# Sacred language
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{{Short description|Language that is cultivated for religious reasons}}
{{redirect|Holy Language|the language so called by John Dee|Enochian|the concept of a divine language|Divine language}}
[[File:Devimahatmya Sanskrit MS Nepal 11c.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|The oldest surviving manuscript in the sacred [Sanskrit](/source/Sanskrit) language: [Devi Māhātmya](/source/Devi_Mahatmya), [on palm-leaf](/source/Palm-leaf_manuscript), in the Nepalese [Bhujimol script](/source/Bhujimol_script) 11th century.]]
{{Anthropology of religion}}
A '''sacred language''', '''liturgical language, lingua sacra,''' or '''holy language''' is a [language](/source/language) that is [cultivated](/source/literary_language) and used primarily for [religious](/source/religion) reasons (like [church service](/source/church_service)) by people who speak another, primary language in their daily lives.
Some religions, or parts of them, regard the language of their [sacred texts](/source/sacred_texts) as in itself sacred. These include [Ecclesiastical Latin](/source/Ecclesiastical_Latin) in [Roman Catholicism](/source/Catholic_Church), [Hebrew](/source/Hebrew_language) in [Judaism](/source/Judaism), [Arabic](/source/Arabic) in [Islam](/source/Islam), [Avestan](/source/Avestan) in [Zoroastrianism](/source/Zoroastrianism), [Sanskrit](/source/Sanskrit) and [Tamil](/source/Tamil_language) in [Hinduism](/source/Hinduism), and [Meitei](/source/Meitei_language) in [Sanamahism](/source/Sanamahism). By contrast [Buddhism](/source/Buddhism) and [Christian denominations](/source/Christianity) outside of Catholicism do not generally regard their sacred languages as sacred in themselves.
==Concept==
{{More citations needed section|date=August 2024}}
A sacred language is often the language which was spoken and written in the society in which a religion's sacred texts were first set down; these texts thereafter become fixed and holy, remaining frozen and immune to later [linguistic](/source/Linguistics) developments.[{{cite book |last1=Anttonen |first1=Veikko |title=The notion of "sacred" in language, history, culture and cognition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HPwYBwAAQBAJ&dq=sacred+language+become+fixed+and+holy&pg=PA206 |access-date=August 3, 2024 |date=2008|publisher=Cambridge Scholars |isbn=978-1-4438-0876-7 }}][{{cite web |last1=Saeidi |first1=Massoud Tossi |title=Religious language as natural-sacred language |url=https://dspace.spbu.ru/bitstream/11701/33044/1/176-190.pdf |website=Cyberleninka |access-date=August 3, 2024}}][{{cite journal |last1=Millard |first1=Alan |title=Sacred Languages and Sacred Texts. |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/240586421 |website=Research Gate |publisher=The Journal of Theological Studies 52(1):124-129 |access-date=August 3, 2024 |doi=10.1093/jts/52.1.124 |date=2001}}][{{cite book |last1=Bennet |first1=Brian P. |title=The Routledge Handbook of Language and Religion |chapter=Sacred Languages |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003301271-4/sacred-languages-brian-bennett |website=Taylor Francis |access-date=August 3, 2024 |date=2023|pages=25–38 |doi=10.4324/9781003301271-4 |isbn=978-1-003-30127-1 }}] (An exception to this is [Lucumí](/source/Lucum%C3%AD_language), a ritual lexicon of the Cuban strain of the [Santería](/source/Santer%C3%ADa) religion, with no standardized [form](/source/Logical_form_(linguistics)).)
Once a language becomes associated with religious worship, its believers may ascribe virtues to the language of worship that they would not give to their native tongues.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}} In the case of sacred texts, there is a fear of losing authenticity and accuracy by a translation or re-translation, and difficulties in achieving acceptance for a new version of a text. A sacred language is typically vested with a solemnity and dignity that the vernacular lacks. Consequently, the training of [clergy](/source/clergy) in the use of a sacred language becomes an important cultural investment, and their use of the tongue is perceived to give them access to a body of knowledge that untrained [laypeople](/source/Laity) cannot (or should not) access.
Because sacred languages are ascribed with virtues that the vernacular is not seen to have,[{{Cite book|title=The Heart of Buddha's Teachings|last=Hahn|first=Thich Nhat|publisher=Harmony|year=2015|pages=16}}]
[Theravada](/source/Theravada) Buddhism uses Pali as its main liturgical language and prefers that scripture be studied in the original Pali.{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}} Pali is derived from [Sanskrit](/source/Sanskrit).[{{cite book| last = Norman | first = Kenneth Roy | author-link = K. R. Norman | title = Pali Literature | publisher = Otto Harrassowitz | date = 1983 | location = Wiesbaden | pages = 2{{ndash}}3 | language = en |isbn = 3-447-02285-X}}] In Thailand Pali is transliterated into the [Thai alphabet](/source/Thai_alphabet),{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}} resulting in a Thai pronunciation of the Pali language. Something similar also happened in Myanmar, where Pali is also transliterated into the [Burmese alphabet](/source/Burmese_alphabet), resulting in a Burmese pronunciation of Pali.
[Mahayana](/source/Mahayana) Buddhism, now only followed by a small minority in South Asia, makes little use of its original language, Sanskrit, mostly using versions of the local language. In East Asia, [Classical Chinese](/source/Classical_Chinese) is mainly used.{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}} In Japan, texts are written in [Chinese characters](/source/Kanji) and read out or recited with the [Japanese pronunciations](/source/Kanji) of their constituent characters.[{{citation|editor-last=Buswell|editor-first=Robert E.|title=Encyclopedia of Buddhism|volume=1|year=2003|page=137|location=London|publisher=Macmillan}}.]
In [Vajrayana](/source/Vajrayana) Buddhism, [Tibetan Buddhism](/source/Tibetan_Buddhism) is the main surviving school, and [Classical Tibetan](/source/Classical_Tibetan) is the main language used for study,[{{Cite web|title=What is Tibetan Buddhism?|url=http://gothenburg.chineseconsulate.org/eng/zt/xzwt/t218250.htm|website=Consulate-General of the People's Republic of China in Gothenburg|access-date=2020-05-22}}] although the Tibetan Buddhist canon was also translated into other languages, such as [Mongolian](/source/Mongolian_language) and [Manchu](/source/Manchu_language).[Orzech, Charles D. (general editor), 2011. ''Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras in East Asia.'' Brill, p. 540.] Many items of [Sanskrit Buddhist literature](/source/Sanskrit_Buddhist_literature) have been preserved because they were exported to Tibet, with copies of unknown ancient Sanskrit texts surfacing in Tibet as recently as 2003.[{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/neighbours/story/20170612-sanskrit-tibet-chinese-scholars-buddhism-986510-2017-06-03|title = The lost Sanskrit treasures of Tibet| date=3 June 2017 }}] Sanskrit was valued in Tibet as the elegant language of the gods.[{{Cite journal|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43299940|jstor=43299940|title=Sanskrit in Tibetan Literature|last1=Lama|first1=His Holiness the Fourteenth Dalai|journal=The Tibet Journal|year=1979|volume=4|issue=2|pages=3–5}}] Although in Tibetan Buddhist [deity yoga](/source/deity_yoga) the rest of the [sadhana](/source/sadhana) is generally recited in Tibetan, the [mantra](/source/mantra) portion of the practice is usually retained in its original Sanskrit.[{{Cite web|url=https://fpmt.org/education/teachings/texts/mantras/|title=Mantras – FPMT|date=27 April 2017}}]
In Nepal, the [Newar Buddhist](/source/Newar_Buddhism) form of Vajrayana is a storehouse of ancient Sanskrit [Buddhist texts](/source/Buddhist_texts), many of which are now only extant in [Nepal](/source/Nepal).[{{cite book |last= Gutschow |first= Niels |title= Architecture of the Newars: A History of Building Typologies and Details in Nepal |date= November 2011 |publisher= Serindia Publications |location= Chicago |isbn=978-1-932476-54-5 |page= 707}}] Whatever language is used, [Judith Simmer-Brown](/source/Judith_Simmer-Brown) explains that a [tantric](/source/tantra) Vajrayana text is often written in an obscure [twilight language](/source/twilight_language) so that it cannot be understood by anyone without the verbal explanation of a [qualified teacher](/source/guru).[
{{cite book |author-link=Judith Simmer-Brown |last=Simmer-Brown |first=Judith |year=2002 |title=Dakini's Warm Breath: The Feminine Principle in Tibetan Buddhism |location=Boston, Massachusetts |publisher=Shambhala Publications|page=169|isbn=978-1-57062-920-4}}]
[Old Tamil](/source/Old_Tamil) was used for [Sangam](/source/Sangam_literature) epics of [Buddhist](/source/Buddhism) and [Jain](/source/Jainism) philosophy.[{{cite book |author=Cornelius Crowley, Geetha Ganapathy-Doré, Michel Naumann|year=2017|title=Heritage and Ruptures in Indian Literature, Culture and Cinema|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|isbn=978-1-4438-9887-4}}]
==Christianity==
[[File:US Navy 040411-N-1290G-005 Navy Chaplain Milton Gianulis conducts an Easter morning Orthodox Liturgy candlelight service aboard USS Harry S. Truman (CVN 75).jpg|thumb|[Eastern Orthodox liturgy](/source/Eastern_Orthodox_liturgy) in the USA]]
Christian rites, rituals, and ceremonies are not celebrated in one single sacred language. Most churches which [trace their origin to the Apostles](/source/Apostolic_succession) continue to use the [standard language](/source/standard_language)s of the first few centuries AD. Many Christian churches make a distinction between a sacred language, a liturgical language, and a vernacular language. The three most important languages in the [early Christian era](/source/Early_Christianity) were [Latin](/source/Latin_language), [Greek](/source/Greek_language), and [Syriac](/source/Syriac_language) (a dialect of [Aramaic](/source/Aramaic)).[{{cite book|title=Paradise and Paradigm: Key Symbols in Persian Christianity and the Baha'i Faith|first=Christopher|last=Buck|year= 1999| isbn=9780791440629| page =6|publisher= State University of New York Press |quote=}}][{{cite book|title=Saving Paradise: How Christianity Traded Love of this World for Crucifixion and Empire|first=Rita |last=Nakashima Brock|year= 2008| isbn=9780807067505| page =446|publisher= Beacon Press|quote= the ancient church had three important languages: Greek, Latin, and Syriac.}}][{{cite book|title=The Rowman & Littlefield Handbook of Christianity in the Middle East|first= Mark |last=A. Lamport|year= 2020| isbn=9780807067505| page =135|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|quote= the ancient church had three important languages: Greek, Latin, and Syriac.}}]
The [Gospel of John](/source/Gospel_of_John) notes that the phrase "[Jesus, King of the Jews](/source/Jesus%2C_King_of_the_Jews)" was [inscribed](/source/Titulus_Crucis) upon the [cross of Christ](/source/True_Cross) in three different languages, thereby sanctifying them as the first languages to proclaim his divinity. These are:
* [Greek](/source/Koine_Greek), the original language of the [New Testament](/source/New_Testament), as well as the [Septuagint](/source/Septuagint) (a pre-Christian translation of the [Hebrew Bible](/source/Hebrew_Bible)). This was the [lingua franca](/source/lingua_franca) of much of the contemporary Levant.
* [Hebrew](/source/Hebrew_language), the dominant language of the [Old Testament](/source/Old_Testament) (Hebrew Bible). This was the language commonly used among most Jews in the area.{{Citation needed|date=January 2026|reason=Questionable claim that Hebrew was the common language of Jerusalem in the 1st century.}}
* [Latin](/source/Latin), the language of the [Roman Empire](/source/Roman_Empire), which soon became an important language of the Christian Church, especially in the western provinces of the Roman Empire as well as being the language of the "[First Among Equals](/source/Primus_inter_pares)", the [Pope](/source/Pope), in the Christian [Pentarchy](/source/Pentarchy).
Liturgical languages are those which hold precedence within liturgy due to tradition and dispensation. Many of these languages have evolved from languages which were at one point vernacular, while some are intentional constructions by ecclesial authorities. These include:
* [Ecclesiastical Latin](/source/Ecclesiastical_Latin) in the [Latin liturgical rites](/source/Latin_liturgical_rites) of the [Catholic Church](/source/Catholic_Church).
* ([Old](/source/Old_Church_Slavonic)) [Church Slavonic](/source/Church_Slavonic) in several of the [autocephalous](/source/Autocephaly) [Eastern Orthodox Churches](/source/Eastern_Orthodox_Churches) and ''[sui iuris](/source/sui_iuris)'' [Eastern Catholic Churches](/source/Eastern_Catholic_Churches)
* [Koine Greek](/source/Koine_Greek) as well as the liturgical language of the [Greek Orthodox Church](/source/Greek_Orthodox_Church) and the [Greek Catholic Church](/source/Melkite_Greek_Catholic_Church).
* [Old Georgian](/source/Old_Georgian) in the [Georgian Orthodox Church](/source/Georgian_Orthodox_Church) and the [Georgian Byzantine-Rite Catholic Church](/source/Georgian_Byzantine-Rite_Catholics).
* [Classical Armenian](/source/Classical_Armenian) in the [Armenian Apostolic Church](/source/Armenian_Apostolic_Church) and the [Armenian Catholic Church](/source/Armenian_Catholic_Church).
* [Coptic](/source/Coptic_language) in the [Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria](/source/Coptic_Orthodox_Church_of_Alexandria) and [Coptic Catholic Church](/source/Coptic_Catholic_Church).
* [Geʽez](/source/Ge%CA%BDez) in the [Ethiopian Orthodox Church](/source/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church), [Eritrean Orthodox Church](/source/Eritrean_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church), [Ethiopian Catholic Church](/source/Ethiopian_Catholic_Church) and [Eritrean Catholic Church](/source/Eritrean_Catholic_Church).
* [Syriac](/source/Syriac_language) in [Syriac Christianity](/source/Syriac_Christianity) represented by the [Syriac Orthodox Church](/source/Syriac_Orthodox_Church), [Church of the East](/source/Church_of_the_East), [Chaldean Catholic Church](/source/Chaldean_Catholic_Church), [Syriac Catholic Church](/source/Syriac_Catholic_Church), [Maronite Church](/source/Maronite_Church) and [Saint Thomas Christian Churches](/source/Saint_Thomas_Christian_Churches).
The extensive use of Greek in the Roman Liturgy has continued, in theory; it was used extensively on a regular basis during the [Papal Mass](/source/Papal_Mass), which has not been celebrated for some time. By the reign of [Pope Damasus I](/source/Pope_Damasus_I), the continuous use of Greek in the Roman Liturgy had come to be replaced in part by Latin. Gradually, the Roman Liturgy took on more and more Latin until, generally, only a few words of [Hebrew](/source/Hebrew) (e.g. ''Dominus Deus '''sabaoth''''') and Greek (e.g. '''''Kyrie eleison''''') remained. The adoption of Latin was further fostered when the [Vetus Latina](/source/Vetus_Latina) (old Latin) version of the Bible was edited and parts retranslated from the original Hebrew and Greek by [Saint Jerome](/source/Saint_Jerome) in his [Vulgate](/source/Vulgate). Latin continued as the western Church's language of liturgy and communication.{{Citation needed|date=May 2026}}
In the mid-16th century the [Council of Trent](/source/Council_of_Trent) rejected a proposal to introduce [national language](/source/national_language)s as this was seen, among other reasons, as potentially divisive to Catholic unity.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}}
During the [Reformation in England](/source/English_Reformation), when the Protestant authorities banned the use of Latin liturgy, various schools obtained a dispensation to continue to use Latin, for educational purposes.
From the end of the 16th century, in coastal Croatia, the local vernacular language began to replace [Church Slavonic](/source/Church_Slavonic) as the liturgical language. This change occurred because Church Slavonic, which had been used in the [Glagolitic](/source/Glagolitic) liturgical books published in Rome, was becoming increasingly difficult to understand. This difficulty arose from linguistic reforms that adapted the [Church Slavonic of Croatian recension](/source/Church_Slavonic_of_Croatian_recension) used in Croatia to the norms of Church Slavonic used in Russia. For example, the vernacular was used to ask the bride and groom if they accepted their marriage vows.
[Jesuit](/source/Jesuit) missionaries to China initially obtained permission to translate the Roman [Missal](/source/Missal) into [Classical Chinese](/source/Classical_Chinese), a scholarly form of the language. However, this permission was later revoked amid the [Chinese Rites controversy](/source/Chinese_Rites_controversy). In contrast, among the Algonquin and Iroquois peoples, missionaries were allowed to translate [certain parts of the Mass](/source/Proper_(liturgy)) into their native languages.[Salvucci, Claudio R. 2008. [http://mysite.verizon.net/driadzbubl/IndianMasses.html The Roman Rite in the Algonquian and Iroquoian Missions] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121008092144/http://mysite.verizon.net/driadzbubl/IndianMasses.html |date=2012-10-08 }}. Merchantville, NJ:Evolution Publishing. See also]
In the 20th century, [Pope Pius XII](/source/Pope_Pius_XII) granted permission for a few vernaculars to be used in a few rites, rituals, and ceremonies. This did not include the Roman Liturgy of the Mass.{{Citation needed|date=May 2026}}
The Catholic Church, long before the [Second Vatican Council](/source/Second_Vatican_Council) (Vatican II), had accepted and promoted the use of the non-vernacular liturgical languages listed above; while vernacular (i.e. modern or native) languages were also used liturgically throughout history; usually as a special concession given to religious orders conducting missionary activity.[{{cite web|url=https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?recnum=2786|title=Library : Liturgical Languages|website=www.catholicculture.org}}]
In the 20th century, Vatican II set out to protect the use of Latin as a liturgical language. To a large degree, its prescription was disregarded and the vernacular not only became standard, but was generally used exclusively in the liturgy. Latin remains the chief language of the [Latin liturgical rites](/source/Latin_liturgical_rites) and of [Catholic canon law](/source/Catholic_canon_law), but the use of [liturgical Latin](/source/liturgical_Latin) is now discouraged. The use of vernacular language in liturgical practice after 1964 created controversy, and opposition to liturgical vernacular is a major tenet of the Catholic [Traditionalist](/source/Traditionalist_Catholic) movement. Meanwhile, the numerous [Eastern Catholic Churches](/source/Eastern_Catholic_Churches) in union with Rome each have their own respective parent-language.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}
[Eastern Orthodox](/source/Eastern_Orthodox) churches vary in their use of liturgical languages. Koine Greek and Church Slavonic are the main sacred languages used in communion. Other languages are also permitted for liturgical worship, and each country often has the liturgical services in their own language. This has led to a wide variety of languages used for liturgical worship, but there is still uniformity in the liturgical worship itself.{{citation needed|date=July 2013}}
Languages used in the Eastern Orthodox Church include (but are not limited to): Koine Greek, Church Slavonic, [Romanian](/source/Romanian_language), [Georgian](/source/Georgian_language), [Arabic](/source/Arabic_language), [Ukrainian](/source/Ukrainian_language), [Belarusian](/source/Belarusian_language), [Bulgarian](/source/Bulgarian_language), [Macedonian](/source/Macedonian_language), [Serbian](/source/Serbian_language), [Montenegrin](/source/Montenegrin_language), [English](/source/English_language), [German](/source/German_language), [Spanish](/source/Spanish_language), [French](/source/French_language), [Polish](/source/Polish_language), [Portuguese](/source/Portuguese_language), [Italian](/source/Italian_language), [Albanian](/source/Albanian_language), [Finnish](/source/Finnish_language), [Swedish](/source/Swedish_language), [Chinese](/source/Chinese_language), [Estonian](/source/Estonian_language), [Latvian](/source/Latvian_language), [Korean](/source/Korean_language), [Japanese](/source/Japanese_Language), and multiple African languages.
[Oriental Orthodox](/source/Oriental_Orthodox) churches outside their ancestral lands regularly pray in the local vernacular, but some clergymen and communities prefer to retain their traditional language or use a combination of languages.
Many [Anabaptist](/source/Anabaptism) groups, such as the [Amish](/source/Amish), use [High German](/source/High_German_languages) in their worship despite not speaking it amongst themselves.
==Hinduism==
[Hinduism](/source/Hinduism) is traditionally considered to have [Sanskrit](/source/Sanskrit) as its primary liturgical language for [Vedic hinduism](/source/Historical_Vedic_religion) and [Tamil](/source/Tamil_language) as its secondary liturgical language especially for [Shaivism](/source/Shaivism) and [Dravidian Folk Hinduism](/source/Dravidian_folk_religion)[{{Cite book |last=Frost |first=Christine Mangala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qtLYDwAAQBAJ&dq=sanskrit+hinduism+liturgical&pg=PA317 |title=The Human Icon: A Comparative Study of Hindu and Orthodox Christian Beliefs |date=2017-05-25 |publisher=ISD LLC |isbn=978-0-227-90612-5 |pages=317 |language=en}}]
=== Sanskrit ===
[Sanskrit](/source/Sanskrit) is the language of the [Vedas](/source/Vedas), [Bhagavad Gita](/source/Bhagavad_Gita), [Puranas](/source/Puranas) like the [Bhagavatam](/source/Bhagavata_Purana), the [Upanishads](/source/Upanishads), the epics like [Ramayana](/source/Ramayana) and [Mahabharata](/source/Mahabharata), and various other liturgical texts such as the [Sahasranama](/source/Sahasranama), [Chamakam](/source/Shri_Rudram_Chamakam), and [Rudram](/source/Rudram).
Sanskrit is also the tongue of [Hindu](/source/Hindu) rituals. It also has secular [literature](/source/literature) along with its religious canon. Most [Hindu theologians](/source/Hindu_theology) of later centuries continued to prefer to write in Sanskrit even when it was no longer spoken as a day-to-day language. Sanskrit remains as the only liturgical link language which connects the different strains of Hinduism that are present across India. The ''de facto'' position that Sanskrit enjoyed, as the principal language of Hinduism, enabled its survival not only in India, but also in other areas, where Hinduism thrived like [Southeast Asia](/source/Southeast_Asia).[{{Cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n79vEAAAQBAJ&dq=hindu+tamil+literature&pg=PT179 |title=The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Hinduism |date=2022-05-13 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-119-14488-5 |language=en}}]
=== Old Tamil ===
[Old Tamil](/source/Old_Tamil) is the language of the [Shaiva](/source/Shaivism) ([Devaram](/source/Tevaram)) and [Vaishnava](/source/Vaishnavism) ([Divya Prabhandham](/source/Divya_Prabhandham)) scriptures.[{{Cite web |title=The Tamil Buddhists of the Past and the Future |url=https://sangam.org/2010/12/Tamil_Buddhists.php?uid=4177#:~:text=The%20well%20known%20Tamil%20Buddhist,work%20done%20in%20Tamil%20Nadu. |access-date=2021-07-27 |website=sangam.org}}]
===Classical Telugu===
Most of [Carnatic Music](/source/Carnatic_Music) is in [Telugu](/source/Telugu_language).
Many Hindu epics were also composed in Telugu. Some examples are the Amukthamalayada, Basava Purana, Andhra Mahabharatam, and the Ranganatha Ramayanamu.{{vn|date=February 2026}}{{cn|date=February 2026}}
=== Others ===
Apart from Sanskrit, several Hindu spiritual works were composed in the various regional languages of India such as [Hindi](/source/Hindi), [Assamese](/source/Assamese_language), [Awadhi](/source/Awadhi_language), [Bhojpuri](/source/Bhojpuri_language), [Bengali](/source/Bengali_language), [Odia](/source/Odia_language), [Maithili](/source/Maithili_language), [Punjabi](/source/Punjabi_language), [Gujarati](/source/Gujarati_language), [Kannada](/source/Kannada), [Malayalam](/source/Malayalam), [Marathi](/source/Marathi_language), [Tulu](/source/Tulu_language), as well as [Old Javanese](/source/Kawi_language),[{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_-dCAAAAcAAJ&q=kawi+language+hindu+literature&pg=PR16|title = The History of Java: In Two Volumes|last1 = Raffles|first1 = Thomas Stamford|year = 1817}}] and [Balinese](/source/Balinese_language) of Southeast Asia.[{{Cite journal |title=Modern Hindu Intellectuals and Ancient Texts: Reforming Śaiva Yoga in Bali|year=2013|doi=10.1163/22134379-12340023|last1=Acri|first1=Andrea|journal=Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde|volume=169|pages=68–103|s2cid=170982790 |doi-access=free}}]
==Islam==
[Salah](/source/Salah), including [Quran recitation](/source/Qira'at) must be conducted in [Classical Arabic](/source/Classical_Arabic) (Qur'anic Arabic), which is the original language of the [Qur'an](/source/Quran). [Muslims](/source/Muslims) believe the Qur'an as [divine revelation](/source/divine_revelation), and as such it is believed to be the direct word of [God](/source/Allah). Thus Muslims hold that the Qur'an is only truly the Qur'an if it is precisely as it was revealed—i.e., in Classical Arabic. Translations of the Qur'an into other languages are therefore not treated as the Qur'an itself; rather, they are seen as interpretive texts, which attempt to communicate a translation of the Qur'an's message.
A number of sources require ''[khutbah](/source/khutbah)'', the formal Friday sermon, to be delivered completely in [classical Arabic](/source/classical_Arabic).[Mufti Muhammad Taqi Usmani. ''The Language of the Friday Khutab.'' Karachi, Pakistan. [https://ia800502.us.archive.org/34/items/TheLanguageOfTheFridayKhutbahByMuftiTaqiUsmani/TheLanguageOfTheFridayKhutbahBySheikhMuhammadTaqiUsmani.pdf Access via archive.org]] Other sources state that there is no objection if the sermon is conducted in the language understood by most attendees.[{{Cite web |title=حكم إلقاء خطبة الجمعة بغير اللغة العربية |url=https://binbaz.org.sa/fatwas/17206/%D8%AD%D9%83%D9%85-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A1-%D8%AE%D8%B7%D8%A8%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A9-%D8%A8%D8%BA%D9%8A%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9 |access-date=2025-04-16 |website=binbaz.org.sa |language=ar}}]
==Judaism==
=== Hebrew ===
The core of the [Hebrew Bible](/source/Hebrew_Bible) is written in [Biblical Hebrew](/source/Biblical_Hebrew), referred to by some [Jew](/source/Jew)s as ''[Lashon Hakodesh](/source/Lashon_Hakodesh)'' ({{lang|he|לשון הקודש}}, "Language of Holiness"). Hebrew (and in the case of a few texts such as the [Kaddish](/source/Kaddish), [Aramaic](/source/Judeo-Aramaic_languages)) remains the traditional language of [Jewish religious services](/source/Jewish_services). [Rabbinic Hebrew](/source/Rabbinic_Hebrew) and Aramaic are used extensively by the [Orthodox](/source/Orthodox_Judaism) for writing religious texts.{{cn|date=February 2026}}{{vn|date=February 2026}}
=== Ladino ===
Among the [Sephardi](/source/Sephardi)m, [Ladino](/source/Ladino_language) was used for translations such as the [Ferrara Bible](/source/Ferrara_Bible). It was also used during the Sephardi liturgy. Ladino is also often referred to as [Judeo-Spanish](/source/Judeo-Spanish), as it is a dialect of [Castilian](/source/Castilian_language) used by Sephardim as an everyday language until the 20th century.[ ''EL LADINO: Lengua litúrgica de los judíos españoles'', Haim Vidal Sephiha, [Sorbona](/source/University_of_Paris) (París), Historia 16 – AÑO 1978:][[http://www.cryptojews.com/clearing_up_ladino.htm "Clearing up Ladino, Judeo-Spanish, Sephardic Music"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080416142720/http://www.wzo.org.il/en/resources/view.asp?id=1596 |date=2008-04-16 }} Judith Cohen, HaLapid, winter 2001; [http://www.wzo.org.il/en/resources/view.asp?id=1596 Sephardic Song] Judith Cohen, Midstream July/August 2003]
== List ==
{{More citations needed section|date=December 2011}}
* [Akkadian](/source/Akkadian_language) was a long used liturgical language.
* [Aramaic](/source/Aramaic), used in some later books of the [Tanakh](/source/Tanakh), some Jewish prayers, and the [Talmud](/source/Talmud).
* [Avestan](/source/Avestan), the language of the [Avesta](/source/Avesta), the sacred texts of [Zoroastrianism](/source/Zoroastrianism).
* [Bahasa tanah](/source/Bahasa_tanah), a sacred language used in special traditional ceremonies of the [Alfur people](/source/Alfur_people) in [Maluku](/source/Maluku_Islands) and is generally written using the [Alifuru script](/source/Alifuru_script). It literally means 'language of the land'.
* [Balaibalan](/source/Balaibalan) was invented in the context of [Sufi](/source/Sufi) devotion, although it was only briefly used.
* [Christian Bengali](/source/Christian_Bengali), the language of Christian worship and Bengali Christian literature restricted to the Anglo-Bengali Christian community
* [Classical Arabic](/source/Classical_Arabic), the language of the [Quran](/source/Quran); it differs from the [various forms of contemporary spoken Arabic](/source/Varieties_of_Arabic) in lexical and grammatical areas.
* [Classical Chinese](/source/Classical_Chinese), the language of older Chinese literature and the [Confucian](/source/Confucianism), [Taoist](/source/Taoism), and in East Asia also of the [Mahayana Buddhist](/source/Mahayana_Buddhism) sacred texts. The current pronunciation of [Chinese characters](/source/Chinese_characters) is based on local pronunciation, for example [Japanese Buddhists](/source/Buddhism_in_Japan) read [Buddhist texts](/source/Buddhist_texts) in [Japanese](/source/Japanese_language) [Kanji](/source/Kanji) pronunciation.
* [Coptic](/source/Coptic_language), a form of ancient [Egyptian](/source/Egyptian_language), is used by the [Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria](/source/Coptic_Orthodox_Church_of_Alexandria) and the [Coptic Catholic Church](/source/Coptic_Catholic_Church).
* [Old Czech](/source/History_of_the_Czech_language) is used by the [Moravian Church](/source/Moravian_Church).
* [Damin](/source/Damin), an initiation language of the [Lardil people](/source/Lardil_people) in Australia.
* [Early Modern Dutch](/source/Dutch_language) is the language of the [Statenvertaling](/source/Statenvertaling), still in use among orthodox Calvinist denominations in the Netherlands.
* [Early Modern English](/source/Early_Modern_English) is used in some parts of the [Anglican Communion](/source/Anglican_Communion) and by the [Continuing Anglican movement](/source/Continuing_Anglican_movement), as well as by a variety of [English-speaking Protestants](/source/King_James_Only_movement).
* [Eskayan](/source/Eskayan) in the Philippines.
* [Etruscan](/source/Etruscan_language), cultivated for religious and [magical](/source/magic_and_religion) purposes in the [Roman Empire](/source/Roman_Empire).
* [Geʽez](/source/Ge%CA%BDez), the predecessor of many [Ethiopian Semitic languages](/source/Ethiopian_Semitic_languages) (e.g. [Amharic](/source/Amharic), [Tigrinya](/source/Tigrinya_language), [Tigre](/source/Tigre_language)) used as a liturgical language by [Ethiopian Jews](/source/Beta_Israel) and by Ethiopian and Eritrean [Christians](/source/Christianity) (in the [Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church](/source/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church), the [Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church](/source/Eritrean_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church), and the [Roman Catholic Church](/source/Roman_Catholic_Church)).
* [Early New High German](/source/Early_New_High_German) is used in [Amish](/source/Amish) communities for Bible readings and sermons.
* [Gothic](/source/Gothic_language), the sole East Germanic language which is attested by significant texts, is usually considered to have been preserved by the [Arian churches](/source/Arianism), while the [Goths](/source/Goths) themselves spoke [vulgar Latin](/source/vulgar_Latin) dialects of their areas.
* [Koine Greek](/source/Koine_Greek), the language of early [Pauline Christianity](/source/Pauline_Christianity) and all of its [New Testament](/source/New_Testament) books. It is today the liturgical language of [Greek Orthodox Christianity](/source/Greek_Orthodox_Christianity) and several other directly Greek connected [Eastern Orthodox Churches](/source/Eastern_Orthodox_Churches). It differs markedly from [Modern Greek](/source/Modern_Greek) but remains comprehensible for Modern Greek speakers.
* [Habla Congo](/source/Habla_Congo) (or ''Habla Bantu'') is a [Kongo](/source/Kongo_language)-based [liturgical language](/source/liturgical_language) of the [Palo religion](/source/Palo_religion) with origins in Cuba, later spreading to other countries in the [Caribbean Basin](/source/Caribbean_Basin).
* [Hattic](/source/Hattic_language) was used by the [Hittites](/source/Hittites) who spoke an unrelated language.
* [Biblical Hebrew](/source/Biblical_Hebrew) – the languages in which the [Hebrew Bible](/source/Hebrew_Bible) has been written over time; these differ from [today's spoken Hebrew](/source/Modern_Hebrew) in lexical and grammatical areas.
* [Jamaican Maroon Spirit Possession Language](/source/Jamaican_Maroon_Spirit_Possession_Language), spoken by [Jamaican Maroons](/source/Jamaican_Maroons), the descendants of runaway slaves in the mountains of Jamaica, during their "Kromanti Play", a ceremony in which the participants are said to be [possessed by their ancestors](/source/spirit_possession) and to speak as their ancestors did centuries ago.
* [Early Middle Japanese](/source/Early_Middle_Japanese) is chanted in [Shinto](/source/Shinto) rituals.
* [Old Javanese](/source/Old_Javanese) is utilized in [Kejawèn](/source/Kejaw%C3%A8n), the polytheistic [ethnic religion](/source/ethnic_religion) of the [Javanese people](/source/Javanese_people).
* [Kallawaya](/source/Kallawaya_language), a secret medicinal language used in the Andes.
* [Ecclesiastical Latin](/source/Ecclesiastical_Latin) is the liturgical language of the [Latin Church](/source/Latin_Church)'s [Latin liturgical rites](/source/Latin_liturgical_rites) of the [Catholic Church](/source/Catholic_Church). It is based on the Italian pronunciation.
* [Old Latin](/source/Old_Latin) was used in various prayers in [Roman paganism](/source/ancient_Roman_religion), such as the [Carmen Arvale](/source/Carmen_Arvale) and [Carmen Saliare](/source/Carmen_Saliare). These texts were unintelligible to classical Latin speakers and remain somewhat obscure to scholars even today.
* [Manchu](/source/Manchu_language) was the language used in [Manchu shamanic rituals](/source/Shamanism_in_the_Qing_dynasty).
* [Mandaic](/source/Mandaic_language), an Aramaic language, in [Mandaeanism](/source/Mandaeanism).
* [Classical Meitei](/source/%3Asimple%3AClassical_Meitei), the holy language of [Sanamahism](/source/Sanamahism) (Meitei religion).
* [Classical Mongolian](/source/Classical_Mongolian_language) was used alongside Classical Tibetan as sacred languages of Tibetan Buddhism in Mongolia.
* [Old Norse](/source/Old_Norse), used in some [Heathenry](/source/Heathenry_(new_religious_movement)) groups as a religious language
* [Palaic](/source/Palaic_language) and [Luwian](/source/Luwian_language), cultivated as a religious language by the [Hittites](/source/Hittites).
* [Pali](/source/Pali), the original language of [Theravada](/source/Theravada) [Buddhism](/source/Buddhism).
* Some [Portuguese](/source/Portuguese_language) and [Latin](/source/Latin) prayers are retained by the [Kakure Kirishitan](/source/Kakure_Kirishitan) (Hidden Christians) of Japan, who recite it without understanding the language.
* [Sant Bhasha](/source/Sant_Bhasha), a mélange of archaic [Punjabi](/source/Punjabi_language) and several other languages, is the language of the [Sikh](/source/Sikh) holy scripture [Guru Granth Sahib](/source/Guru_Granth_Sahib).[{{cite book | author=Nirmal Dass | title=Songs of Saints from Adi Granth | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GZSndbFnrVIC&pg=PA13 | access-date=29 November 2012 | year=2000 | publisher=SUNY Press | isbn=978-0-7914-4684-3 | page=13 | quote = Any attempt at translating songs from the Adi Granth certainly involves working not with one language, but several, along with dialectical differences. The languages used by the saints range from Sanskrit; regional Prakrits; western, eastern and southern Apabhramsa; and Sahaskrit. More particularly, we find sant bhasha, Marathi, Old Hindi, central and Lehndi Panjabi, Sindhi and Persian. There are also many dialects deployed, such as Purbi Marwari, Bangru, Dakhni, Malwai, and Awadhi.}}] It is different from the various dialects of Punjabi that exist today.
* [Vedic](/source/Vedic) & Classical [Sanskrit](/source/Sanskrit), the dialects of the [Veda](/source/Veda)s and other sacred texts of [Hinduism](/source/Hinduism) as well as the original language of several sects of early [Buddhism](/source/Buddhism) and a language of [Jainism](/source/Jainism).
* [Old Church Slavonic](/source/Old_Church_Slavonic), also called [Old Bulgarian](/source/Old_Bulgarian), the liturgical language of the Slavic Eastern Orthodoxy
* [Church Slavonic](/source/Church_Slavonic_language) is the current liturgical language of the [Russian Orthodox Church](/source/Russian_Orthodox_Church), [Serbian Orthodox Church](/source/Serbian_Orthodox_Church), [Bulgarian Orthodox Church](/source/Bulgarian_Orthodox_Church) and the [Macedonian Orthodox Church](/source/Macedonian_Orthodox_Church) and certain [Byzantine](/source/Byzantine) ([Ruthenian](/source/Ruthenian_Greek_Catholic_Church)) [Eastern Catholic](/source/Eastern_Catholic) churches.
* [Sumerian](/source/Sumerian_language), cultivated and preserved in [Assyria](/source/Assyria) and [Babylon](/source/Babylon) long after its extinction as an everyday language.
* [Syriac](/source/Syriac_language), a dialect of [Aramaic](/source/Aramaic), is used as a liturgical language by [Syriac Christians](/source/Syriac_Christianity) who belong to the [Chaldean Catholic Church](/source/Chaldean_Catholic_Church), [Assyrian Church of the East](/source/Assyrian_Church_of_the_East), [Syriac Orthodox Church](/source/Syriac_Orthodox_Church), [Syriac Catholic Church](/source/Syriac_Catholic_Church), [Syro Malabar Catholic Church](/source/Syro_Malabar_Catholic_Church) and [Maronite Church](/source/Maronite_Church).
* [Old Tamil](/source/Old_Tamil) is the language of the Shaiva (Devaram) and Vaishnava (Divya Prabhandham) scriptures.