# SS Finland

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**SS *Finland*** was an American-flagged [ocean liner](/source/Ocean_liner) built in 1902 for the [Red Star Line](/source/Red_Star_Line). During [World War I](/source/World_War_I) she served as a [transport](/source/Transport) for the [United States Navy](/source/United_States_Navy) named **USS *Finland* (ID-4543)**. Before her Navy service in 1917, she was also **USAT *Finland*** for the [United States Army](/source/United_States_Army).

*Finland* sailed for several subsidiary lines of [International Mercantile Marine](/source/International_Mercantile_Marine_Co.), including the Red Star Line, and also [under charter](/source/Chartering_(shipping)) for the [White Star Line](/source/White_Star_Line), the [Panama Pacific Line](/source/Panama_Pacific_Line), and the [American Line](/source/American_Line). Sailing out of [New York](/source/New_York_City), she sailed primarily to ports in the [United Kingdom](/source/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland), Belgium, and [Italy](/source/Kingdom_of_Italy). She also briefly sailed on New York to [San Francisco, California](/source/San_Francisco,_California), service. In 1912, *Finland* was chartered by the [American Olympic Committee](/source/American_Olympic_Committee) to take the U.S. team to the [1912 Summer Olympics](/source/1912_Summer_Olympics) in [Stockholm](/source/Stockholm), Sweden.

At the entry of the United States into World War I in April 1917, the liner was chartered by the United States Army as USAT *Finland*. She made five transatlantic runs under Army control ferrying troops to Europe. On the return portion of her third voyage, *Finland* was [torpedoed](/source/Torpedo) by the German submarine , but was able to safely return to port for repairs. In April 1918, *Finland* was transferred to the [United States Navy](/source/United_States_Navy) and [commissioned](/source/Ship_commissioning) as USS *Finland*. She completed an additional five voyages to Europe, carrying almost 13,000 troops. After the [Armistice](/source/Armistice_with_Germany), she returned over 32,000 troops to the United States before being decommissioned in September 1919.

After her Navy service ended, she was returned to International Mercantile Marine, and lost the USS prefix, and served on New York to Europe routes until 1923, when she returned to New York–San Francisco service. *Finland* was scrapped in 1928.

## Launching and early career

*Finland* was launched on 21 June 1902 by [William Cramp and Sons](/source/William_Cramp_and_Sons), [Philadelphia](/source/Philadelphia), for the [Red Star Line](/source/Red_Star_Line) of [International Mercantile Marine](/source/International_Mercantile_Marine_Co.) (IMM). She was the sister ship to [SS *Kroonland*](/source/SS_Kroonland), launched four months prior. *Finland* was 560 feet (170.7 m) long ([LBP](/source/Length_between_perpendiculars)) with a [beam](/source/Beam_(nautical)) of 60.2 feet (18.3 m), and had two [funnels](/source/Steamship_funnel) and four [masts](/source/Mast_(sailing)). Her twin three-[cylinder](/source/Cylinder_(engine)), [triple expansion](/source/Triple_expansion) [steam engines](/source/Steam_engine) drove twin [screw propellers](/source/Propeller) that moved her at 15 knots (28 km/h). She accommodated 342 passengers in first class, 194 in second class, and 626 in third class.[1]

*Finland* sailed on her maiden voyage from New York to [Antwerp](/source/Antwerp) on 4 October under the [American flag](/source/Flag_of_the_United_States), and remained on this route for the next seven years.[1] In November 1907, as the liner neared Antwerp, a gale in the [English Channel](/source/English_Channel) almost drove *Finland* ashore. The timely assistance of two tugs kept the big ship from grounding on the [breakwater](/source/Breakwater_(structure)) at [Dover](/source/Dover).[2] By January 1909, *Finland* had been reflagged under the [Belgian flag](/source/Flag_of_Belgium), but remained on the New York–Antwerp route.[1]

On 19 January 1908, *Finland* collided with the Greek [cargo ship](/source/Cargo_ship) [SS *Epirus*](/source/SS_Epirus) off [Terneuzen](/source/Terneuzen), sinking *Epirus*.[3] In March 1909, the liner was chartered to the [White Star Line](/source/White_Star_Line), another IMM subsidiary, for three round-trip voyages between [Naples](/source/Naples) and New York.[1] On 25 December 1910, she rammed and sank the [SS *Baltique*](/source/SS_Baltique) which was anchored in the [Flushing Roads](/source/Vlissingen) sheltering from a storm. Six crew were lost from *Baltique*.[3] Returning to the Red Star Line's New York–Antwerp service, *Finland* was reflagged in January 1912, sailing under the American flag once again.[1] During this time, noted German-American [psychologist](/source/Psychologist) [Hugo Münsterberg](/source/Hugo_M%C3%BCnsterberg) sailed on *Finland* to Europe to attend a Psychological Congress in [Berlin](/source/Berlin) in April 1912.[4]

### 1912 Olympics

The [American Olympic Committee](/source/American_Olympic_Committee) (AOC) chartered *Finland*—after a proposal for sailing on [RMS *Oceanic*](/source/RMS_Oceanic_(1899)) was rejected—to take the American team to the [1912 Summer Olympics](/source/1912_Summer_Olympics) in [Stockholm](/source/Stockholm).[5] After setting aside rooms for all the team members, additional space aboard the ship was sold for the benefit of the AOC.[6] The delegation of 164 athletes left New York at 09:30 on 14 June.[7] *Finland'*s dining rooms were divided during the voyage, so that the athletes on board would have "their own cuisine" and not be tempted to partake in "promiscuous indulgence in the great variety of food" on the ship.[8]

The AOC, aided by *Finland'*s crew,[9] made several accommodations for shipboard training en route to the Games. A cork track, 100 yards (91 m) long and wide enough for two men running abreast, was installed on the top deck, especially for the sprinters.[8] Longer distance runners would practice their starts on the track, and train by running laps around the deck, which was about 1⁄10-mile (160 m) for one circuit.[10] Swimmers practiced in a canvas tank, 15 feet (4.6 m) long by 5 feet (1.5 m) wide, constructed on deck. While practicing their strokes, they would wear a belt suspended from an overhead rope that kept them in the middle of the tank.[10] The [cycling team](/source/Cycling_at_the_1912_Summer_Olympics) worked on the forward deck with bikes secured to the ship's structure.[11]

Some of the individual athletes came up with ideas to further their training while at sea. [Discus](/source/Discus_throw) champion [James Duncan](/source/James_Duncan_(discus_thrower)) had the ship's carpenter bore a hole in the middle of a discus, through which he attached a rope tied to the ship's rail. Duncan would then throw the discus out to sea, and then haul it back in by the rope.[10] [Theodore Roosevelt Pell](/source/Theodore_Roosevelt_Pell), the only U.S. competitor in any of the [tennis events](/source/Tennis_at_the_1912_Summer_Olympics), set up a 10-foot (3-metre) backstop on the [after](/source/Aft) deck, practicing for hours each day.[11]

*Finland* arrived at Antwerp on the morning of 24 June after a ten-day voyage over smooth seas. While the ship took on stores, the athletes completed their training at a local athletic club. Sailing at noon on 26 June, *Finland* reached Sweden four days later.[9] There were no injuries during the entirety of the voyage,[8] and, unlike the trip of the next American Olympic delegation in 1920[12]—when the so-called "[Mutiny of the *Matoika*](/source/Mutiny_of_the_Matoika)" took place—no threats of a [strike](/source/Strike_action) because of bad conditions aboard the ship.

## World War I

After her Olympic charter ended, *Finland* returned to her usual New York–Antwerp route until the outbreak of war in Europe in August 1914.[1] The Red Star liner, still sailing from New York, shifted to call at [Liverpool](/source/Liverpool) beginning 22 August for two roundtrips. Next moved to [Mediterranean](/source/Mediterranean_Sea) service, *Finland* sailed from New York to [Naples](/source/Naples) and [Piraeus](/source/Piraeus) starting in November 1914. To complete her third and final circuit to the Mediterranean, she began her last voyage from Italy back to New York on 24 March 1915.[1]

By early May, *Finland* and sister ship *Kroonland* had both been chartered to the IMM subsidiary [Panama Pacific Line](/source/Panama_Pacific_Line) for New York to San Francisco service via the [Panama Canal](/source/Panama_Canal).[1] The trips took about 17 days each way and called at either [Los Angeles](/source/Los_Angeles,_California) or [San Diego](/source/San_Diego,_California) on both eastbound and westbound trips.[13]

*Finland* was next chartered to the [American Line](/source/American_Line), yet another IMM subsidiary, for service from New York to [Falmouth](/source/Falmouth,_Cornwall) and [London](/source/London) beginning on 26 October. After completing two circuits, the liner was returned to New York–Liverpool service on 19 January 1916.[1] At some point during this period, *Finland* was equipped with four 4-inch (100-millimetre) guns and crewed by members of the U.S. Navy's [Naval Armed Guard](/source/Naval_Armed_Guard).

On 18 December 1916, during an eastbound journey, *Finland* was halted by a French warship. According to Marjorie Crocker, an American woman headed for refugee work in Paris, the cruiser had fired a shot across the bow of *Finland*, and then queried the officers of the liner. After allowing *Finland* to go on her way, the French ship circled around several times, then headed off first in one direction and then another, as if, according to Crocker, it were searching for something.[14]

*Finland* was still in New York–Liverpool service when the United States declared war on the [German Empire](/source/German_Empire) in April 1917. The United States Army, needing transports to get its men and materiel to France, had a select committee of shipping executives pore over registries of American shipping. On 28 May, the committee selected *Finland* and thirteen other American-flagged ships that were sufficiently fast, could carry enough coal in their [bunkers](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bunker) for [transatlantic crossings](/source/Transatlantic_crossing), and, most importantly, were in port or not far at sea.[15][16] After *Finland* discharged her last load of passengers, she was officially handed over to the Army at noon on 2 June, the last of the fourteen ships acquired.[17]

### U.S. Army service

Before any troop transportation could be undertaken, all of the ships had to be hastily refitted—in two weeks in the case of *Finland*. Of the fourteen ships, ten, including *Finland*, were designated to carry human passengers; the other four were designated as animal ships. The ten ships designated to carry troops had to have all of their second- and third-class accommodations ripped out and replaced with berths for troops. Cooking and toilet facilities had to be greatly expanded to handle the large numbers of men aboard. *Finland*, uniquely among the fourteen ships, already carried guns and did not need to be refitted for them.[18] All the ships were crewed by merchant officers and sailors but carried two U.S. Navy officers, Navy gun crews, [quartermasters](/source/Quartermaster), [signalmen](/source/Signaller), and [wireless](/source/Radio) operators. The senior Navy officer on board would take control if a ship came under attack.[19]

The American convoy carrying the AEF was broken into four groups;[20] *Finland* was in the third group with [USAT *San Jacinto*](/source/USAT_San_Jacinto) and [USAT *Henry R. Mallory*](/source/USAT_Henry_R._Mallory),[21] and escorts consisting of [cruiser](/source/Cruiser) [USS *Charleston*](/source/USS_Charleston_(C-22)), armed [collier](/source/Collier_(ship_type)) [USS *Cyclops*](/source/USS_Cyclops_(AC-4)), and [destroyers](/source/Destroyer) [USS *Allen*](/source/USS_Allen_(DD-66)), [USS *Preston*](/source/USS_Preston_(DD-19)), and [USS *McCall*](/source/USS_McCall_(DD-28)).[22] The headquarters detachment and six [companies](/source/Company_(military_unit)) (of a total of 12) of the [18th Infantry Regiment](/source/18th_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States)) embarked on *Finland* at New York.[23] The ship, under the command of U.S. Navy [Commander](/source/Commander_(United_States)) [S. V. Graham](/source/Stephen_Victor_Graham),[24] departed with her group on 14 June for [Brest](/source/Brest,_France), France, steaming at a comfortable 13-knot (24-kilometre per hour) pace.[25] A thwarted submarine attack on the first convoy group,[26] and reports of heavy submarine activity off of Brest resulted in a change in the convoy's destination to [Saint-Nazaire](/source/Saint-Nazaire).[27]

After returning to the United States, *Finland'*s next convoy crossing began on 6 August in the company of [USS *Henderson*](/source/USS_Henderson_(AP-1)), [USAT *Antilles*](/source/USAT_Antilles), and *San Jacinto*, all escorted by cruiser [USS *Montana*](/source/USS_Montana_(ACR-13)).[28] *Finland*, carrying some of the troops that had tried to depart on 30 July on [USAT *Saratoga*](/source/USAT_Saratoga) before she sank near [Staten Island](/source/Staten_Island),[29] had an uneventful roundtrip.[28] *Finland* next sailed on 24 September as part of the 8th convoy with *Henderson*, *Antilles*, and [USAT *Lenape*](/source/USAT_Lenape), escorted by cruiser [USS *San Diego*](/source/USS_San_Diego_(ACR-6)).[28] According to Crowell and Wilson, the 8th group was "destined to misfortune". Three days out from New York, *Lenape* developed engine trouble and was compelled to return to port, but the rest of the convoy proceeded on and arrived in France on 7 October.[30] *Henderson* was the only ship to return to the United States without incident.[31] On 17 October, *Antilles* was torpedoed by ,[32] sinking in 61⁄2 minutes with the loss of 67 out of the 234 men on board.[33]

*Finland* began her return journey to the United States on 28 October in an 11-knot (20-kilometre per hour) convoy with cargo ships *Buford* and *City of Savannah* and escorted by [armed yachts](/source/Armed_yacht) [USS *Alcedo*](/source/USS_Alcedo_(SP-166)), [USS *Corsair*](/source/USS_Corsair_(SP-159)), and [USS *Wakiva II*](/source/USS_Wakiva_II_(SP-160)), and destroyers [USS *Smith*](/source/USS_Smith_(DD-17)), [USS *Lamson*](/source/USS_Lamson_(DD-18)), [USS *Preston*](/source/USS_Preston_(DD-19)), and [USS *Flusser*](/source/USS_Flusser_(DD-20)).[34] *Finland*, returning most of the survivors of *Antilles* back to the U.S., was struck on her [starboard](/source/Starboard) side by a torpedo from [*U-93*](/source/SM_U-93) at 09:27, 150 nautical miles (280 km) from the French coast.[34][35] Many of the civilian crew and the survivors of *Antilles*, experiencing a torpedo attack for the second time in 11 days, panicked. Lifeboats were immediately launched without word from Commander Graham, and the engine room and fire room men all left their stations, contrary to orders. The naval officers, armed with a [revolver](/source/Revolver) and a wooden mallet, were able to get the men back to their stations. The damage was limited to one [cargo hold](/source/Cargo_hold) and had not affected the boilers or the engines. Although *Finland* took a starboard [list](/source/List_(watercraft)), it did not increase and Graham was able to steer a course back to Brest, anchoring there the next morning. Men aboard the prematurely launched lifeboats were rounded up by *Wakiva II* and *Alcedo* and returned to Brest.[34] Nine men,[36] including three of the Naval Armed Guard detachment,[37] two soldiers and four crew[38] perished in the attack.

In the aftermath of the torpedoing incident, Commander Graham was awarded the [Navy Distinguished Service Medal](/source/Navy_Distinguished_Service_Medal) for his "exceptionally meritorious service" in getting *Finland* safely back to port.[39] [Lieutenant (junior grade)](/source/Lieutenant,_Junior_Grade) Huntington English, from *Wakiva II*, received the [Navy Cross](/source/Navy_Cross_(United_States)), in part because he rescued a soldier who had jumped from the torpedoed transport.[40] [Chief Boatswain's Mate](/source/Boatswain's_Mate_(US_Navy)) John P. Doyle, on *Alcedo*, was issued a letter of commendation for commanding a [whaleboat](/source/Whaleboat) that pulled a number of men from *Finland* from the water.[41]

The deportment of the crew aboard *Finland*, as well as that of *Antilles*, while under attack demonstrated the problems with civilian-crewed vessels. The Navy, led by the recommendations of [Rear Admiral](/source/Rear_admiral_(United_States)) [Albert Gleaves](/source/Albert_Gleaves), insisted that all troop transports be crewed entirely by Navy personnel. This was accomplished soon after so as to avoid the need for what Gleaves called "ignorant and unreliable men" who were "the sweepings of the docks".[34]

*Finland* was sufficiently repaired over the next two months and sailed for return to the United States on 5 January 1918.[28] Ready again for convoy duty the next month, she sailed from New York on 10 February with [USS *Antigone*](/source/USS_Antigone_(ID-3007)), [USS *Martha Washington*](/source/USS_Martha_Washington_(ID-3019)), [USS *President Lincoln*](/source/USS_President_Lincoln_(1907)), and [USS *Von Steuben*](/source/USS_Von_Steuben_(ID-3017)) under escort of the cruiser [USS *Pueblo*](/source/USS_Pueblo_(CA-7)).[42] After safely reaching Saint-Nazaire, *Finland* discharged her passengers and cargo that included 13,910 pounds (6,310 kg) of frozen beef for the AEF.[43] On 27 February, one day after departing, *Finland'*s steering gear jammed, forcing her into the path of *Henderson*. That ship was able to maneuver such that *Finland* only dealt her a glancing blow. *Finland* suffered only superficial damage; *Henderson* was holed below the waterline, but her crew took advantage of unusually calm February seas to repair the damage, and were soon able to proceed to New York.[44] *Finland* and *President Lincoln* arrived back at New York on 16 March.[42]

*Finland* made one more crossing under Army charter. Leaving New York on 23 March, she convoyed with [USS *Powhatan*](/source/USS_Powhatan_(ID-3013)), [USS *El Occidente*](/source/USS_El_Occidente_(ID-3307)), *Martha Washington*, and cruiser *Pueblo*, arriving in France on 4 April. *Finland* returned to New York on 24 April,[45] and was delivered to the U.S. Navy the same day.[46]

### U.S. Navy service

*Finland* was [commissioned](/source/Ship_commissioning) on 26 April.[46] The transport's move from Army to Navy control little changed her routine. Four days after her Navy commissioning, *Finland* departed New York with [USS *Matsonia*](/source/USS_Matsonia_(ID-1589)), [USS *Manchuria*](/source/USS_Manchuria_(1633)), and *Kroonland*. Rendezvousing with the convoy were two transports sailing from [Newport News, Virginia](/source/Newport_News,_Virginia), *Martha Washington* and *Powhatan*. [USS *South Dakota*](/source/USS_South_Dakota_(ACR-9)) provided the convoy with protection until its arrival in France on 12 May. *Finland* and *Manchuria* both returned to New York on 30 May.[47]

*Finland* next left New York on 15 June with [USS *DeKalb*](/source/USS_DeKalb_(ID-3010)), *Kroonland*, [USS *George Washington*](/source/USS_George_Washington_(ID-3018)), [USS *Covington*](/source/USS_Covington_(ID-1409)), [USS *Rijndam*](/source/USS_Rijndam_(ID-2505)), Italian steamer [SS *Dante Alighieri*](/source/SS_Dante_Alighieri), and British steamer *Vauban* and met up with the Newport News portion of the convoy—which included *Lenape*, [USS *Wilhelmina*](/source/USS_Wilhelmina_(ID-2168)), [USS *Princess Matoika*](/source/USS_Princess_Matoika_(ID-2290)), [USS *Pastores*](/source/USS_Pastores_(AF-16)), and British troopship —the next morning and set out for France.[48][49] The convoy was escorted by cruisers [USS *North Carolina*](/source/USS_North_Carolina_(ACR-12)) and [USS *Frederick*](/source/USS_Frederick_(CA-8)), and destroyers [USS *Stevens*](/source/USS_Stevens_(DD-86)) and [USS *Fairfax*](/source/USS_Fairfax_(DD-93));[49] [battleship](/source/Battleship) [USS *Texas*](/source/USS_Texas_(BB-35)) and several other destroyers joined in escort duties for the group for a time.[48] The convoy had a false alarm when a floating barrel was mistaken for submarine, but otherwise uneventfully arrived at Brest on the afternoon of 27 June.[49][50] *Finland* and *Kroonland* arrived back at New York on 13 July.[49] *Covington* was not so fortunate. On her return journey, she was torpedoed by [*U-86*](/source/SM_U-86) on 1 July, and sank the next afternoon.[51]

On 26 July, *Finland*, loaded with 3,879 officers and men,[52] departed on her next trip to France. In the company of *Kroonland* and Italian steamer [SS *Taormina*](/source/SS_Taormina_(1908)), she met up with [USS *Pocahontas*](/source/USS_Pocahontas_(ID-3044)), [USS *Susquehanna*](/source/USS_Susquehanna_(ID-3016)), and the Italian steamers [SS *Duca d'Aosta*](/source/SS_Duca_d'Aosta) and [SS *Caserta*](/source/SS_Caserta) from Newport News.[53] Cruisers *Pueblo*, [USS *Huntington*](/source/USS_Huntington_(CA-5)), and destroyers [USS *Rathburne*](/source/USS_Rathburne_(DD-113)) and [USS *Colhoun*](/source/USS_Colhoun_(DD-85)) ushered the transports to France, where they arrived on 7 August.[54] *Finland* arrived back in the United States on 25 August.[53]

After embarking 3,678 troops,[55] *Finland* departed again on 15 September sailing with *Henderson*, *Martha Washington*, *Pocahontas*, [USS *Calamares*](/source/USS_Calamares_(ID-3662)), *Powhatan*, and steamer *Ulua*. *Finland'*s New York group met up with a Virginia group of Navy transports [USS *Aeolus*](/source/USS_Aeolus_(ID-3005)) and [USS *Koningen der Nederlanden*](/source/USS_Koningen_der_Nederlanden_(ID-2708)), and steamers [SS *Patria*](/source/SS_Patria) and . Escorts [USS *New Hampshire*](/source/USS_New_Hampshire_(BB-25)), *Pueblo*, [USS *St. Louis*](/source/USS_St._Louis_(C-20)), [USS *Stribling*](/source/USS_Stribling_(DD-96)), [USS *Stringham*](/source/USS_Stringham_(DD-83)), and [USS *Hopkins*](/source/USS_Hopkins_(DD-6)) helped to ensure the safe arrival of all ships in France on 28 September. *Martha Washington* and *Pocahontas* accompanied *Finland* on her return journey and arrived at New York on 12 October.[56]

*Finland* began one last transatlantic crossing before the [Armistice](/source/Armistice_with_Germany_(Compi%C3%A8gne)). She left New York with [hospital ship](/source/Hospital_ship) [USS *Mercy*](/source/USS_Mercy_(AH-4)) and steamers [SS *Lutetia*](/source/SS_Lutetia), and [SS *Armaugh*](/source/SS_Armaugh) with battleship [USS *Georgia*](/source/USS_Georgia_(BB-15)) on 4 November and arrived in France on 15 November, four days after the end of hostilities.[57] In all, *Finland* transported 12,654 troops to France on her five Navy crossings.[58]

As the flow of troops was reversed to bring American troops home, *Finland* made 8 round trips from Europe to the United States, returning 32,197 personnel to the United States.[58] On 4 September 1919 she was transferred to the [3d Naval District](/source/3d_Naval_District) and on 15 November decommissioned and delivered to the [War Department](/source/United_States_Department_of_War),[46] and, eventually, to the Red Star Line.[1]

## Postwar career

After a refurbishment that outfitted her for 242 first-class, 310 second-class, and 876 third-class passengers, *Finland* resumed her civilian career in April 1920. The liner, sailing opposite her sister ship *Kroonland*, returned to her original route when she departed Antwerp on 28 April for [Southampton](/source/Southampton) and New York. The two ships remained on that route until chartered to the American Line in mid-1923. After both ships were converted to cabin- and third-class passengers only, they sailed on the New York–Plymouth–Cherbourg–[Hamburg](/source/Hamburg) route from June to September. On 29 September, *Finland* resumed New York–San Francisco service for the Panama Pacific Line; *Kroonland* once again joined her sister ship the following month. When [SS *California*](/source/SS_California_(1928)) and *[Virginia](/source/SS_Brazil_(1928))* joined the Panama Pacific fleet in 1928, *Finland* and *Kroonland* were no longer needed and both were scrapped;[1] *Finland* by [Hughes Bolckow Shipbreaking Ltd](/source/Hughes_Bolckow) at [Blyth, Northumberland](/source/Blyth,_Northumberland). She arrived for breaking on 28 April 1928.[3] *Kroonland* was scrapped at [Genoa](/source/Genoa).[1]

In 1925, [Harold S. Vanderbilt](/source/Harold_S._Vanderbilt) devised the game of [contract bridge](/source/Contract_bridge) while on board *Finland*.[59]

## Notes

1. Bonsor, p. 856.

1. Carson, p. 9.

1. ["Belgian Merchant A-G"](http://www.belgischekoopvaardij.net/belgian%20merchant%20A-G%2023.5.04.pdf). Belgische Koopvaardij. Retrieved 30 September 2010.[dead link]

1. Münsterberg, p. 228.

1. Sullivan, p. 33.

1. Sullivan, p. 246.

1. Halpin, p. 237.

1. Sullivan, p. 37.

1. Halpin, p. 239.

1. Sullivan, p. 39.

1. Sullivan, p. 41.

1. The [1916 Summer Olympics](/source/1916_Summer_Olympics), slated for [Berlin](/source/Berlin), were canceled because of [World War I](/source/World_War_I).

1. Panama Pacific Line (22 May 1915). *Panama Pacific Line Passenger List*. p. 2. Convenience copy of relevant page can be found [here](http://auctionwagon.s3.amazonaws.com/G2SM7101861a-f6f3-41d3-92d6-9779f30321ec-10585.jpg) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20090225123525/http://auctionwagon.s3.amazonaws.com/G2SM7101861a-f6f3-41d3-92d6-9779f30321ec-10585.jpg) 25 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 2008-05-13.

1. Root and Crocker, pp. 42–43.

1. Sharpe, p. 359.

1. Crowell and Wilson, pp. 313–14.

1. Crowell and Wilson, pp. 315–16.

1. Crowell and Wilson, p. 316.

1. Gleaves, p. 102

1. The individual groups of the first convoy were typically counted as separate convoys in post-war sources. See, for example, Crowell and Wilson, Appendix G, p. 603.

1. [USAT *Henry R. Mallory*](/source/USAT_Henry_R._Mallory) was also referred to in sources as both *H. R. Mallory* and *Mallory*.

1. Gleaves, p. 38.

1. Crowell and Wilson, pp. 23–24.

1. Gleaves, p. 34.

1. Gleaves, p. 42.

1. Gleaves, pp. 42–43.

1. Gleaves, p. 45.

1. Crowell and Wilson, p. 603.

1. Benson, p. 221.

1. Gleaves, p. 102.

1. Crowell and Wilson, p. 428.

1. Helgason, Guðmundur. ["Ships hit during WWI: Antilles"](http://uboat.net/wwi/ships_hit/359.html). *The U-boat War*. Uboat.net. Retrieved 2008-05-09.

1. Gleaves, p. 106.

1. Gleaves, pp. 108–110.

1. Helgason, Guðmundur. ["Ships hit during WWI: Finland"](http://uboat.net/wwi/ships_hit/2179.html). *The U-boat War*. Uboat.net. Retrieved 2008-05-09.

1. ["USS *Finland* (ID # 4543), 1918-1919"](https://web.archive.org/web/20060203030916/http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/sh-usn/usnsh-f/id4543.htm). *Online Library of Selected Images: U.S. Navy ships*. [Navy Department](/source/United_States_Department_of_the_Navy), [Naval Historical Center](/source/Naval_Historical_Center). 7 March 2008. Archived from [the original](http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/sh-usn/usnsh-f/id4543.htm) on 3 February 2006. Retrieved 2008-05-14.

1. Bureau of Naval Personnel, *Officers and Enlisted Men...*, pp. 354, 359, 369.

1. ["Eight on Finland Lost Their Lives"](http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045462/1917-11-03/ed-1/seq-6/). *Evening Star (Washington DC)*. 3 November 1917. p. 6. Retrieved 12 March 2015.

1. Stringer, p. 26.

1. Stringer, p. 67.

1. Stringer, p. 192.

1. Crowell and Wilson, p. 605.

1. [United States Army Quartermaster Corps](/source/United_States_Army_Quartermaster_Corps), *Cold Storage Branch*, p. 35.

1. Crowell and Wilson, p. 431.

1. Crowell and Wilson, p. 606.

1. ["Finland"](http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/f2/finland.htm). Retrieved 2008-05-09.

1. Crowell and Wilson, p. 608.

1. Cutchins and Stewart, p. 67.

1. Crowell and Wilson, pp. 610–11.

1. Cutchins and Stewart, p. 68.

1. ["Covington"](http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/c14/covington-ii.htm). Retrieved 2008-05-12.

1. Crowell and Wilson, p. 555.

1. Crowell and Wilson, p. 614.

1. Crowell and Wilson (p. 614) list the destroyer as "*Calhoun*". The only [USS *Calhoun*](/source/USS_Calhoun_(1851)) ever was a former [Confederate](/source/Confederate_States_of_America) steamer captured during the [American Civil War](/source/American_Civil_War).

1. Crowell and Wilson, p. 559.

1. Crowell and Wilson, p. 617.

1. Crowell and Wilson, p. 620.

1. Gleaves, pp. 246–47.

1. ["The BLML–SS Finland Challenge"](http://www.worldbridge.org/repository/tourn/estoril.05/Bulletin/Bul0906.htm). *[World Bridge Federation](/source/World_Bridge_Federation)*. 31 October 2005. Retrieved 27 April 2016.

## References

- Benson, Albert Emerson (ed.) (1920). *Saint Mark's School in the War Against Germany*. [Norwood, Massachusetts](/source/Norwood,_Massachusetts): [Saint Mark's School](/source/St._Mark's_School_(Massachusetts)). [OCLC 1904474](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1904474)
- Bonsor, N. R. P. (1978 [1955]). *North Atlantic Seaway, Volume 2*. Enlarged and completely revised ed. [Saint Brélade](/source/Saint_Br%C3%A9lade,_Jersey), [Jersey](/source/Jersey): Brookside Publications. ISBN 0-905824-01-6. [OCLC 29930159](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/29930159)
- Bureau of Naval Personnel (1920). [*Officers and Enlisted Men of the United States Navy Who Lost Their Lives During the World War, from April 6, 1917, to November 11, 1918*](https://archive.org/details/cu31924027835325). [Washington, D.C.](/source/Washington,_D.C.): [United States Government Printing Office](/source/United_States_Government_Printing_Office). [OCLC 1187918](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1187918)
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- Cutchins, John A. & George Scott Stewart, Jr. (1921). [*History of the Twenty-ninth division, "Blue and gray," 1917-1919*](https://archive.org/details/historytwentyni01thgoog). [Philadelphia](/source/Philadelphia): Press of MacCalla & Co. [OCLC 3260003](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/3260003)
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- Halpin, Matthew P. (1912). ["How the team trained on the Finland"](https://archive.org/details/olympicgamessto00sullgoog). *The Olympic Games: Stockholm 1912*. Spalding "Red Cover" Series of Athletic Handbooks. James Edward Sullivan (ed.). New York: American Sports Publishing. [OCLC 11031794](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/11031794)
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- Naval Historical Center. ["Covington"](http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/c14/covington-ii.htm). Retrieved 2008-05-12.
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- Sharpe, Henry Granville (1921). [*The Quartermaster Corps in the Year 1917 in the World War*](https://archive.org/details/quartermasterco00unkngoog). New York: [Century Co.](/source/The_Century_Company). [OCLC 7980339](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/7980339)
- Stringer, Harry R. (1921). [*The Navy Book of Distinguished Service*](https://archive.org/details/navybookdisting00strigoog). [Washington, D.C.](/source/Washington,_D.C.): Fassett Pub. Co. [OCLC 2654351](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/2654351)
- Sullivan, James Edward (ed.) (1912). [*The Olympic Games: Stockholm 1912*](https://archive.org/details/olympicgamessto00sullgoog). Spalding "Red Cover" Series of Athletic Handbooks. New York: American Sports Publishing. [OCLC 11031794](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/11031794)
- United States Army Quartermaster Corps & Quartermaster Corps School (1929). *The Organization and Activities of the Cold Storage Branch, Supplies Division, Quartermaster Corps with the American Expeditionary Forces in France*. [Philadelphia](/source/Philadelphia): Quartermaster Corps School (Schuylkill Arsenal). [OCLC 22367828](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/22367828)

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [SS Finland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Finland) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Finland?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.