samarkand is the capital of the [Samarkand Region](/source/Samarkand_Region) and a district-level city, that includes the [urban-type settlements](/source/Urban-type_settlement) [Kimyogarlar](/source/Kimyogarlar), [Farhod](/source/Farxod) and [Khishrav](/source/Xishrav).[2] With 551,700 inhabitants (2021),[3] it is the [third-largest city in Uzbekistan](/source/List_of_cities_in_Uzbekistan).

Historically, Samarkand has long been one of the principal urban centers of Iranian (Persian-Tajik) civilization in Central Asia and played a major role in the cultural and commercial networks of the [Silk Road](/source/Silk_Road).[4][5][6] There is evidence of human activity in the area of the city dating from the late [Paleolithic](/source/Paleolithic). Though there is no direct evidence of when Samarkand was founded, several theories propose that it was founded between the 8th and 7th centuries BC. Prospering from its location on the [Silk Road](/source/Silk_Road) between [China](/source/East_Asia), [Persia](/source/Persia) and [Europe](/source/Europe), at times Samarkand was one of the largest cities in [Central Asia](/source/Central_Asia),[7][8] By the time of the Persian [Achaemenid Empire](/source/Achaemenid_Empire), it was the capital of the [Sogdian](/source/Sogdia) [satrapy](/source/Satrap). The city was conquered by [Alexander the Great](/source/Alexander_the_Great) in 329 BC, when it was known as Markanda, which was rendered in [Greek](/source/Greek_language) as Μαράκανδα.[9] The city was ruled by a succession of [Iranian](/source/Iranian_peoples) and [Turkic](/source/Turkic_peoples) rulers until it was conquered by the [Mongols](/source/Mongols) under [Genghis Khan](/source/Genghis_Khan) in 1220.

Since the 11th century, the city has been under Turkic/Uzbek political control, but the city's culture and dominant language has always been [Persian](/source/Persian_language).[10]

The city is noted as a centre of [Islamic](/source/Islam) [scholarly](/source/Ulama) study and the birthplace of the [Timurid Renaissance](/source/Timurid_Renaissance). In the 14th century, [Timur](/source/Timur) made it the capital of his empire and the site of his mausoleum, the [Gur-e Amir](/source/Gur-e_Amir). The [Bibi-Khanym Mosque](/source/Bibi-Khanym_Mosque), rebuilt during the [Soviet](/source/Soviet) era, remains one of the city's most notable landmarks. Samarkand's [Registan](/source/Registan) square was the city's ancient centre and is bounded by three monumental religious buildings. The city has carefully preserved the traditions of ancient crafts: embroidery, goldwork, silk weaving, copper engraving, ceramics, wood carving, and wood painting.[11] In 2001, [UNESCO](/source/UNESCO) added the city to its [World Heritage List](/source/World_Heritage_List) as *Samarkand – Crossroads of Cultures*.

Modern Samarkand is divided into two parts: the old city, which includes historical monuments, shops, and old private houses; and the new city, which was developed during the days of the [Russian Empire](/source/Russian_Empire) and [Soviet Union](/source/Soviet_Union) and includes administrative buildings along with cultural centres and educational institutions.[12] On 15 and 16 September 2022, the city hosted the [2022 SCO summit](/source/2022_SCO_summit).

Samarkand has a multicultural and [plurilingual](/source/Plurilingualism) history that was significantly modified by the process of [national delimitation in Central Asia](/source/National_delimitation_in_the_Soviet_Union). Small group of inhabitants of the city are bilingual speakers of the [Tajik language](/source/Tajik_language),[13][14] whereas [Uzbek](/source/Uzbek_language) is the official language and Russian is also widely used in the public sphere, as per [Uzbekistan's language policy](/source/Languages_of_Uzbekistan).

## Name

The city was named *Marakanda* when captured by [Alexander the Great](/source/Alexander_the_Great) in 329 BC.[15]

According to some sources, the present name comes from the eastern Iranian language [Sogdian](/source/Sogdian_language) *samar* "stone, rock" and *kand* "fort, town."[15] In this respect, *Samarkand* shares the same meaning as the name of the Uzbek capital [Tashkent](/source/Tashkent), with *tash-* being the Turkic term for "stone" and *-kent* the Turkic analogue of *kand* borrowed from Iranian languages.[16] But this can't be proven because the city was given its name long after the Turkification of the Sogdians.[17]

From more realistic and historical sources, according to 11th-century scholar [Mahmud al-Kashghari](/source/Mahmud_al-Kashgari), the city was known in [Karakhanid Turkic](/source/Karakhanid_language) as *Sämizkänd* or *Sämerkänd* (سَمِزْکَنْدْ‎), meaning "fat city."[18] 16th-century Mughal emperor [Babur](/source/Babur) also mentioned the city under this name, and 15th-century Castillian traveler [Ruy González de Clavijo](/source/Ruy_Gonz%C3%A1lez_de_Clavijo) stated that Samarkand was simply a distorted form of it.[19]

Some languages have their own spellings or variations of the name, such as the [French](/source/French_language) "Samarcande", the [Italian](/source/Italian_language) and [Spanish](/source/Spanish_language) "Samarcanda", and the [Turkish](/source/Turkish_language) "Semerkant".[20]

## History

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

### Early history

See also: [Timeline of Samarkand](/source/Timeline_of_Samarkand)

Along with [Bukhara](/source/Bukhara),[21] Samarkand is one of the oldest inhabited cities in [Central Asia](/source/Central_Asia), prospering from its location on the trade route between China and Europe. There is no direct evidence of when it was founded. Researchers at the Institute of Archaeology of Samarkand date the city's founding around 700 BC.[22]

[Archaeological](/source/Archaeology) excavations conducted within the city limits (Syob and midtown) as well as suburban areas (Hojamazgil, Sazag'on) unearthed 40,000-year-old evidence of human activity, dating back to the [Upper Paleolithic](/source/Upper_Paleolithic). A group of [Mesolithic](/source/Mesolithic) (12th–7th millennia BC) archaeological sites were discovered in the suburbs of Sazag'on-1, Zamichatosh, and Okhalik. The Syob and Darg'om [canals](/source/Canal), supplying the city and its suburbs with water, appeared around the 7th–5th centuries BC (early [Iron Age](/source/Iron_Age)).

From its earliest days, Samarkand was one of the main centres of [Sogdian](/source/Sogdia) civilization. By the time of the [Achaemenid](/source/Achaemenid_Empire) dynasty of Persia, the city had become the capital of the Sogdian [satrapy](/source/Satrapy).

### Hellenistic period

Ancient city walls of Samarkand, 4th century BC

*[Alexander the Great](/source/Alexander_the_Great) Slaying [Cleitus](/source/Cleitus_the_Black) in Samarkand*, by [Daniël de Blieck](/source/Dani%C3%ABl_de_Blieck).
[Ferens Art Gallery](/source/Ferens_Art_Gallery), Hull.

[Alexander the Great](/source/Alexander_the_Great) conquered Samarkand in 329 BC. The city was known as **Maracanda** (Μαράκανδα) by the Greeks.[23] Written sources offer small clues as to the subsequent system of government.[24] They mention one Orepius who became ruler "not from ancestors, but as a gift of Alexander."[25]

While Samarkand suffered significant damage during Alexander's initial conquest, the city recovered rapidly and flourished under the new Hellenic influence. There were also major new construction techniques. Oblong bricks were replaced with square ones and superior methods of [masonry](/source/Masonry) and [plastering](/source/Plastering) were introduced.[26]

Alexander's conquests introduced classical Greek culture into Central Asia and for a time, Greek aesthetics heavily influenced local artisans. This Hellenistic legacy continued as the city became part of various successor states in the centuries following Alexander's death, the Greek [Seleucid Empire](/source/Seleucid_Empire), [Greco-Bactrian Kingdom](/source/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom), and [Kushan Empire](/source/Kushan_Empire) (even though the [Kushana](/source/Yuezhi) themselves originated in Central Asia). After the Kushan state lost control of Sogdia during the 3rd century AD, Samarkand went into decline as a centre of economic, cultural, and political power. It did not significantly revive until the 5th century.

### Sasanian era

Samarkand was conquered by the Persian [Sasanians](/source/Sasanians) c. 260 AD. Under Sasanian rule, the region became an essential site for [Manichaeism](/source/Manichaeism) and facilitated the dissemination of the religion throughout Central Asia.[27]

### Hephthalites and Turkic Khaganate era

Between AD 350 and 375, Samarkand was conquered by the nomadic tribes of [Xionites](/source/Xionites), the origin of which remains controversial.[28] The resettlement of nomadic groups to Samarkand confirms archaeological material from the 4th century. The culture of nomads from the Middle [Syrdarya](/source/Syrdarya) basin is spreading in the region.[29] Between 457 and 509, Samarkand was part of the [Kidarite](/source/Kidarite) state.[30]

[Turkic officers](/source/Western_Turks) during an audience with king [Varkhuman](/source/Varkhuman) of Samarkand. 648–651 AD, [Afrasiyab murals](/source/Afrasiyab_(Samarkand)), Samarkand.[31][32]

After the [Hephthalites](/source/Hephthalites) ("White Huns") conquered Samarkand, they controlled it until the [Göktürks](/source/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks), in an alliance with the Sassanid Persians, won it at the [Battle of Bukhara](/source/Battle_of_Bukhara), c. 560 AD.[33]

In the middle of the 6th century, a Turkic state was formed in Altai, founded by the Ashina dynasty. The new state formation was named the [Turkic Khaganate](/source/First_Turkic_Khaganate) after the people of the Turks, which were headed by the ruler – the Khagan. From 557 to 561, the [Hephthalites](/source/Hephthalites) empire was defeated by the joint actions of the Turks and Sassanids, which led to the establishment of a common border between the two empires.[34]

In the early Middle Ages, Samarkand was surrounded by four rows of defensive walls and had four gates.[35]

An ancient Turkic burial with a horse was investigated on the territory of Samarkand. It dates back to the 6th century.[36]

During the period of the ruler of the Western Turkic Khaganate, [Tong Yabghu Qaghan](/source/Tong_Yabghu_Qaghan) (618–630), family relations were established with the ruler of Samarkand – Tong Yabghu Qaghan gave him his daughter.[37]

Some parts of Samarkand have been Christian since the 4th century. In the 5th century, a [Nestorian](/source/Nestorian) chair was established in Samarkand. At the beginning of the 8th century, it was transformed into a Nestorian metropolitanate.[38] Discussions and polemics arose between the Sogdian followers of [Christianity](/source/Christianity) and [Manichaeism](/source/Manichaeism), reflected in the documents.[39]

### Early Islamic era

Coin of [Sogdian](/source/Sogdia) ruler [Turgar](/source/Turgar), last [Ikhshid](/source/Ikhshid) of Samarkand, [Penjikent](/source/Panjakent), 8th century AD, [National Museum of Antiquities of Tajikistan](/source/National_Museum_of_Antiquities_of_Tajikistan).[40]

The armies of the [Umayyad Caliphate](/source/Umayyad_Caliphate) under [Qutayba ibn Muslim](/source/Qutayba_ibn_Muslim) captured the city from the [Tang dynasty](/source/Tang_dynasty) c. 710 AD.[27] During this period, Samarkand was a diverse religious community and was home to a number of religions, including [Zoroastrianism](/source/Zoroastrianism), [Buddhism](/source/Buddhism), [Hinduism](/source/Hinduism), [Manichaeism](/source/Manichaeism), [Judaism](/source/Judaism), and [Nestorian Christianity](/source/Nestorian_Christianity), with most of the population following Zoroastrianism.[41]

Qutayba generally did not settle Arabs in Central Asia; he forced the local rulers to pay him tribute but largely left them to their own devices. Samarkand was the major exception to this policy: Qutayba established an Arab [garrison](/source/Garrison) and Arab governmental administration in the city, its Zoroastrian [fire temples](/source/Fire_temple) were razed, and a [mosque](/source/Mosque) was built.[42] Much of the city's population converted to Islam.[43]

As a long-term result, Samarkand developed into a center of Islamic and Arabic learning.[42] At the end of the 740s, a [movement](/source/Abbasid_dynasty) of those dissatisfied with the power of the [Umayyads](/source/Umayyad_dynasty) emerged in the Arab Caliphate, led by the Abbasid commander [Abu Muslim](/source/Abu_Muslim), who, after the victory of the uprising, became the governor of Khorasan and Maverannahr (750–755). He chose Samarkand as his residence. His name is associated with the construction of a multi-kilometer defensive wall around the city and the palace.[44]

Legend has it that during [Abbasid](/source/Abbasid) rule,[45] the secret of [papermaking](/source/Papermaking) was obtained from two [Chinese](/source/Han_Chinese) prisoners from the [Battle of Talas](/source/Battle_of_Talas) in 751, which led to the foundation of the first [paper mill](/source/Paper_mill) in the Islamic world at Samarkand. The invention then spread to the rest of the Islamic world and thence to Europe.[46]

[Gold dinar](/source/Gold_dinar) of caliph [al-Mu'tazz](/source/Al-Mu'tazz), minted at Samarkand in [AH](/source/Hijri_year) 253 (867 AD). His reign marks the apogee of the [decline of the Caliphate](/source/Anarchy_at_Samarra)'s central authority

Abbasid [control of Samarkand soon dissipated](/source/Anarchy_at_Samarra) and was replaced with that of the [Samanids](/source/Samanids) (875–999), though the Samanids were still nominal vassals of the [Caliph](/source/Abbasid_caliph) during their control of Samarkand. Under Samanid rule the city became a capital of the Samanid dynasty and an even more important node of numerous trade routes. The Samanids were overthrown by the [Karakhanids](/source/Karakhanids) around 999. Over the next 200 years, Samarkand would be ruled by a succession of [Turkic](/source/Turkic_peoples) tribes, including the [Seljuqs](/source/Seljuqs) and the [Khwarazmshahs](/source/Khwarazmshahs).[47]

The 10th-century Persian author [Istakhri](/source/Istakhri), who travelled in [Transoxiana](/source/Transoxiana), provides a vivid description of the natural riches of the region he calls "Smarkandian Sogd":

I know no place in it or in Samarkand itself where if one ascends some elevated ground one does not see greenery and a pleasant place, and nowhere near it are mountains lacking in trees or a dusty steppe... Samakandian Sogd... [extends] eight days travel through unbroken greenery and gardens... . The greenery of the trees and sown land extends along both sides of the river [Sogd]... and beyond these fields is pasture for flocks. Every town and settlement has a fortress... It is the most fruitful of all the countries of [Allah](/source/Allah); in it are the best trees and fruits, in every home are gardens, cisterns and flowing water.

### Karakhanid (Ilek-Khanid) period (11th–12th centuries)

Shah-i Zinda memorial complex, 11th–15th centuries

After the fall of the [Samanids](/source/Samanids) state in 999, it was replaced by the Qarakhanid State, where the Turkic Qarakhanid dynasty ruled.[48] After the state of the Qarakhanids split into two parts, Samarkand became a part of the West [Karakhanid Khaganate](/source/Kara-Khanid_Khanate) and from 1040 to 1212 was its capital.[48] The founder of the Western Qarakhanid Khaganate was Ibrahim Tamgach Khan (1040–1068).[48] For the first time, he built a [madrasa](/source/Madrasa) in Samarkand with state funds and supported the development of culture in the region. During his reign, a public hospital (bemoristan) and a madrasa were established in Samarkand, where medicine was also taught.

The memorial complex [Shah-i-Zinda](/source/Shah-i-Zinda) was founded by the rulers of the Karakhanid dynasty in the 11th century.[49]

The most striking monument of the Qarakhanid era in Samarkand was the palace of Ibrahim ibn Hussein (1178–1202), which was built in the citadel in the 12th century. During the excavations, fragments of monumental painting were discovered. On the eastern wall, a Turkic warrior was depicted, dressed in a yellow caftan and holding a bow. Horses, hunting dogs, birds and periodlike women were also depicted here.[50]

### Mongol period

Ruins of Afrasiab – ancient Samarkand destroyed by Genghis Khan.

The Mongols [conquered Samarkand](/source/Siege_of_Samarkand_(1220)) in 1220. [Juvayni](/source/Ata-Malik_Juvayni) writes that Genghis killed all who took refuge in the [citadel](/source/Citadel) and the mosque, pillaged the city completely, and [conscripted](/source/Conscription) 30,000 young men along with 30,000 craftsmen. Samarkand suffered at least one other Mongol sack by [Khan Baraq](/source/Baraq_(Chagatai_Khan)) to get treasure he needed to pay an army. It remained part of the [Chagatai Khanate](/source/Chagatai_Khanate) (one of four Mongol successor realms) until 1370.

*[The Travels](/source/The_Travels_of_Marco_Polo)* of [Marco Polo](/source/Marco_Polo), where Polo records his journey along the Silk Road in the late 13th century, describes Samarkand as "a very large and splendid city..."[51]

The [Yenisei](/source/Yenisei) area had [a community of weavers of Chinese origin](/source/Semu#Similar_practices_in_other_areas_of_the_Mongol_Empire), and Samarkand and [Outer Mongolia](/source/Outer_Mongolia) both had artisans of Chinese origin, as reported by [Changchun](/source/Qiu_Chuji).[52] After Genghis Khan conquered Central Asia, foreigners were chosen as governmental administrators; Chinese and Qara-Khitays (Khitans) were appointed as co-managers of gardens and fields in Samarkand, which Muslims were not permitted to manage on their own.[53][54] The khanate allowed the establishment of Christian bishoprics (see below).

### Timur's rule (1370–1405)

Bibi-Khanym Friday Mosque, 1399–1404

[Ibn Battuta](/source/Ibn_Battuta), who visited in 1333, called Samarkand "one of the greatest and finest of cities, and most perfect of them in beauty." He also noted that the orchards were supplied water via *[norias](/source/Noria)*.[55]

In 1365, a revolt against Chagatai Mongol control occurred in Samarkand.[56] In 1370, the conqueror [Timur](/source/Timur) (Tamerlane), the founder and ruler of the [Timurid Empire](/source/Timurid_Empire), made Samarkand his capital. Timur used various tools for legitimisation, including urban planning in his capital, Samarkand.[57] Over the next 35 years, he rebuilt most of the city and populated it with great artisans and craftsmen from across the empire. Timur gained a reputation as a patron of the arts, and Samarkand grew to become the centre of the region of [Transoxiana](/source/Transoxiana). Timur's commitment to the arts is evident in how, in contrast with the ruthlessness he showed his enemies, he demonstrated mercy toward those with special artistic abilities. The lives of artists, craftsmen, and [architects](/source/Architect) were spared so that they could improve and beautify Timur's capital.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

Timur was also directly involved in construction projects, and his visions often exceeded the technical abilities of his workers. The city was in a state of constant construction, and Timur would often order buildings to be done and redone quickly if he was unsatisfied with the results.[58] By his orders, Samarkand could be reached only by roads; deep ditches were dug, and walls 8 km (5 mi) in circumference separated the city from its surrounding neighbors.[24] At this time, the city had a population of about 150,000.[59]

[Henry III of Castile](/source/Henry_III_of_Castile)'s ambassador [Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo](/source/Ruy_Gonzalez_de_Clavijo), who visited Samarkand between 8 September and 20 November 1404, attested to the never-ending construction that went on in the city. "The Mosque which Timur had built seemed to us the noblest of all those we visited in the city of Samarkand."[60]

### Ulugh Beg's period (1409–1449)

Many prominent astronomers worked at [Ulugh Beg's observatory](/source/Ulugh_Beg_Observatory), which contained this mural sextant, constructed in Samarkand during the 15th century.

Between 1417 and 1420, Timur's grandson [Ulugh Beg](/source/Ulugh_Beg) built a [madrasah](/source/Madrasa) in Samarkand, which became the first building in the architectural ensemble of Registan. Ulugh Beg invited a large number of astronomers and mathematicians of the Islamic world to this madrasa. Under Ulugh Beg, Samarkand became one of the world centers of medieval science. In the first half of the 15th century, a whole scientific school arose around Ulugh Beg, uniting prominent astronomers and mathematicians including [Jamshid al-Kashi](/source/Jamshid_al-Kashi), [Qāḍī Zāda al-Rūmī](/source/Q%C4%81%E1%B8%8D%C4%AB_Z%C4%81da_al-R%C5%ABm%C4%AB), and [Ali Qushji](/source/Ali_Qushji). Ulugh Beg's main interest in science was astronomy, and he constructed an observatory in 1428. Its main instrument was the [wall quadrant](/source/Mural_instrument), which was unique in the world.[61] It was known as the "Fakhri Sextant" and had a radius of 40 meters.[62] Seen in the image on the left, the arc was finely constructed with a staircase on either side to provide access for the assistants who performed the measurements.

### Uzbek period

In 1500, [nomadic](/source/Nomad) [Uzbek](/source/Uzbeks) warriors took control of Samarkand.[59] The [Shaybanids](/source/Shaybanids) emerged as the city's leaders at or about this time. In 1501, Samarkand was finally taken by [Muhammad Shaybani](/source/Muhammad_Shaybani) from the Uzbek dynasty of [Shaybanids](/source/Shaybanid), and the city became part of the newly formed “Bukhara Khanate”. Samarkand was chosen as the capital of this state, in which Muhammad Shaybani Khan was crowned. In Samarkand, Muhammad Shaybani Khan ordered to build a large madrasa, where he later took part in scientific and religious disputes. The first dated news about the Shaybani Khan madrasa dates back to 1504 (it was completely destroyed during the years of Soviet power). Muhammad Salikh wrote that Sheibani Khan built a madrasa in Samarkand to perpetuate the memory of his brother Mahmud Sultan.[63]

Fazlallah ibn Ruzbihan[*[who?](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions)*] in "Mikhmon-namei Bukhara" expresses his admiration for the majestic building of the madrasa, its gilded roof, high hujras, spacious courtyard and quotes a verse praising the madrasa.[64] Zayn ad-din Vasifi, who visited the Sheibani-khan madrasa several years later, wrote in his memoirs that the veranda, hall and courtyard of the madrassah are spacious and magnificent.[63]

Abdulatif Khan, the son of Ulugh Beg's grandson Kuchkunji Khan, who ruled in Samarkand from 1540 to 1551, was considered an expert in the history of Maverannahr and the Shibanid dynasty. He patronized poets and scientists. Abdulatif Khan himself wrote poetry under the literary pseudonym Khush.[65]

During the reign of the Ashtarkhanid [Imam Quli Khan](/source/Imam_Quli_Khan_of_Bukhara) (1611–1642) famous architectural masterpieces were built in Samarkand. In 1612–1656, the governor of Samarkand, Yalangtush Bahadur, built a cathedral mosque, the [Tilakari Madrasa](/source/Tilakari_Madrasa) and the [Sherdar Madrasa](/source/Sherdar_Madrasa).[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

[Zarafshan Water Bridge](/source/Zarafshan_Water_Bridge) is a brick bridge built on the left bank of the [Zarafshan River](/source/Zarafshan_River), 7–8 km northeast of the center of Samarkand, built by [Shaibani Khan](/source/Muhammad_Shaybani) at the beginning of the 16th century.[66][67]

After an assault by the [Afshar](/source/Afsharid_dynasty) [Shahanshah](/source/Shah) [Nader Shah](/source/Nader_Shah), the city was abandoned in the early 1720s.[68] From 1599 to 1756, Samarkand was ruled by the [Ashtrakhanid](/source/Astrakhan_Khanate) branch of the [Khanate of Bukhara](/source/Khanate_of_Bukhara).

		- The [Ulugh Beg Madrasa](/source/Ulugh_Beg_Madrasa)

		- The [Sherdar Madrasa](/source/Sherdar_Madrasa)

		- The [Tilakari Madrasa](/source/Tilakari_Madrasa)

		- The [Ulugh Beg Madrasa](/source/Ulugh_Beg_Madrasa)'s courtyard

		- Tiger on the [Sherdar Madrasa](/source/Sherdar_Madrasa)'s [iwan](/source/Iwan)

### Second half of the 18th–19’s century Uzbek period

Khazrat Hizr mosque, 1854

From 1756 to 1868, it was ruled by the [Manghud](/source/Manghud) Emirs of [Bukhara](/source/Emirate_of_Bukhara).[69] The revival of the city began during the reign of the founder of the Uzbek dynasty, the Mangyts, Muhammad Rakhim (1756–1758), who became famous for his strong-willed qualities and military art. Muhammad Rakhimbiy made some attempts to revive Samarkand.[70]

### Russian Empire period

See also: [Russian Turkestan](/source/Russian_Turkestan) and [Uzbeks § Russo-Soviet era](/source/Uzbeks#Russo-Soviet_era)

Samarkand in 1890

The city came under [imperial Russian](/source/Imperial_Russia) rule after the citadel had been taken by a force under Colonel [Konstantin Petrovich von Kaufman](/source/Konstantin_Petrovich_von_Kaufman) in 1868. Shortly thereafter the small Russian garrison of 500 men were themselves [besieged](/source/Siege_of_Samarkand_(1868)). The assault, which was led by Abdul Malik Tura, the rebellious elder son of the [Bukharan Emir](/source/Emirate_of_Bukhara), as well as Baba [Beg](/source/Bey) of [Shahrisabz](/source/Shahrisabz) and Jura Beg of [Kitab](/source/Kitab%2C_Uzbekistan), was repelled with heavy losses. General [Alexander Konstantinovich Abramov](/source/Alexander_Konstantinovich_Abramov) became the first Governor of the Military [Okrug](/source/Okrug), which the Russians established along the course of the [Zeravshan River](/source/Zeravshan_River) with Samarkand as the administrative centre. The Russian section of the city was built after this point, largely west of the old city.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

In 1886, the city became the capital of the newly formed [Samarkand Oblast](/source/Samarkand_Oblast) of [Russian Turkestan](/source/Russian_Turkestan) and regained even more importance when the [Trans-Caspian railway](/source/Trans-Caspian_railway) reached it in 1888.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

### Soviet period

[Downtown](/source/Downtown) with Bibi-Khanym Mosque in 1990s

Samarkand was the capital of [Turkestan Provisional Government](/source/Turkestan_Provisional_Government) in 1922 and was the capital of the [Uzbek SSR](/source/Uzbek_SSR) from 1925 to 1930, before being replaced by [Tashkent](/source/Tashkent). During [World War II](/source/World_War_II), after [Nazi Germany](/source/Nazi_Germany) [invaded](/source/Operation_Barbarossa) the [Soviet Union](/source/Soviet_Union), a number of Samarkand's citizens were sent to [Smolensk](/source/Smolensk) to [fight the enemy](/source/Battle_of_Smolensk_(1941)). Many were [taken captive or killed by the Nazis](/source/German_mistreatment_of_Soviet_prisoners_of_war).[71][72] Additionally, thousands of refugees from the occupied western regions of the USSR fled to the city, and it served as one of the main hubs for the fleeing civilians in the [Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic](/source/Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic) and the [Soviet Union](/source/Soviet_Union) as a whole.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

*Triumph* by [Vasily Vereshchagin](/source/Vasily_Vereshchagin), depicting the [Sherdar Madrasa](/source/Sherdar_Madrasa) on the [Registan](/source/Registan).

European study of the history of Samarkand began after the conquest of Samarkand by the Russian Empire in 1868. The first studies of the history of Samarkand belong to N. Veselovsky, V. Bartold and V. Vyatkin. In the Soviet period, the generalization of materials on the history of Samarkand was reflected in the two-volume *History of Samarkand* edited by the academician of Uzbekistan [Ibrohim Moʻminov](/source/Ibrohim_Mo%CA%BBminov).[73]

On the initiative of Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR I. Muminov and with the support of [Sharaf Rashidov](/source/Sharof_Rashidov), the 2500th anniversary of Samarkand was widely celebrated in 1970. In this regard, a monument to [Ulugh Beg](/source/Ulugh_Beg) was opened, the Museum of the History of Samarkand was founded, and a two-volume history of Samarkand was prepared and published.[74][75]

After Uzbekistan gained independence, several monographs were published on the ancient and medieval history of Samarkand.[76][77]

Modern Samarkand is a vibrant city, and in 2019 the city hosted the first Samarkand Half Marathon.[78] In 2022 this also included a full marathon for the first time.

## Geography

Samarkand from space in September 2013.[79]

Samarkand is located in southeastern Uzbekistan, in the [Zarefshan River](/source/Zeravshan_(river)) valley, 135 km from [Qarshi](/source/Qarshi). Road M37 connects Samarkand to [Bukhara](/source/Bukhara), 240 km away. Road M39 connects it to [Tashkent](/source/Tashkent), 270 km away. The [Tajikistan](/source/Tajikistan) border is about 35 km from Samarkand; the Tajik capital [Dushanbe](/source/Dushanbe) is 210 km away from Samarkand. Road M39 connects Samarkand to [Mazar-i-Sharif](/source/Mazar-i-Sharif) in [Afghanistan](/source/Afghanistan), which is 340 km away.

### Climate

Samarkand has a [cold semi-arid climate](/source/Cold_semi-arid_climate) ([Köppen climate classification](/source/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification): *BSk*) with hot, dry summers and relatively wet, variable winters that alternate periods of warm weather with periods of cold weather. July and August are the hottest months of the year, with temperatures reaching and exceeding 40 °C (104 °F). Precipitation is sparse from June through October, but increases to a maximum from February to April. January 2008 was particularly cold; the temperature dropped to −22 °C (−8 °F).[80]

Climate data for Samarkand (1991–2020, extremes 1891–present) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 23.2 (73.8) 26.7 (80.1) 32.2 (90.0) 36.2 (97.2) 39.5 (103.1) 41.6 (106.9) 42.4 (108.3) 41.0 (105.8) 38.6 (101.5) 35.2 (95.4) 31.5 (88.7) 27.5 (81.5) 42.4 (108.3) Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 7.3 (45.1) 9.5 (49.1) 15.2 (59.4) 21.4 (70.5) 27.0 (80.6) 32.4 (90.3) 34.5 (94.1) 33.3 (91.9) 28.6 (83.5) 22.0 (71.6) 14.4 (57.9) 9.1 (48.4) 21.2 (70.2) Daily mean °C (°F) 2.3 (36.1) 4.0 (39.2) 9.3 (48.7) 15.2 (59.4) 20.4 (68.7) 25.4 (77.7) 27.2 (81.0) 25.6 (78.1) 20.6 (69.1) 14.1 (57.4) 8.0 (46.4) 3.7 (38.7) 14.7 (58.4) Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −1.3 (29.7) −0.2 (31.6) 4.6 (40.3) 9.7 (49.5) 14.1 (57.4) 18.0 (64.4) 19.5 (67.1) 17.9 (64.2) 13.5 (56.3) 7.8 (46.0) 3.2 (37.8) −0.2 (31.6) 8.9 (48.0) Record low °C (°F) −25.4 (−13.7) −22 (−8) −14.9 (5.2) −6.8 (19.8) −1.3 (29.7) 4.8 (40.6) 8.6 (47.5) 7.8 (46.0) 0.0 (32.0) −6.4 (20.5) −18.1 (−0.6) −22.8 (−9.0) −25.4 (−13.7) Average precipitation mm (inches) 41.1 (1.62) 52.2 (2.06) 73.2 (2.88) 62.9 (2.48) 40.0 (1.57) 6.8 (0.27) 1.6 (0.06) 1.6 (0.06) 2.7 (0.11) 16.0 (0.63) 40.3 (1.59) 39.2 (1.54) 377.6 (14.87) Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) 14 13 15 13 11 5 2 2 2 6 10 12 105 Average rainy days 8 10 13 11 9 3 2 1 2 6 8 9 82 Average snowy days 9 7 3 0.3 0.1 0 0 0 0 0.3 2 6 28 Average relative humidity (%) 76 74 70 63 54 42 42 43 47 59 68 74 59 Average dew point °C (°F) −2 (28) −1 (30) 2 (36) 6 (43) 9 (48) 9 (48) 10 (50) 9 (48) 6 (43) 4 (39) 2 (36) −1 (30) 4 (40) Mean monthly sunshine hours 119.2 130.9 172.2 228.8 297.7 345.5 373.1 358.9 305.9 242.6 150.7 120.2 2,845.7 Average ultraviolet index 2 3 3 4 5 6 6 6 4 3 2 2 4 Source 1: Pogoda.ru.net[81] Source 2: Weather Atlas (UV),[82] Time and Date (dewpoints, 1985–2015),[83] NOAA[84]

## People

According to official reports, a majority of Samarkand's inhabitants are [Uzbeks](/source/Uzbeks), while many sources refer to the city as majority [Tajik](/source/Tajiks),[85][86][87][88] up to 70 percent of the city's population.[89] Tajiks are especially concentrated in the eastern part of the city, where the main architectural landmarks are.[89]

According to various independent sources, Tajiks are Samarkand's majority ethnic group. Ethnic [Uzbeks](/source/Uzbek_people) are the second-largest group[90][91] and are most concentrated in the west of Samarkand. Exact demographic figures are difficult to obtain since some people in Uzbekistan identify as "Uzbek" even though they speak [Tajiki](/source/Tajik_language) as their first language, often because they are registered as Uzbeks by the central government despite their Tajiki language and identity. As explained by [Paul Bergne](/source/Paul_Bergne):

During the census of 1926 a significant part of the Tajik population was registered as Uzbek. Thus, for example, in the 1920 census in Samarkand city the Tajiks were recorded as numbering 44,758 and the Uzbeks only 3301. According to the 1926 census, the number of Uzbeks was recorded as 43,364 and the Tajiks as only 10,716. In a series of kishlaks [villages] in the Khojand Okrug, whose population was registered as Tajik in 1920 e.g. in Asht, Kalacha, Akjar i Tajik and others, in the 1926 census they were registered as Uzbeks. Similar facts can be adduced also with regard to Ferghana, Samarkand, and especially the Bukhara oblasts.[90]

Samarkand is also home to large ethnic communities of "[Iranis](/source/Iranian_peoples)" (the old, [Persian](/source/Persian_language)-speaking, [Shia](/source/Shia) population of [Merv](/source/Merv) city and oasis, deported en masse to this area in the late 18th century), [Russians](/source/Russians), [Ukrainians](/source/Ukrainians), [Belarusians](/source/Belarusians), [Armenians](/source/Armenians), [Azeris](/source/Azeris), [Tatars](/source/Tatars), [Koreans](/source/Koryo-saram), [Poles](/source/Polish_people), and [Germans](/source/Germans), all of whom live primarily in the centre and western neighborhoods of the city. These peoples have emigrated to Samarkand since the end of the 19th century, especially during the Soviet Era; by and large, they speak the [Russian language](/source/Russian_language).

In the extreme west and southwest of Samarkand is a population of [Central Asian Arabs](/source/Central_Asian_Arabs), who mostly speak Uzbek; only a small portion of the older generation speaks [Central Asian Arabic](/source/Central_Asian_Arabic). In eastern Samarkand there was once a large mahallah of [Bukharian (Central Asian) Jews](/source/Bukharian_Jews), but starting in the 1970s, hundreds of thousands of Jews left Uzbekistan for [Israel](/source/Israel), [United States](/source/United_States), [Canada](/source/Canada), [Australia](/source/Australia), and [Europe](/source/Europe). Only a few Jewish families are left in Samarkand today.

Also in the eastern part of Samarkand there are several quarters where [Central Asian "Gypsies"](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%86%D1%8B%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5)[92] ([Lyuli](/source/Lyuli), Djugi, [Parya](/source/Parya_language), and other groups) live. These peoples began to arrive in Samarkand several centuries ago from what are now [India](/source/India) and [Pakistan](/source/Pakistan). They mainly speak a dialect of the Tajik language, as well as their own languages, most notably [Parya](/source/Parya_language).

### Language

Greeting in two languages: Uzbek (Latin) and Tajik (Cyrillic) at the entrance to one of the [mahallahs](/source/Mahallah) (Bo'zi) of Samarkand

The state and official language in Samarkand, as in all Uzbekistan, is the [Uzbek language](/source/Uzbek_language). Uzbek is one of the [Turkic languages](/source/Turkic_languages) and the mother tongue of [Uzbeks](/source/Uzbeks), [Turkmens](/source/Turkmens), [Samarkandian Iranians](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samarkandian_Iranians&action=edit&redlink=1) [[ru](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%8B); [uz](https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%CA%BBrta_Osiyo_eroniylari)], and most [Samarkandian Arabs](/source/Central_Asian_Arabs) living in Samarkand.

As in the rest of Uzbekistan, the [Russian language](/source/Russian_language) is the [de facto](/source/De_facto) second official language in Samarkand, and about 5% of signs and inscriptions in Samarkand are in this language. [Russians](/source/Russians), [Belarusians](/source/Belarusians), [Poles](/source/Polish_people), [Germans](/source/Germans), [Koreans](/source/Koryo-saram), the majority of [Ukrainians](/source/Ukrainians), the majority of [Armenians](/source/Armenians), [Greeks](/source/Greeks), some [Tatars](/source/Tatars), and some [Azerbaijanis](/source/Azerbaijanis) in Samarkand speak Russian. Several Russian-language newspapers are published in Samarkand, the most popular of which is *[Samarkandskiy vestnik](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samarkandskiy_vestnik&action=edit&redlink=1) [[ru](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA); [uz](https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarkandskiy_vestnik)]* (Russian: Самаркандский вестник, lit. the Samarkand Herald). The Samarkandian TV channel STV conducts some broadcasts in Russian.

De facto, the most common native language in Samarkand is [Tajik](/source/Tajik_language), which is a dialect or variant of the [Persian language](/source/Persian_language). Samarkand was one of the cities in which the Persian language developed. Many classical Persian [poets](/source/Poetry) and writers lived in or visited Samarkand over the millennia, the most famous being [Abulqasem Ferdowsi](/source/Ferdowsi), [Omar Khayyam](/source/Omar_Khayyam), [Abdurahman Jami](/source/Jami), [Abu Abdullah Rudaki](/source/Rudaki), [Suzani Samarqandi](/source/Suzani_Samarqandi), and [Kamal Khujandi](/source/Kamal_Khujandi).

While the official stance is that Uzbek is the most common language in Samarkand, some data indicate that only about 30% of residents speak it as a native tongue. For the other 70%, Tajik is the native tongue, with Uzbek the second language and Russian the third. However, as no population census has been taken in Uzbekistan since 1989, there are no accurate data on this matter. Despite Tajik being the second most common language in Samarkand, it does not enjoy the status of an official or regional language.[93][86][87][94][88][95] Nevertheless, at Samarkand State University ten faculties offer courses in Tajiki, and the Tajik Language and Literature Department has an enrolment of over 170 students.[96] Only one newspaper in Samarkand is published in Tajiki, in the [Cyrillic Tajik alphabet](/source/Tajik_alphabet): *[Ovozi Samarqand](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4)* (Tajik: *Овози Самарқанд* —*Voice of Samarkand*). Local Samarkandian STV and "Samarkand" TV channels offer some broadcasts in Tajik, as does one regional radio station. In 2022 a quarterly literary magazine in Tajiki, *Durdonai Sharq*, was launched in Samarkand.[96]

In addition to Uzbek, Tajik, and Russian, native languages spoken in Samarkand include [Ukrainian](/source/Ukrainian_language), [Armenian](/source/Armenian_language), [Azerbaijani](/source/Azerbaijani_language), [Tatar](/source/Tatar_language), [Crimean Tatar](/source/Crimean_Tatar_language), [Arabic](/source/Arabic) (for a very small percentage of Samarkandian Arabs), and others.

## Religion

### Islam

[Islam](/source/Islam) entered Samarkand in the 8th century, during the [invasion of the Arabs in Central Asia](/source/Muslim_conquest_of_Transoxiana) ([Umayyad Caliphate](/source/Umayyad_Caliphate)). Before that, almost all inhabitants of Samarkand were [Zoroastrians](/source/Zoroastrians), and many [Nestorians](/source/Nestorians) and [Buddhists](/source/Buddhists) also lived in the city. From that point forward, throughout the reigns of many Muslim governing powers, numerous [mosques](/source/Mosque), [madrasahs](/source/Madrasa), [minarets](/source/Minaret), [shrines](/source/Shrine), and [mausoleums](/source/Mausoleums) were built in the city. Many have been preserved. For example, there is [the Shrine](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C-%D0%91%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8) of [Imam Bukhari](/source/Muhammad_al-Bukhari), an [Islamic scholar](/source/Ulama) who authored the [hadith collection](/source/History_of_hadith) known as *[Sahih al-Bukhari](/source/Sahih_al-Bukhari)*, which [Sunni Muslims](/source/Sunni_Islam) regard as one of the most authentic (*[sahih](/source/Saheeh)*) [hadith](/source/Hadith) collections. His other books included *[Al-Adab al-Mufrad](/source/Al-Adab_al-Mufrad)*. Samarkand is also home to [the Shrine](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9_%D0%90%D0%B1%D1%83_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B8) of [Imam Maturidi](/source/Abu_Mansur_al-Maturidi), the founder of [Maturidism](/source/Maturidi) and the [Mausoleum of the Prophet Daniel](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9_%D0%A5%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B0_%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%91%D1%80), who is revered in [Islam](/source/Islam), [Judaism](/source/Judaism), and [Christianity](/source/Christianity).

Most inhabitants of Samarkand are Muslim, primarily [Sunni](/source/Sunni_Islam) (mostly [Hanafi](/source/Hanafi)) and [Sufi](/source/Sufism). Approximately 80–85% of Muslims in the city are Sunni, comprising almost all [Tajiks](/source/Tajiks), [Uzbeks](/source/Uzbeks), and Samarkandian Arabs living therein. Samarkand's best-known Islamic sacred lineages are the descendants of Sufi leaders such as Khodja Akhror Wali (1404–1490) and Makhdumi A’zam (1461–1542), the descendants of Sayyid Ata (first half of 14th c.) and Mirakoni Khojas (Sayyids from Mirakon, a village in Iran).[97] The liberal policy of President [Shavkat Mirziyoyev](/source/Shavkat_Mirziyoyev) opened up new opportunities for the expression of the religious identity. In Samarkand, since 2018, there has been an increase in the number of women wearing the hijab.[98]

		- [Imam Bukhari Shrine](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C-%D0%91%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8)

		- [Imam Maturidi Shrine](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9_%D0%90%D0%B1%D1%83_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B8)

		- [Ruhabad Mausoleum](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9_%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B4)

		- [Nuriddin Basir Shrine](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9_%D0%9D%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0)

		- [Khoja Daniyar Mausoleum](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9_%D0%A5%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B0_%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%91%D1%80)

#### Shia Muslims

The [Samarqand Vilayat](/source/Samarqand_Region) is one of the two regions of Uzbekistan (along with [Bukhara Vilayat](/source/Buxoro_Region)) that are home to a large number of Shiites. The total population of the Samarkand Vilayat is more than 3,720,000 people (2019).

There are no exact data on the number of Shiites in the city of Samarkand, but the city has several Shiite mosques and madrasas. The largest of these are the Punjabi Mosque, the Punjabi Madrassah, and the Mausoleum of Mourad Avliya. Every year, the Shiites of Samarkand commemorate [Ashura](/source/Ashura), as well as other memorable Shiite dates and holidays.

Shiites in Samarkand are mostly [Samarkandian Iranians](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%8B), who call themselves *Irani*. Their ancestors began to arrive in Samarkand in the 18th century. Some migrated there in search of a better life, others were sold as [slaves](/source/Slavery) there by [Turkmen](/source/Turkmens) captors, and others were soldiers who were posted to Samarkand. Mostly they came from [Khorasan](/source/Khorasan_Province), [Mashhad](/source/Mashhad), [Sabzevar](/source/Sabzevar), [Nishapur](/source/Nishapur), and [Merv](/source/Merv); and secondarily from [Iranian Azerbaijan](/source/Iranian_Azerbaijan), [Zanjan](/source/Zanjan%2C_Iran), [Tabriz](/source/Tabriz), and [Ardabil](/source/Ardabil). Samarkandian Shiites also include [Azerbaijanis](/source/Azerbaijanis), as well as small numbers of Tajiks and Uzbeks.

While there are no official data on the total number of Shiites in Uzbekistan, they are estimated to be "several hundred thousand." According to [leaked diplomatic cables](/source/United_States_diplomatic_cables_leak), in 2007–2008, the [US Ambassador for International Religious Freedom](/source/United_States_Ambassador-at-Large_for_International_Religious_Freedom) held a series of meetings with Sunni [mullahs](/source/Mullah) and Shiite [imams](/source/Imam) in Uzbekistan. During one of the talks, the imam of the Shiite mosque in [Bukhara](/source/Bukhara) said that about 300,000 Shiites live in the Bukhara Vilayat and 1 million in the Samarkand Vilayat. The Ambassador slightly doubted the authenticity of these figures, emphasizing in his report that data on the numbers of religious and ethnic minorities provided by the government of Uzbekistan were considered a very "delicate topic" due to their potential to provoke interethnic and interreligious conflicts. All the ambassadors of the ambassador tried to emphasize that traditional Islam, especially [Sufism](/source/Sufism) and [Sunnism](/source/Sunnism), in the regions of Bukhara and Samarkand is characterized by great religious tolerance toward other religions and sects, including Shiism.[99][100][101]

		- [Panjab Shia Mosque](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%B1_(%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8C))

		- [Panjab Shia Madrasa](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5_%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%B1)

		- [Murad Avliya Shrine](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9_%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4_%D0%90%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%8F)

### Christianity

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Provinces of the [Church of the East](/source/Church_of_the_East) in 10th century

[Christianity](/source/Christianity) was introduced to Samarkand when it was part of Sogdiana, long before the penetration of [Islam](/source/Islam) into Central Asia. The city then became one of the centers of [Nestorianism](/source/Nestorianism) in [Central Asia](/source/Central_Asia).[102] The majority of the population were then [Zoroastrians](/source/Zoroastrians), but since Samarkand was the crossroads of trade routes among [China](/source/East_Asia), [Persia](/source/Greater_Iran), and [Europe](/source/Europe), it was religiously tolerant. Under the [Umayyad Caliphate](/source/Umayyad_Caliphate), Zoroastrians and Nestorians were persecuted by the [Arab](/source/Arabs) conquerors;[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] the survivors fled to other places or converted to Islam. Several Nestorian temples were built in Samarkand, but they have not survived. Their remains were found by archeologists at the ancient site of [Afrasiyab](/source/Afrasiyab_(Samarkand)) and on the outskirts of Samarkand.

In the three decades of 1329–1359, the [Samarkand eparchy](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%8F_(%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F)) of the [Roman Catholic Church](/source/Catholic_Church) served several thousand Catholics who lived in the city. According to [Marco Polo](/source/Marco_Polo) and Johann Elemosina, a descendant of [Chaghatai Khan](/source/Chagatai_Khan), the founder of the [Chaghatai dynasty](/source/Chagatai_Khanate), [Eljigidey](/source/Eljigidey), converted to Christianity and was baptized. With the assistance of Eljigidey, the Catholic Church of [St. John the Baptist](/source/St._John_the_Baptist) was built in Samarkand. After a while, however, Islam completely supplanted Catholicism.

Christianity reappeared in Samarkand several centuries later, from the mid-19th century onward, after the city was seized by the [Russian Empire](/source/Russian_Empire). [Russian Orthodoxy](/source/Russian_Orthodox_Church) was introduced to Samarkand in 1868, and several churches and temples were built. In the early 20th century several more Orthodox cathedrals, churches, and temples were built, most of which were demolished while Samarkand was part of the [USSR](/source/USSR).

In present time, Christianity is the second-largest religious group in Samarkand with the predominant form is the [Russian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate)](/source/Russian_Orthodox_Church). More than 5% of Samarkand residents are Orthodox, mostly [Russians](/source/Russians), [Ukrainians](/source/Ukrainians), and [Belarusians](/source/Belarusians), and also some [Koreans](/source/Koryo-saram) and [Greeks](/source/Greeks). Samarkand is the center of the Samarkand branch (which includes the [Samarkand](/source/Samarqand_Region), [Qashqadarya](/source/Qashqadaryo_Region), and [Surkhandarya](/source/Surxondaryo_Region) provinces of Uzbekistan) of the [Uzbekistan and Tashkent eparchy](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8_%D0%A3%D0%B7%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%8F) of the [Central Asian Metropolitan District](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3) of the [Russian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate](/source/Russian_Orthodox_Church). The city has several active Orthodox churches: [Cathedral of St. Alexiy Moscowskiy](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8F_%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_(%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4)), [Church of the Intercession of the Holy Virgin](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8B_(%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4)), and [Church of St. George the Victorious](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%86%D0%B0_(%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4,_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D1%83%D1%8E%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%B9)). There are also a number of inactive Orthodox churches and temples, for example that of [Church of St. George Pobedonosets](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%86%D0%B0_(%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4,_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D1%83%D1%8E%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%B9)).[103][104]

There are also a few tens of thousands of [Catholics](/source/Catholic_Church) in Samarkand, mostly [Poles](/source/Polish_people), [Germans](/source/Germans), and some [Ukrainians](/source/Ukrainians). In the center of Samarkand is [St. John the Baptist Catholic Church](/source/St._John_the_Baptist_Church%2C_Samarkand), which was built at the beginning of the 20th century. Samarkand is part of the [Apostolic Administration of Uzbekistan](/source/Apostolic_Administration_of_Uzbekistan).[105]

The third largest Christian sect in Samarkand is the [Armenian Apostolic Church](/source/Armenian_Apostolic_Church), followed by a few tens of thousands of Armenian Samarkandians. Armenian Christians began emigrating to Samarkand at the end of the 19th century, this flow increasing especially in the Soviet era.[106] In the west of Samarkand is the [Armenian Church Surb Astvatsatsin](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8C_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8B_(%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4)).[107]

		- [Orthodox Cathedral of St. Alexiy Moscowskiy](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8F_%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_(%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4))

		- [Orthodox Church of the Intercession of the Holy Virgin](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8B_(%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4))

		- [Orthodox Church of St. George the Victorious](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%86%D0%B0_(%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4,_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D1%83%D1%8E%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%B9))

		- [Orthodox Church of St. George Pobedonosets](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%86%D0%B0_(%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4,_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D1%83%D1%8E%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%B9))

		- [St. John the Baptist Catholic Church](/source/St._John_the_Baptist_Church%2C_Samarkand)

		- [Armenian Church Surb Astvatsatsin](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8C_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8B_(%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4))

Samarkand also has several thousand [Protestants](/source/Protestantism), including [Lutherans](/source/Lutheranism), [Baptists](/source/Baptists), [Mormons](/source/Mormons), [Jehovah's Witnesses](/source/Jehovah's_Witnesses), [Adventists](/source/Adventism), and members of the [Korean Presbyterian church](/source/Korean_Presbyterian_church). These Christian movements appeared in Samarkand mainly after the independence of [Uzbekistan](/source/Uzbekistan) in 1991.[108]

### Judaism

[Benjamin of Tudela](/source/Benjamin_of_Tudela) reported that Samarkand had 50,000 Jews in 1170.[109]

## Landmarks

### Silk Road Samarkand (Eternal city)

Silk Road Samarkand is a modern multiplex which opened in early 2022 in eastern Samarkand. The complex covers 260 hectares and includes world-class business and medical hotels, eateries, recreational facilities, park grounds, an ethnographic corner and a large congress hall for hosting international events.[110]

Eternal city situated in Silk Road Samarkand complex. This site which occupies 17 hectares accurately recreates the spirit of the ancient city backed up by the history and traditions of Uzbek lands and Uzbek people for the guests of the Silk Road Samarkand. The narrow streets here house multiple shops of artists, artisans, and craftsmen. The pavilions of the Eternal City were inspired by real houses and picturesque squares described in ancient books. This is where you can plunge into a beautiful oriental fairy tale: with turquoise domes, mosaics on palaces, and high minarets that pierce the sky.

Visitors to the Eternal City can taste national dishes from different eras and regions of the country and also see authentic street performances. The Eternal City showcases a unique mix of Parthian, Hellenistic, and Islamic cultures so that the guests could imagine the versatile heritage of bygone centuries in full splendor. The project was inspired and designed by Bobur Ismoilov, a famous modern artist.[111]

## Architecture

Building the Great Mosque of Samarkand. Illustration by [Bihzad](/source/Bihzad) for the [Zafar-Nameh](/source/Zafarnama_(Yazdi_biography)). Text copied in [Herat](/source/Herat) in 1467–68 and illuminated the late 1480s. John Work Garret Collection, Milton S. Eisenhower Library, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.

Timur initiated the building of Bibi-Khanym after his 1398–1399 campaign in India. The Bibi-Khanym originally had about 450 marble columns, which were hauled there and set up with the help of 95 elephants that Timur had brought back from Hindustan. Artisans and stonemasons from India designed the mosque's dome, giving it its distinctive appearance amongst the other buildings. An 1897 earthquake destroyed the columns, which were not entirely restored in the subsequent reconstruction.[58]

The best-known landmark of Samarkand is the mausoleum known as Gur-i Amir. It exhibits the influences of many cultures, past civilizations, neighboring peoples, and religions, especially those of Islam. Despite the devastation wrought by Mongols to Samarkand's pre-Timurid Islamic architecture, under Timur these architectural styles were revived, recreated, and restored. The blueprint and layout of the mosque itself, with their precise measurements, demonstrate the Islamic passion for [geometry](/source/Geometry). The entrance to the Gur-i Amir is decorated with Arabic [calligraphy](/source/Calligraphy) and inscriptions, the latter a common feature in Islamic architecture. Timur's meticulous attention to detail is especially obvious inside the mausoleum: the tiled walls are a marvelous example of [mosaic](/source/Mosaic) [faience](/source/Faience), an Iranian technique in which each tile is cut, colored, and fit into place individually.[58] The tiles of the Gur-i Amir were also arranged so that they spell out religious words such as "[Muhammad](/source/Muhammad)" and "Allah."[58]

The ornamentation of the Gur-i Amir's walls includes floral and vegetal motifs, which signify gardens; the floor tiles feature uninterrupted floral patterns. In Islam, gardens are symbols of paradise, and as such, they were depicted on the walls of tombs and grown in Samarkand itself.[58] Samarkand boasted two major gardens, the New Garden and the Garden of Heart's Delight, which became the central areas of entertainment for ambassadors and important guests. In 1218, a friend of Genghis Khan named Yelü Chucai reported that Samarkand was the most beautiful city of all, as "it was surrounded by numerous gardens. Every household had a garden, and all the gardens were well designed, with canals and water fountains that supplied water to round or square-shaped ponds. The landscape included rows of willows and cypress trees, and peach and plum orchards were shoulder to shoulder."[112] Persian carpets with floral patterns have also been found in some Timurid buildings.[113]

The elements of traditional Islamic architecture can be seen in traditional mud-brick Uzbek houses that are built around central courtyards with gardens.[114] Most of these houses have painted wooden ceilings and walls. By contrast, houses in the west of the city are chiefly European-style homes built in the 19th and 20th centuries.[114]

Turko-Mongol influence is also apparent in Samarkand's architecture. It is believed that the melon-shaped domes of the mausoleums were designed to echo [*yurts* or *gers*](/source/Yurt), traditional Mongol tents in which the bodies of the dead were displayed before burial or other disposition. Timur built his tents from more-durable materials, such as bricks and wood, but their purposes remained largely unchanged.[58] The chamber in which Timur's own body was laid included "[tugs](/source/Tug_(banner))", poles whose tops were hung with a circular arrangement of horse or yak tail hairs. These banners symbolized an ancient Turkic tradition of sacrificing horses, which were valuable commodities, to honor the dead.[58] Tugs were also a type of cavalry standard used by many nomads, up to the time of the Ottoman Turks.

Colors of buildings in Samarkand also have significant meanings. The dominant architectural color is blue, which Timur used to convey a broad range of concepts. For example, the shades of blue in the Gur-i Amir are colors of mourning; in that era, blue was the color of mourning in Central Asia, as it still is in various cultures today. Blue was also considered the color that could ward off "the [evil eye](/source/Evil_eye)" in Central Asia; this notion is evidenced by in the number of blue-painted doors in and around the city. Furthermore, blue represented water, a particularly rare resource in the Middle East and Central Asia; walls painted blue symbolized the wealth of the city.

Gold also has a strong presence in the city. Timur's fascination with vaulting explains the excessive use of gold in the Gur-i Amir, as well as the use of [embroidered gold fabric](/source/Goldwork_(embroidery)) in both the city and his buildings. The Mongols had great interests in Chinese- and Persian-style golden silk textiles, as well as *nasij*[115] woven in [Iran](/source/Iran) and Transoxiana. Mongol leaders like [Ögedei Khan](/source/%C3%96gedei_Khan) built textile workshops in their cities to be able to produce gold fabrics themselves.

### Suburbs

Suburbs of the city include: Gulyakandoz, Superfosfatnyy, Bukharishlak, Ulugbek, Ravanak, Kattakishlak, Registan, Zebiniso, Kaftarkhona, Uzbankinty.[116]

## Transport

### Local

Samarkand has a strong public-transport system. From Soviet times up through today, municipal [buses](/source/Bus) and [taxis](/source/Taxi) ([GAZ-21](/source/GAZ-21), [GAZ-24](/source/GAZ-24), [GAZ-3102](/source/GAZ-3102), [VAZ-2101](/source/VAZ-2101), [VAZ-2106](/source/VAZ-2106) and [VAZ-2107](/source/VAZ-2107)) have operated in Samarkand. Buses, mostly [SamAuto](/source/SamAuto) and [Isuzu](/source/Isuzu) buses, are the most common and popular mode of transport in the city. Taxis, which are mostly [Chevrolets](/source/Chevrolet) and [Daewoo](/source/Daewoo_Motors) sedans, are usually yellow in color. Since 2017, there have also been [several Samarkandian tram lines](/source/Trams_in_Samarkand), mostly Vario LF.S Czech trams. From the [Soviet](/source/Soviet) Era up until 2005, Samarkandians also got around via [trolleybus](/source/Trolleybus). Finally, Samarkand has the so-called "[Marshrutka](/source/Marshrutka)," which are [Daewoo Damas](/source/Daewoo_Damas) and [GAZelle](/source/GAZelle) [minibuses](/source/Minibuses).

		- Many yellow taxis on the streets of Samarkand

		- Taxi and tram on Rudaki Street in Samarkand

		- Tram in Samarkand

Until 1950, the main forms of transport in Samarkand were [carriages](/source/Carriage) and "[arabas](/source/Araba_(carriage))" with [horses](/source/Horse) and [donkeys](/source/Donkey). However, the city had a [steam](/source/Steam) tram from 1924 to 1930, and there were more modern trams from 1947 to 1973.

### Air transport

In the north of the city is [Samarkand International Airport](/source/Samarkand_International_Airport), which was opened in the 1930s, under the Soviets. As of spring 2019, Samarkand International Airport has flights to [Tashkent](/source/Tashkent), [Nukus](/source/Nukus), [Moscow](/source/Moscow), [Saint Petersburg](/source/Saint_Petersburg), [Yekaterinburg](/source/Yekaterinburg), [Kazan](/source/Kazan), [Istanbul](/source/Istanbul), and [Dushanbe](/source/Dushanbe); charter flights to other cities are also available.

### Railway

Modern Samarkand is an important rail junction of Uzbekistan, and all national east–west railway routes pass through the city. The most important and longest of these is [Tashkent](/source/Tashkent)–[Kungrad](/source/Kungrad). High-speed [Tashkent–Samarkand high-speed rail line](/source/Tashkent%E2%80%93Samarkand_high-speed_rail_line) trains run between Tashkent, Samarkand, and Bukhara. Samarkand also has international railway connections: [Saratov](/source/Saratov)–Samarkand, [Moscow](/source/Moscow)–Samarkand, and [Astana](/source/Astana)–Samarkand.

		- Samarkand railway station

		- Afrasiyab (Talgo 250) high-speed train in Samarkand railway station

Between 1879 and 1891, the [Russian Empire](/source/Russian_Empire) built the [Trans-Caspian Railway](/source/Trans-Caspian_Railway) to facilitate its expansion into Central Asia. The railway originated in Krasnovodsk (now [Turkmenbashi](/source/T%C3%BCrkmenba%C5%9Fy%2C_Turkmenistan)) on the [Caspian Sea](/source/Caspian_Sea) coast. Its terminus was originally Samarkand, whose station first opened in May 1888. However, a decade later, the railway was extended eastward to Tashkent and [Andijan](/source/Andijan), and its name was changed to Central Asian Railways. Nonetheless, Samarkand remained one of the largest and most important stations of the [Uzbek SSR](/source/Uzbek_SSR) and [Soviet Central Asia](/source/Soviet_Central_Asia).

## International relations

See also: [List of twin towns and sister cities in Uzbekistan](/source/List_of_twin_towns_and_sister_cities_in_Asia#Uzbekistan)

Samarkand is [twinned](/source/Sister_city) with:[117]

- [Agra](/source/Agra), India

- [Balkh](/source/Balkh), Afghanistan

- [Banda Aceh](/source/Banda_Aceh), Indonesia

- [Cusco](/source/Cusco), Peru

- [Jūrmala](/source/J%C5%ABrmala), Latvia

- [Kairouan](/source/Kairouan), Tunisia

- [Khujand](/source/Khujand), Tajikistan

- [Krasnoyarsk](/source/Krasnoyarsk), Russia

- [Lahore](/source/Lahore), Pakistan

- [Liège](/source/Li%C3%A8ge), Belgium

- [Mary](/source/Mary%2C_Turkmenistan), Turkmenistan

- [Merv](/source/Merv), Turkmenistan

- [Mexico City](/source/Mexico_City), Mexico

- [New Delhi](/source/New_Delhi), India

- [Nishapur](/source/Nishapur), Iran

- [Plovdiv](/source/Plovdiv), Bulgaria

- [Rio de Janeiro](/source/Rio_de_Janeiro), Brazil

- [Samara](/source/Samara), Russia

- [Xi'an](/source/Xi'an), China

- [Nara](/source/Nara_(city)), Japan[118]

Samarkand has friendly relations with:[117][119]

- [Antalya](/source/Antalya), Turkey

- [Babruysk](/source/Babruysk), Belarus

- [Bremen](/source/Bremen), Germany

- [Canberra](/source/Canberra), Australia

- [Eskişehir](/source/Eski%C5%9Fehir), Turkey

- [Florence](/source/Florence), Italy

- [Gyeongju](/source/Gyeongju), South Korea

- [Istanbul](/source/Istanbul), Turkey

- [İzmir](/source/%C4%B0zmir), Turkey

- [Lyon](/source/Lyon), France

- [Lviv](/source/Lviv), Ukraine

- [Valencia](/source/Valencia), Spain

## In literature

The [frame story](/source/Frame_story) of *[One Thousand and One Nights](/source/One_Thousand_and_One_Nights)* involves a [Sasanian](/source/Sasanian_Empire) king who assigns his brother, [Shah Zaman](/source/Shah_Zaman_(One_Thousand_and_One_Nights)), to rule over Samarkand.[120]

The poet [James Elroy Flecker](/source/James_Elroy_Flecker) published the poem *The Golden Journey to Samarkand* in 1913. It was included in his play, *Hassan*. *Hassan* (*The Story of Hassan of Bagdad and How He Came to Make the Golden Journey to Samarkand*) is a five-act drama in prose with verse passages. It tells the story of Hassan, a young man from Baghdad who embarks on a journey to Samarkand. Along the way, he encounters various challenges and obstacles, including bandits, treacherous terrain, and political turmoil.

Samarkand (French: Samarcande), written by French-Lebanese writer [Amin Maalouf](/source/Amin_Maalouf), is a 1988 historical fiction novel that revolves around the 11th-century Persian poet Omar Khayyám and his poetry collection Rubaiyat.

In 2002, Nobel Laureate [Wole Soyinka](/source/Wole_Soyinka) titled his collection of poetry *Samarkand and Other Markets I Have Known.*[121]

English author [Jonathan Stroud](/source/Jonathan_Stroud) published his book *[The Amulet of Samarkand](/source/The_Amulet_of_Samarkand)* in 2003. The book contains no allusions to Samarkand other than namesake.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

The city of Samarkand is famous for being the subject of an Uzbek tale called "The Rendezvous at Samarkand." It was recounted by a 12th-century Persian storyteller and mystic, Farid Al-Din Attar. In a legendary Baghdad, ruled by a powerful caliph, lived a young, healthy vizier. He seemed to have his whole life ahead of him. One day, he went to the city market, incognito, as he often did. Amidst the stalls of the spice merchants, he encountered a skeletal woman, who turned around as he passed and reached out to him. The vizier, a wise man, immediately recognized death. Terrified by what he saw, he begged his caliph to let him flee Baghdad, explaining that death was here and wanted to take him. His only hope was to immediately saddle his fastest horse and gallop off far from the city. The caliph therefore granted him permission to leave and asked him where he would be going. The vizier replies that to escape death, he is going to Samarkand, the desert city, on the edge of the kingdom, on the borders of Asia and the Middle East, thinking he will be safe there, far from the death that lurks in Baghdad! However, the caliph also decides to go to the market to check for the presence of death. He recognizes her very quickly and addresses her without fear, asking her the meaning of the gesture she made towards the vizier. "It was only a gesture of surprise..." replies death "Because I saw him in Baghdad while I must take him tonight in Samarkand..." This tale illustrates the inevitability of human destiny in the face of death. [*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

This tale also inspired Agatha Christie to title her novel "Appointment with Death."[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

In [Theodore Judson](/source/Theodore_Judson)'s 2004 novel [Fitzpatrick's War](/source/Fitzpatrick's_War), the title character attempts to make Samarkand (which he renames "Neapolis") the capital of a world empire and resides there until his assassination.

Mentioned in books of [World of Watches](/source/World_of_Watches)[122][123][124][125] and [Day Watch](/source/Day_Watch_(film)) movie (2006).[126][127][128][129][130]

## Notable people

- [Bakhtiyor Fazilov](/source/Bakhtiyor_Fazilov), Businessman

- [Takhmina Ikromova](/source/Takhmina_Ikromova), Uzbek rhythmic gymnast

- [Igor Sarukhanov](/source/Igor_Sarukhanov), Russian pop musician, composer and artist of Armenian descent

## See also

- [Samarkand non](/source/Samarkand_non)

- [The Mongol Invasion (trilogy)](/source/The_Mongol_Invasion_(trilogy))

## Notes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** [/ˈsæmərkænd/](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English) [*SAM-ər-kand*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key); [Uzbek](/source/Uzbek_language) and [Tajik](/source/Tajik_language): Самарқанд, [romanized](/source/Romanization_of_Tajik): *Samarqand*, IPA: [\[sæmærˈqænd, -ænt\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Uzbek).

## Citations

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** ["The State Committee of the Republic of Uzbekistan on Statistics"](https://web.archive.org/web/20200429095401/https://stat.uz/en/181-ofytsyalnaia-statystyka-en/6383-demography). Archived from [the original](https://www.stat.uz/en/181-ofytsyalnaia-statystyka-en/6383-demography) on 2020-04-29. Retrieved 2020-04-26.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-class_3-0)** ["Classification system of territorial units of the Republic of Uzbekistan"](https://stat.uz/uploads/docs/soato(mhobt)_2020.xlsx) (in Uzbek and Russian). The State Committee of the Republic of Uzbekistan on statistics. July 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-samstat_4-0)** ["Urban and rural population by district"](https://web.archive.org/web/20220213143332/https://samstat.uz/uz/?option=com_dropfiles&format=&task=frontfile.download&catid=284&id=1705&Itemid=1000000000000) (in Uzbek). Samarkand regional department of statistics. Archived from [the original](https://samstat.uz/files/284/Demografiya/1705/Hududlar-boyicha-shahar-va-qishloq-aholisi-soni.pdf) (PDF) on 2022-02-13.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** ["Samarkand"](https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/samarqand-i). *Encyclopaedia Iranica*. Retrieved 10 March 2026.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** ["Samarkand"](https://www.britannica.com/place/Samarkand-Uzbekistan). *Encyclopaedia Britannica*. Retrieved 10 March 2026.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** Frye, Richard N. (1996). *The Heritage of Central Asia*. Cambridge University Press.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-ReferenceC_8-0)** Guidebook of history of Samarkand", [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9943-01-139-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9943-01-139-7)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** Varadarajan, Tunku (24 October 2009). ["Metropolitan Glory"](https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704500604574483701746375742). *The Wall Street Journal*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-History_of_Samarkand_10-0)** ["History of Samarkand"](http://www.sezamtravel.com/en/Samarkand). Sezamtravel. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20131103035234/http://www.sezamtravel.com/en/Samarkand) from the original on 3 November 2013. Retrieved 1 November 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. ["Samarkand – Crossroad of Cultures"](https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/603/). *UNESCO World Heritage Centre*. Retrieved 2025-11-05.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** Энциклопедия туризма Кирилла и Мефодия. 2008.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** ["History of Samarkand"](https://www.advantour.com/uzbekistan/samarkand/history.htm). *Advantour*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180516174124/https://www.advantour.com/uzbekistan/samarkand/history.htm) from the original on 2018-05-16. Retrieved 2018-05-15.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** "The Persian-speaking cities of Bukhara and Samarkand, rightly considered by today’s Tajiks as the constituting the historical centres of Tajik civilization" Foltz, Richard. A History of the Tajiks: Iranians of the East. I.B. Tauris, 2019. p.9

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** D.I. Kertzer/D. Arel, [Census and identity](https://books.google.com/books?id=qMxbzF4NdFUC&pg=PA187) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20221117053532/https://books.google.com/books?id=qMxbzF4NdFUC&pg=PA187&dq=&hl=en) 2022-11-17 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), Cambridge University Press, 2001, pp. 186–188.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Room_16-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Room_16-1) Room, Adrian (2006). *Placenames of the World: Origins and Meanings of the Names for 6,600 Countries, Cities, Territories, Natural Features and Historic Sites* (2nd ed.). London: McFarland. p. 330. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7864-2248-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-2248-7). Samarkand City, southeastern Uzbekistan. The city here was already named *Marakanda*, when captured by Alexander the Great in 329 BCE. Its own name derives from the Sogdian words *samar*, "stone, rock", and *kand*, "fort, town".

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** Sachau, Edward C. Alberuni’s India: an Account of the Religion. Philosophy, Literature, Geography, Chronology, Astronomy, Customs, Laws and Astrology of India about AD 1030, vol. 1 London: KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRtJBNBR & CO. 1910. p.298.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** Krippes, Karl (1991). ["Sociolinguistic Notes on the Turcification of the Sogdians"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/41927772). *Central Asiatic Journal*. **35** (1/2): 67–80. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0008-9192](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0008-9192).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** [al-Kashghari, Mahmud](/source/Mahmud_al-Kashgari) (1074). [*Compendium of The Turkic Dialects*](https://archive.org/details/CompendiumOfTheTurkicDialectsPart1-MahmudAl-Kashghari/page/n283/mode/2up). Part 1. Translated by [Dankoff, Robert](/source/Robert_Dankoff); Kelly, James Michael. Harvard University Printing Office (published 1982). p. 270 – via [Archive.org](/source/Archive.org). sämiz känd meaning "Fat city (balda samina)" is called thus because of its great size; it is, in Persian, Samarqand.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** Ragagnin, Elisabetta (2020). ["About Marco Polo Samarkand"](https://web.archive.org/web/20240123015507/https://uzlc.navoiy-uni.uz/index.php/uzlangcult/article/view/41). *Uzbekistan: Language and Culture*. **3** (3). [Alisher Navo’i Tashkent State University of Uzbek Language and Literature](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alisher_Navo%E2%80%99i_Tashkent_State_University_of_Uzbek_Language_and_Literature&action=edit&redlink=1) [[uz](https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toshkent_davlat_o%CA%BBzbek_tili_va_adabiyoti_universiteti)]: 79–87. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2181-922X](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2181-922X). Archived from [the original](https://uzlc.navoiy-uni.uz/index.php/uzlangcult/article/view/41) on 2024-01-23. Retrieved 2024-01-23.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** ["SEMERKANT"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120117020102/http://www.antalya.bel.tr/UploadedDocuments/semerkant_t.pdf), antalya.bel.tr (archived), accessed 4 February 2026

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** Vladimir Babak, Demian Vaisman, Aryeh Wasserman, *Political organization in Central Asia and Azerbaijan: sources and documents*, p. 374

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** Hanks, Reuel R. (19 February 2024). [*Historical Dictionary of Uzbekistan*](https://books.google.com/books?id=eW31EAAAQBAJ&dq=samarkand+700+bce&pg=PA175). Bloomsbury Publishing PLC. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-5381-0229-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5381-0229-9).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** *Columbia-Lippincott Gazetteer* (New York: Columbia University Press, 1972 reprint) p. 1657

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Wood2002_25-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Wood2002_25-1) Wood, Frances (2002). *The Silk Road: Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia*. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** Shichkina, G.V. (1994). "Ancient Samarkand: Capital of Soghd". *Bulletin of the Asia Institute*. **8**: 83.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** Shichkina, G.V. (1994). "Ancient Samarkand: capital of Soghd". *Bulletin of the Asia Institute*. **8**: 86.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Dumper,_Stanley_2007_319_28-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Dumper,_Stanley_2007_319_28-1) Dumper, Stanley (2007). *Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia*. California: ABC-CLIO. pp. 319–320.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** Grenet Frantz, Regional interaction in Central Asia and northwest India in the Kidarite and Hephthalites periods in Indo-Iranian languages and peoples. Edited by Nicholas Sims-Williams. Oxford university press, 2003. Р.219–220

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** Buryakov Y.F. Iz istorii arkheologicheskikh rabot v zonakh oroshayemogo zemledeliya Uzbekistana // Arkheologicheskiye raboty na novostroykakh Uzbekistana. Tashkent, 1990. pp. 9–10.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** Etienne de la Vaissiere, Sogdian traders. A history. Translated by James Ward. Brill. Leiden. Boston, 2005, pp. 108–111.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** Baumer, Christoph (18 April 2018). [*History of Central Asia, The: 4-volume set*](https://books.google.com/books?id=DhiWDwAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA243). Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 243. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-83860-868-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-83860-868-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** Grenet, Frantz (2004). ["Maracanda/Samarkand, une métropole pré-mongole"](https://www.cairn.info/journal-annales-2004-5-page-1043.htm). *Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales*. **5/6**: Fig. B.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-34)** Bivar, A.D.H. [*Encyclopedia Iranica, Vol. XII, Fasc. 2*](https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hephthalites). London et al. pp. 198–201.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-35)** History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations, AD 250 to 750. Vol. 3. Unesco, 1996. p. 332

1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** Belenitskiy A.M., Bentovich I.B., Bolshakov O.G. Srednevekovyy gorod Sredney Azii. L., 1973.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** Sprishevskiy V.I. Pogrebeniye s konem serediny I tysyacheletiya n.e., obnaruzhennoye okolo observatorii Ulugbeka. // Tr. Muzeya istorii narodov Uzbekistana. T.1.- Tashkent, 1951.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-38)** Klyashtornyy S. G., Savinov D. G., Stepnyye imperii drevney Yevrazii. Sankt-Peterburg: Filologicheskiy fakul'tet SPbGU, 2005 god, s. 97

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** Masson M.Ye., Proiskhozhdeniye dvukh nestorianskikh namogilnykh galek Sredney Azii // Obshchestvennyye nauki v Uzbekistane, 1978, №10, p. 53.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-40)** Sims-Williams Nicholas, [A Christian sogdian polemic against the manichaens // Religious themes and texts of pre-Islamic Iran and Central Asia.](https://researchers.mq.edu.au/en/publications/a-christian-sogdian-polemic-against-the-manichaeans) Edited by Carlo G. Cereti, Mauro Maggi and Elio Provasi. Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, 2003, pp. 399–407

1. **[^](#cite_ref-41)** *Tadjikistan : au pays des fleuves d'or*. Paris: Musée Guimet. 2021. p. 152. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9461616272](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9461616272).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-42)** Dumper, Stanley (2007). *Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia*. California.{{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher))

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Wellhausen437438_43-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Wellhausen437438_43-1) [Wellhausen, J.](/source/Julius_Wellhausen) (1927). Weir, Margaret Graham (ed.). [*The Arab Kingdom and its Fall*](https://books.google.com/books?id=qxPKpCcVOdcC). University of Calcutta. pp. 437–438. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780415209045](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415209045). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190421054204/https://books.google.com/books?id=qxPKpCcVOdcC) from the original on 2019-04-21. Retrieved 2019-05-04. {{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#invalid_isbn_date))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-44)** [Whitfield, Susan](/source/Susan_Whitfield) (1999). *Life Along the Silk Road*. California: University of California Press. p. 33.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-45)** Bartold V. V., Abu Muslim//Akademik V. V. Bartol'd. Sochineniya. Tom VII. Moskva: Nauka, 1971

1. **[^](#cite_ref-46)** Quraishi, Silim "A survey of the development of papermaking in Islamic Countries", *Bookbinder*, 1989 (3): 29–36.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Bloom2001_47-0)** Bloom, Jonathan M. (2001). *Paper Before Print: The History and Impact of Paper in the Islamic World*. Yale University Press. pp. 42–45. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0300089554](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300089554).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-48)** Dumper, Stanley (2007). *Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia*. California. p. 320.{{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher))

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-ReferenceE_49-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-ReferenceE_49-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-ReferenceE_49-2) Kochnev B. D., Numizmaticheskaya istoriya Karakhanidskogo kaganata (991—1209 gg.). Moskva «Sofiya», 2006

1. **[^](#cite_ref-50)** Nemtseva, N.B., Shvab, IU. Ansambl Shah-i Zinda: istoriko-arkhitektymyi ocherk. Tashent: 1979.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-51)** Karev, Yury. Qarakhanid wall paintings in the citadel of Samarqand: First report and preliminary observations in Muqarnas 22 (2005): 45–84.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-52)** ["Samarkand Travel Guide"](https://caravanistan.com/uzbekistan/center/samarkand/). *Caravanistan*. Retrieved 2021-03-20.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Gernet1996_53-0)** Jacques Gernet (31 May 1996). [*A History of Chinese Civilization*](https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern). Cambridge University Press. pp. [377](https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern/page/377)–. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-49781-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-49781-7). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160615032106/https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern) from the original on 15 June 2016. Retrieved 25 January 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-54)** [*E.J.W. Gibb memorial series*](https://books.google.com/books?id=35pFAQAAIAAJ). 1928. p. 451.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-55)** E. Bretschneider (1888). "The Travels of Ch'ang Ch'un to the West, 1220–1223 recorded by his disciple Li Chi Ch'ang". [*Mediæval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources*](https://web.archive.org/web/20180430220305/http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/changchun.html). Barnes & Noble. pp. 37–108. Archived from [the original](https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/changchun.html) on 2018-04-30. Retrieved 2018-04-26.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-56)** Battutah, Ibn (2002). *The Travels of Ibn Battutah*. London: Picador. p. 143. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780330418799](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780330418799).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-57)** *Encyclopædia Britannica*, 15th Ed, p. 204

1. **[^](#cite_ref-58)** Malikov Azim, The cultural traditions of urban planning in Samarkand during the epoch of Timur. In: Baumer, C., Novák, M. and Rutishauser, S., Cultures in Contact. Central Asia as Focus of Trade, Cultural Exchange and Knowledge Transmission. Harrassowitz. 2022, p.343

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Marefat_1992_33–38_59-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Marefat_1992_33–38_59-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Marefat_1992_33–38_59-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Marefat_1992_33–38_59-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Marefat_1992_33–38_59-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Marefat_1992_33–38_59-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-Marefat_1992_33–38_59-6) Marefat, Roya (Summer 1992). "The Heavenly City of Samarkand". *The Wilson Quarterly*. **16** (3): 33–38. [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [40258334](https://www.jstor.org/stable/40258334).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-ReferenceB_60-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-ReferenceB_60-1) *Columbia-Lippincott Gazetteer*, p. 1657

1. **[^](#cite_ref-61)** Le Strange, Guy (trans) (1928). *Clavijo: Embassy to Tamburlaine 1403–1406*. London. p. 280.{{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-62)** ["Ulugh Beg – Biography"](https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Ulugh_Beg/). *Maths History*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-63)** Ulugh Beg. *Dictionary of Scientific Biography*.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-ReferenceF_64-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-ReferenceF_64-1) Mukminova R. G., K istorii agrarnykh otnosheniy v Uzbekistane XVI veke. Po materialam «Vakf-name». Tashkent. Nauka. 1966

1. **[^](#cite_ref-65)** Fazlallakh ibn Ruzbikhan Isfakhani. Mikhman-name-yi Bukhara (Zapiski bukharskogo gostya). M. Vostochnaya literatura. 1976, p. 3

1. **[^](#cite_ref-66)** B.V. Norik. Rol' shibanidskikh praviteley v literaturnoy zhizni Maverannakhra XVI veka. Sankt-Peterburg: Rakhmat-name, 2008. p. 233.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-67)** ["ZARAFSHON SUVAYIRGʻICH KOʻPRIGI"](https://uzsmart.uz/encyclopedia/encyclopedia/66708.html). *uzsmart.uz*. Retrieved 2023-11-14.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-68)** ["МОСТ ШЕЙБАНИ-ХАНА"](https://www.centralasia-travel.com/ru/countries/uzbekistan/places/most-sheybanixana). *www.centralasia-travel.com*. Retrieved 2023-11-14.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-69)** *Britannica*. 15th Ed, p. 204

1. **[^](#cite_ref-ReferenceA_70-0)** *Columbia-Lippincott Gazetteer*. p. 1657

1. **[^](#cite_ref-71)** Materialy po istorii Sredney i Tsentral'noy Azii X—XIX veka. Tashkent: Fan, 1988, рр. 270—271

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Soldat_72-0)** ["Советское Поле Славы"](https://web.archive.org/web/20200413043841/http://www.soldat.ru/search/f_glory/soldiers.html). *www.soldat.ru*. Archived from [the original](https://www.soldat.ru/search/f_glory/soldiers.html) on April 13, 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-BBC2017CentralAsians_73-0)** Rustam Qobil (2017-05-09). ["Why were 101 Uzbeks killed in the Netherlands in 1942?"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-39849088). BBC. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200330201803/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-39849088) from the original on 2020-03-30. Retrieved 2017-05-09.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-74)** Montgomery David. Samarkand taarikhi (History of Samarkand) by I.M.Muminov, The American historical review, volume 81, no.8 (October 1976), pp. 914–915

1. **[^](#cite_ref-75)** Istoriya Samarkanda v dvukh tomakh. Pod redaktsiyey I. Muminova. Tashkent, 1970

1. **[^](#cite_ref-76)** Montgomery David, Review of Samarkand taarikhi by I. M. Muminov et al. // The American historical review, volume 81, no. 4 (October 1976)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-77)** Shirinov T.SH., Isamiddinov M.KH. Arkheologiya drevnego Samarkanda. Tashkent, 2007

1. **[^](#cite_ref-78)** Malikov A.M. Istoriya Samarkanda (s drevnikh vremen do serediny XIV veka). Tom. 1. Tashkent: Paradigma, 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-79)** [Samarkand Marathon](https://worldsmarathons.com/marathon/samarkand-marathon).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-80)** ["Samarkand, Uzbekistan"](https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=82116). Earthobservatory.nasa.gov. 23 September 2013. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150917201736/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=82116) from the original on 2015-09-17. Retrieved 2014-08-23.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-81)** Samarkand.info. ["Weather in Samarkand"](http://www.samarkand.info/html/weather.html). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20090604132408/http://www.samarkand.info/html/weather.html) from the original on 2009-06-04. Retrieved 2009-06-11.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Pogoda_82-0)** ["Weather and Climate-The Climate of Samarkand"](http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/climate.php?id=38696) (in Russian). Weather and Climate. Retrieved 18 January 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-83)** ["Samarkand, Uzbekistan – Detailed climate information and monthly weather forecast"](https://www.weather-atlas.com/en/uzbekistan/samarkand-climate). Weather Atlas. Retrieved 1 August 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-84)** ["Climate & Weather Averages in Samarkand"](https://www.timeanddate.com/weather/uzbekistan/samarkand/climate). Time and Date. Retrieved 24 July 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-NOAA_85-0)** ["Samarkand Climate Normals 1991–2020"](https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/2.2/data/0-data/Region-2-WMO-Normals-9120/Uzbekistan/CSV/Samarkand_38696.csv). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved November 1, 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-86)** Akiner, Shirin; Djalili, Mohammad-Reza; Grare, Frederic (2013). Tajikistan: The Trials of Independence. Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-136-10490-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-10490-9) p. 78, "Bukhara and Samarkand, inhabited by a marked Tajik majority (...)"

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Lena_Jonson_2006._pg_108_87-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Lena_Jonson_2006._pg_108_87-1) Lena Jonson (1976) "Tajikistan in the New Central Asia", I.B.Tauris, p. 108: "According to official Uzbek statistics there are slightly over 1 million Tajiks in Uzbekistan or about 3% of the population. The unofficial figure is over 6 million Tajiks. They are concentrated in the Sukhandarya, Samarqand and Bukhara regions."

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-catoday.org_88-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-catoday.org_88-1) ["Узбекистан: Таджикский язык подавляется"](https://web.archive.org/web/20190322114708/http://catoday.org/tjru/11180-uzbekistan-tadzhikskiy-yazyk-podavlyaetsya). *catoday.org — ИА "Озодагон"*. Archived from [the original](http://catoday.org/tjru/11180-uzbekistan-tadzhikskiy-yazyk-podavlyaetsya) on 22 March 2019. Retrieved 22 March 2019.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-news.tj_89-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-news.tj_89-1) ["Таджики – иранцы Востока? Рецензия книги от Камолиддина Абдуллаева"](https://web.archive.org/web/20190327090939/https://news.tj/ru/news/opinion/20190318/tadzhiki-irantsi-vostoka-retsenziya-knigi-ot-kamoliddina-abdullaeva). *«ASIA-Plus» Media Group / Tajikistan — news.tj*. Archived from [the original](https://news.tj/ru/news/opinion/20190318/tadzhiki-irantsi-vostoka-retsenziya-knigi-ot-kamoliddina-abdullaeva) on 27 March 2019. Retrieved 22 March 2019.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Foltz_90-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Foltz_90-1) [Richard Foltz](/source/Richard_Foltz) (1996). "The Tajiks of Uzbekistan". *Central Asian Survey*. **15** (2): 213–216. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/02634939608400946](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02634939608400946).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-PB_91-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-PB_91-1) [Paul Bergne](/source/Paul_Bergne): *The Birth of Tajikistan. National Identity and the Origins of the Republic*. International Library of Central Asia Studies. [I.B. Tauris](/source/I.B._Tauris). 2007. Pg. 106

1. **[^](#cite_ref-92)** Frye, Richard N. (1996). [*The Heritage of Central Asia: From Antiquity to the Turkish Expansion*](https://archive.org/details/heritageofcentra00frye). Princeton University Press. Retrieved 10 March 2026.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-93)** Marushiakova; Popov, Vesselin (January 2014). [*Migrations and Identities of Central Asian 'Gypsies'*](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266387780). Asia Pacific Sociological Association (APSA) Conference "Transforming Societies: Conestations and Convergences in Asia and the Pacific". [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1057/ces.2008.3](https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fces.2008.3). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [154689140](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154689140). Retrieved 2022-02-28.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Karl_Cordell_1999._pg_201_94-0)** Karl Cordell, "Ethnicity and Democratisation in the New Europe", Routledge, 1998. p. 201: "Consequently, the number of citizens who regard themselves as Tajiks is difficult to determine. Tajikis within and outside of the republic, Samarkand State University (SamGU) academic and international commentators suggest that there may be between six and seven million Tajiks in Uzbekistan, constituting 30% of the republic's 22 million population, rather than the official figure of 4.7% (Foltz 1996: 213; Carlisle 1995: 88).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-lingvomania.info_95-0)** ["Статус таджикского языка в Узбекистане"](https://web.archive.org/web/20161029222029/http://lingvomania.info/2016/status-tadzhikskogo-yazyka-v-uzbekistane.html). *Лингвомания.info — lingvomania.info*. Archived from [the original](http://lingvomania.info/2016/status-tadzhikskogo-yazyka-v-uzbekistane.html) on 29 October 2016. Retrieved 22 March 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-96)** ["Есть ли шансы на выживание таджикского языка в Узбекистане — эксперты"](https://web.archive.org/web/20190322113157/http://www.profi-forex.org/novosti-mira/novosti-sng/uzbekistan/entry1008185843.html). *"Биржевой лидер" — pfori-forex.org*. Archived from [the original](http://www.profi-forex.org/novosti-mira/novosti-sng/uzbekistan/entry1008185843.html) on 22 March 2019. Retrieved 22 March 2019.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Bloomsbury_Publishing_97-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Bloomsbury_Publishing_97-1) [Foltz, Richard](/source/Richard_Foltz) (2023). *A History of the Tajiks: Iranians of the East, 2nd edition*. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 186. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7556-4964-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7556-4964-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-98)** Malikov Azim, Sacred lineages of Samarqand: history and identity in Anthropology of the Middle East, Volume 15, Issue 1, Summer 2020, р.36

1. **[^](#cite_ref-99)** [https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ijma/article/view/218533](https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ijma/article/view/218533) Malikov A. and Djuraeva D. 2021. Women, Islam, and politics in Samarkand (1991–2021), International Journal of Modern Anthropology. 2 (16): 561

1. **[^](#cite_ref-100)** ["Шииты в Узбекистане"](https://web.archive.org/web/20171003214455/http://www.islamsng.com/uzb/pastfuture/5570). *www.islamsng.com*. Archived from [the original](http://www.islamsng.com/uzb/pastfuture/5570) on October 3, 2017. Retrieved April 3, 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-101)** ["Ташкент озабочен делами шиитов"](https://web.archive.org/web/20190403133434/http://www.dn.kz/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1545:2013-11-29-08-08-10&catid=2:2011-10-23-11-43-45&Itemid=17). *www.dn.kz*. Archived from [the original](http://www.dn.kz/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1545:2013-11-29-08-08-10&catid=2:2011-10-23-11-43-45&Itemid=17) on 2019-04-03. Retrieved April 3, 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-102)** ["Узбекистан: Иранцы-шииты сталкиваются c проблемами с правоохранительными органами"](https://web.archive.org/web/20170905092804/http://catoday.org/centrasia/uzbekistan-irancy-shiity-stalkivayutsya-c-problemami-s-pravoohranitelnymi-organami-iran). *catoday.org*. Archived from [the original](http://catoday.org/centrasia/uzbekistan-irancy-shiity-stalkivayutsya-c-problemami-s-pravoohranitelnymi-organami-iran) on September 5, 2017. Retrieved April 3, 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-103)** Dickens, Mark "Nestorian Christianity in Central Asia. p. 17

1. **[^](#cite_ref-104)** В. А. Нильсен. У истоков современного градостроительства Узбекистана (ΧΙΧ — начало ΧΧ веков). —Ташкент: Издательство литературы и искусства имени Гафура Гуляма, 1988. 208 с.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-105)** *Голенберг В. А.* «Старинные храмы туркестанского края». Ташкент 2011 год

1. **[^](#cite_ref-106)** Католичество в Узбекистане. Ташкент, 1990.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-107)** Armenians. Ethnic atlas of Uzbekistan, 2000.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-108)** Назарьян Р.Г. Армяне Самарканда. Москва. 2007

1. **[^](#cite_ref-109)** Бабина Ю. Ё. Новые христианские течения и страны мира. Фолкв, 1995.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-110)** [Eckstein, Zvi](/source/Zvi_Eckstein); Botticini, Maristella (2012). [*The Chosen Few: How Education Shaped Jewish History, 70-1492*](https://muse.jhu.edu/book/30677/). [Princeton University Press](/source/Princeton_University_Press). p. 284. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781400842483](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781400842483).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-111)** ["Silk Road Samarkand Tourist Complex"](https://www.advantour.com/uzbekistan/samarkand/silk-road-samarkand.htm). *Advantour*. Retrieved 2023-01-20.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-112)** ["Eternal City"](https://www.silkroad-samarkand.com/resort/eternal-city/). *www.silkroad-samarkand.com*. Retrieved 2023-01-20.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-113)** Liu, Xinru (2010). *The Silk Road in world history*. New York: Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-516174-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-516174-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-114)** Cohn-Wiener, Ernst (June 1935). "An Unknown Timurid Building". *The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs*. **66** (387): 272–273+277. [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [866154](https://www.jstor.org/stable/866154).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:1_115-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:1_115-1) ["Samarkand – Crossroad of Cultures"](https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/603/). *UNESCO World Heritage Centre*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180516103352/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/603/) from the original on 2018-05-16. Retrieved 2018-05-15.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-116)** ["Textiles in "The world of Kubilai Khan" @ Metropolitan Museum, New York"](https://web.archive.org/web/20191118044543/http://www.alaintruong.com/archives/2010/12/25/19964881.html). *Alain.R.Truong*. 25 December 2010. Archived from [the original](http://www.alaintruong.com/archives/2010/12/25/19964881.html) on 2019-11-18. Retrieved 2020-05-23.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-117)** ["Superfosfatnyy · Uzbekistan"](https://www.google.com/maps/place/Superfosfatnyy,+Uzbekistan/@39.6761233,66.9140197,28690m/data=!3m1!1e3!4m5!3m4!1s0x3f4d1af650279a57:0x4ff7249d3d5dafb8!8m2!3d39.67305!4d66.853607). *Superfosfatnyy · Uzbekistan*.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-samarkand_118-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-samarkand_118-1) ["Самарканд и Валенсия станут городами-побратимами"](https://podrobno.uz/cat/podrobno/samarkand-i-valensiya-stanut-gorodami-pobratimami/). *podrobno.uz* (in Russian). 2018-01-27. Retrieved 2020-11-15.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-119)** ["A brotherhood agreement has been signed between the cities of Nara and Samarkand"](https://samarkand.uz/en/press/news/nara-va-samarqand-shaharlari-ortasida-birodarlik-bitimi-imzolandi).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-120)** ["Внешнеэкономическое сотрудничество"](https://web.archive.org/web/20201028022318/http://bobruisk.by/economics/part/?curPos=2). *bobruisk.by* (in Russian). Babruysk. Archived from [the original](http://bobruisk.by/economics/part/?curPos=2) on 2020-10-28. Retrieved 2020-11-15.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-121)** Burton, Richard (2011). Mondschein, Ken (ed.). *The Arabian Nights*. Canterbury Classics. p. 1. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-60710-309-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60710-309-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-122)** ["Samarkand and Other Markets I Have Known | poetry by Soyinka | Britannica"](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Samarkand-and-Other-Markets-I-Have-Known). *Encyclopædia Britannica*. Retrieved 2023-09-17.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-123)** Newman, Kim (2008-12-06). ["The coldest warriors"](https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/dec/06/sergei-lukyanenko-russia-novel-fiction). *The Guardian*. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0261-3077](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077). Retrieved 2025-12-30. Here we also get a trip to Scotland to find a real vampire lurking in the Edinburgh Dungeon tourist attraction, offering a foreign view of the familiar, but the middle segment, set in Samarkand, is more striking

1. **[^](#cite_ref-124)** Lukyanenko, Sergei (2008). [*The Last Watch*](https://books.google.com/books?id=2PwoAQAAIAAJ). William Heinemann. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-434-01737-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-434-01737-9).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-125)** ["Review 137: The Last Watch"](https://thelablib.org/2011/08/25/review-137-the-last-watch/). *The Labyrinth Library*. 2011-08-24. Retrieved 2025-12-30. Anton not only has to deal with the Watches of Samarkand – which are far less efficient and well-staffed as others in Europe – but there's still someone out to kill him

1. **[^](#cite_ref-126)** Recommendation, New Book (2024-10-07). ["Summary of 'The Last Watch' by Sergei Lukyanenko: A Detailed Synopsis"](https://newbookrecommendation.com/summary-of-the-last-watch-by-sergei-lukyanenko-a-detailed-synopsis-2/). *New Book Recommendation*. Retrieved 2025-12-30. The societal structures in Samarkand differ dramatically from Moscow's. Anton's relationship with the local Watches showcases the common struggles they all face

1. **[^](#cite_ref-127)** Floyd, Nigel. ["Day Watch"](http://web.archive.org/web/20240617075853/https://www.timeout.com/movies/day-watch-1). *Time Out Worldwide*. Archived from [the original](https://www.timeout.com/movies/day-watch-1) on 2024-06-17. Retrieved 2025-12-30. The opening scenes whisk us back to fourteenth-century Samarkand, where Mongol warlord Tamerlane acquires the 'Chalk of Destiny'

1. **[^](#cite_ref-128)** ["Day Watch (2006)"](https://www.moriareviews.com/horror/day-watch-2006.htm). Anton travels to Samarkand on a crusade to find the legendary Chalk of Fate from the tomb of the great warrior Tamerlane, with which one is reputed to be able to rewrite their own past

1. **[^](#cite_ref-129)** ["Day Watch"](https://www.straight.com/article-94192/day-watch). *The Georgia Straight*. 2007-06-06. Retrieved 2025-12-30.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-130)** [*Where was the movie Day Watch filmed: | Filming locations, countries, coordinates, and map*](https://wherefilmed.org/en/day-watch-2006/). Retrieved 2025-12-30 – via wherefilmed.org.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-131)** ["Day Watch"](https://reverseshot.org/reviews/entry/501/day_watch). *Reverse Shot*. Retrieved 2025-12-30. the 14th-century nomadic warrior Tamerlane invades a fortress in Samarkand in search of the "chalk of fate," which he successfully swipes from a gold-dusted, Buddha-shaped man named Zoar, who is alive and well and running a noodle shop in Moscow six centuries later

## General and cited references

- Azim Malikov, "Cult of saints and shrines in the Samarqand province of Uzbekistan". *International Journal of Modern Anthropology*. No. 4. 2010, pp. 116–123.

- Azim Malikov, "The politics of memory in Samarkand in post-Soviet period". *International Journal of Modern Anthropology*. (2018) Vol. 2. Issue No. 11. pp. 127–145.

- Azim Malikov, "Sacred lineages of Samarqand: history and identity". *Anthropology of the Middle East*, Volume 15, Issue 1, Summer 2020, рp. 34–49.

- Alexander Morrison, *Russian Rule in Samarkand 1868–1910: A Comparison with British India* (Oxford, OUP, 2008) (Oxford Historical Monographs).

## External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to [Samarkand](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Samarkand).

Wikivoyage has a travel guide for ***[Samarkand](https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Samarkand#Q5753)***.

- Forbes, Andrew, & Henley, David: *[Timur's Legacy: The Architecture of Bukhara and Samarkand](http://www.cpamedia.com/article.php?pg=archive&acid=120613150427&aiid=120613151433)* (CPA Media).

- [Samarkand – Silk Road Seattle Project](http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/cities/uz/samarkand/samarkand.html), University of Washington

- [The history of Samarkand](https://web.archive.org/web/20070311131202/http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/sup/Samarqand.html), according to Columbia University's Encyclopædia Iranica (archived 11 March 2007)

- [Samarkand – Crossroad of Cultures](https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/603). UNESCO World Heritage Committee documentation on Samarkand.

- [Kropotkin, Peter Alexeivitch](/source/Peter_Kropotkin); Bealby, John Thomas (1911). ["Samarkand (city)"](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Samarkand_(city)). *[Encyclopædia Britannica](/source/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition)*. Vol. 24 (11th ed.). pp. 112–113.

- [GCatholic – former Latin Catholic bishopric](http://www.gcatholic.org/dioceses/former/sama1.htm)

- [Samarkand: Photos, History, Sights](http://www.people-travels.com/uzbekistan-cities/samarkand/), Useful information for travelers

- [About Samarkand in Uzbekistan Latest](https://web.archive.org/web/20180818044736/http://samarkand.com/samarkand/about-samarkand-uzbekistan/) (archived 18 August 2018)

- [Tilla-Kori Madrasa was included in the UNESCO World Heritage List](https://damda.uz/en/blog/medrese-tillya-kori) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190702062426/https://damda.uz/en/blog/medrese-tillya-kori) 2019-07-02 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)

Preceded by - Capital of the Samanid Empire 819–892 Succeeded by Bukhara Preceded by Gurganj Capital of Khwarazmian Empire 1212–1220 Succeeded by Ghazna Preceded by - Capital of the Timurid Empire 1370–1405 Succeeded by Herat Preceded by Bukhara Capital of the Uzbek SSR 1925–1930 Succeeded by Tashkent

v t e Samarkand Region Capital: Samarkand Districts Kattakurgan City Samarkand City Bulungʻur Ishtixon Jomboy Kattakurgan Narpay Nurobod Oqdaryo Pastdargʻom Paxtachi Payariq Qoʻshrabot Samarkand Toyloq Urgut Cities Bulungʻur Chelak Ishtixon Jomboy Juma Kattakurgan Nurobod Oqtosh Payariq Samarkand Urgut Towns Charxin Dahbed Farxod Gulobod Ingichka Kimyogarlar Loyish Mirbozor Mitan Payshanba Qoʻshrabot Suv hovuzi Toyloq Xishrav Ziyovuddin

v t e Cities of Uzbekistan Andijan Angren Bukhara Chirchiq Fergana Jizzakh Kokand Margilan Namangan Navoiy Nukus Olmaliq Qarshi Samarkand Shahrisabz Tashkent Termez Urgench

v t e Tourist attractions in Uzbekistan World Heritage Sites Listed Cold Winter Deserts of Turan Historic Centre of Bukhara Historic Centre of Shakhrisyabz Itchan Kala Samarkand – Crossroads of Cultures Silk Roads: Zarafshan-Karakum Corridor Western Tien-Shan Tentative list Abdulkhan Bandi Dam Akhsikath Ak Astana-Baba Ancient Termiz Ancient Pap Andijan Arab-Ata Mausoleum Bahoutdin Architectural Complex Boysun Chashma-Ayub Mausoleum Chor-Bakr Desert Castles of Ancient Khorezm Hisor Mountains Historic Centre of Qoqon Kanka Khanbandi Khazarasp Minaret in Vobkent Mir-Sayid Bakhrom Mausoleum Nurota Mountains Poykent Rabati Malik Caravanserai Sarmishsay petroglyphs Shahrukhiya Sheikh Mukhtar-Vali Complex Shokhimardon Mountains Silk Road Sites in Uzbekistan Silk Roads: Fergana-Syrdarya Corridor Siypantosh Rock Paintings Tashkent makhallas Tashkent Modernist Architecture Varakhsha Zomin Mountains Zarautsoy Rock Paintings Cultural Archaeological sites Afrasiyab Akchakhan-Kala Akhsikath Ancient Pap Ayaz-Kala Balalyk Tepe Burchmullo Dalverzin Tepe Fayaz Tepe Guldursun-Kala Hazorasp Itchan Kala Kafir-kala Kara Tepe Khalchayan Khiva Koi Krylgan Kala Kyzyl-Kala Obi-Rakhmat Grotto Orlat plaques Poykent Sarmishsay Shahrukhiya Siypantosh Rock Paintings Tavka Kurgan Toprak-Kala Zarautsoy Rock Paintings Complexes Bahoutdin Architectural Complex Lab-i Hauz Po-i-Kalyan Registan Forts Ark of Bukhara Urda fortress Madrasas Kukeldash Madrasa The Madrasa of Abulkosim Nadir Devanbegi Madrasah Mir-i Arab Madrasa Sherdar Madrasa Tilakari Madrasa Ulugh Beg Madrasa Saroyi Tash Madrasah Mausoleums Ak Astana-Baba Chashma-Ayub Mausoleum Chor-Bakr Gur-e-Amir Mausoleum of Sheikh Zaynudin Mir-Sayid Bakhrom Mausoleum Saif ed-Din Bokharzi & Bayan-Quli Khan Mausoleums Samanid Mausoleum Sayyed Bahram Mausoleum Shah-i-Zinda Sheikh Mukhtar-Vali Complex Sheihantaur Sultan Saodat Museums Afrasiab Museum of Samarkand Amir Timur Museum Archaeological Museum of Termez Art Gallery of Uzbekistan Bukhara State Architectural Art Museum-Preserve Memorial house museum of Tamara Khanum Museum Afshona Museum of Arts of Uzbekistan The Museum of Communication History in Uzbekistan Museum of Geology The Museum of Health Care of Uzbekistan Museum of Olympic Glory Museum of Victims of Political Repression in Tashkent Nukus Museum of Art Shahrisabz Museum of History and Material Culture State Museum of Culture History of Uzbekistan (Samarkand) State Museum of History of Uzbekistan State Museum of Nature of Uzbekistan Tashkent Museum of Railway Techniques Tashkent Planetarium Tashkent Polytechnical Museum The Alisher Navoi State Museum of Literature Ulugh Beg Observatory Places of worship Ak Mosque Baland Mosque Bibi-Khanym Mosque Bolo Haouz Mosque Cathedral of the Dormition of the Mother of God Chor Minor Dzhuma Mosque Kalân Mosque Kalyan minaret Khonakhan Mosque Magok-i-Attari Mosque Magok-i-Kurpa Mosque Mosque of Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani Sacred Heart Cathedral St. John the Baptist Church Theaters Navoi Theater Peoples' Friendship Palace Others Khanqah of Nodir Devonbegi Monument to Nizami Ganjavi in Tashkent Mustaqillik Maydoni Rabati Malik Siyob Bazaar Square of Martyrs in Uzbekistan Tashkent Tower Natural Lakes Aydar Lake Lake Charvak National parks Chatkalskiy State Nature Reserve Zaamin National Park

v t e Iranian architecture Periods Pre-Islamic Achaemenid Parthian style Sasanian Islamic Early Islamic Seljuk Ilkhanid Timurid Safavid Types Bazaars Caravanserais Khaneqah Mosques Takyeh Elements Ab anbar Andaruni Ayeneh-kari Biruni Burj Chahartaq Dalan e Vorudi Gonbad Hashti Howz Imamzadeh Iwan Kariz Kucheh Panjdari Persian Garden (hayāt) Qanat Sahn Shabestan Talar Windcatchers Yakhchāl Traditional cities Amol Andijan Baku Bam Bukhara Ctesiphon Derbent Ganja Gur-e-Amir Hatra Herat Isfahan Kashan Kashmar Khiva Khorramabad Mashhad Merv Nakhchivan Nishapur Persepolis Qazvin Qom Samarkand Shahrisabz Shiraz Susa Tabriz Takht-e Soleymān Tehran Yazd Theory and analysis Islamic architecture Traditional Persian residential architecture Traditional water sources of Persian antiquity Lists Architects of Iran Args, castles, and ghal'ehs List of ab anbars of Qazvin List of mosques List of ziyarat-gahs

Authority control databases International VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Czech Republic Spain Israel Croatia Geographic Pleiades Other IdRef İslâm Ansiklopedisi Kulturenvanteri monument Yale LUX

---
Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Samarkand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarkand) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarkand?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.