# Rosh Chodesh

> Mediated Wiki article. Canonical URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Rosh_Chodesh
> Markdown URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Rosh_Chodesh.md
> Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosh_Chodesh
> Source revision: 1338676451
> License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/)

Hebrew month

"New moon festival" redirects here. For the ancient Greek festival, see [Noumenia](/source/Noumenia).

Rosh Chodesh Kiddush levana depicted in Judisches Ceremoniel (1724) Halakhic texts relating to this article Torah: Exodus 12:1–2 Babylonian Talmud: Megillah 22b

Part of a series on Judaism Movements Orthodox Haredi Hasidic Modern Conservative Reform Karaite Reconstructionist Renewal Humanistic Philosophy Principles of faith Kabbalah Messiah Ethics Chosenness God Names Musar movement Texts Tanakh Torah Nevi'im Ketuvim Ḥumash Siddur Piyutim Zohar Rabbinic Mishnah Talmud Midrash Tosefta Law Mishneh Torah Tur Shulchan Aruch Mishnah Berurah Aruch HaShulchan Kashrut Tzniut Tzedakah Niddah Noahide laws Holy cities/places Jerusalem Safed Hebron Tiberias Synagogue Beth midrash Mikveh Sukkah Chevra kadisha Holy Temple Tabernacle Important figures Abraham Isaac Jacob Moses Aaron David Solomon Sarah Rebecca Rachel Leah Rabbinic sages Chazal Tannaim Amoraim Savoraim Geonim Rishonim Acharonim Religious roles Rabbi Rebbe Posek Hazzan Dayan Rosh yeshiva Mohel Kohen Culture and education Brit milah Zeved habat Pidyon haben Hebrew calendar Shabbat Bar and bat mitzvah Marriage Bereavement Yeshiva Kollel Cheder Ritual objects Sefer Torah Tallit Tefillin Tzitzit Kippah Mezuzah Menorah Shofar Four species Etrog Lulav Hadass Arava Kittel Gartel Prayers Shema Amidah Aleinu Kaddish Minyan Birkat Hamazon Shehecheyanu Hallel Havdalah Tachanun Kol Nidre Selichot (S'lichot) Major holidays Rosh Hashanah Yom Kippur Sukkot Pesach Shavuot Purim Hanukkah Other religions Christianity Hinduism Islam Mormonism Samaritanism Abrahamic religions Judeo-Christian Pluralism Related topics Jews Zionism Israel Criticism Antisemitism Anti-Judaism Holocaust theology Music Jesus Muhammad Judaism portal v t e

In [Judaism](/source/Judaism), **Rosh Chodesh** or **Rosh Hodesh** (pronounced [\[/ʁoʃ ˈχo.deʃ/\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Hebrew); [Hebrew](/source/Hebrew_language): רֹאשׁ חֹדֶשׁ, [romanized](/source/Romanization_of_Hebrew): *rōʾš ḥōḏeš*, [lit.](/source/Literal_translation) 'Head [of] the month') is a minor holiday observed at the beginning of every month in the [Hebrew calendar](/source/Hebrew_calendar), marked by the birth of a [new moon](/source/New_moon).[1] Rosh Chodesh is observed for either one or two days, depending on whether the previous month contained 29 or 30 days.[2]

## Origin

The [Book of Exodus](/source/Book_of_Exodus) establishes the new moon of [Nisan](/source/Nisan), which is the first month of [Aviv](/source/Aviv), as the beginning of the [Hebrew calendar](/source/Hebrew_calendar):

And the LORD spoke unto Moses and Aaron in the land of Egypt, saying: "This month shall mark for you the beginning of the months; it shall be the first of the months of the year for you."

— Exodus 12:1-2[3]

In the [Book of Numbers](/source/Book_of_Numbers), God speaks of the celebration of the new moon to Moses:

And on your joyous occasions—your fixed festivals and new moon days—you shall sound the trumpets over your burnt offerings and your sacrifices of well-being.

— Numbers 10:10[3]

In [Psalm 81:4](https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt2681.htm#4), both new and full moon are mentioned as a time of recognition by the Hebrews:

Blow the horn on the new moon, on the full moon for our feast day.[3][4]

In the [Hebrew Bible](/source/Hebrew_Bible), Rosh Chodesh is often referred to simply as "Chodesh", as the Hebrew word "chodesh" can mean both "month" and "new month".[5][*[full citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include)*]

## Declaring the month

See also: [Hebrew calendar](/source/Hebrew_calendar)

Judaism uses a [lunisolar calendar](/source/Lunisolar_calendar), so Rosh Chodesh is celebrated in connection with the date of the [new moon](/source/New_moon). Originally, the date of Rosh Chodesh was confirmed on the testimony of witnesses observing the new moon, a procedure known as *kiddush hachodesh* (sanctification of the month).[6] After the [Sanhedrin](/source/Sanhedrin) declared Rosh Chodesh for either a full (30-day) or defective (29-day) month, news of it would then be communicated throughout [Israel](/source/Israel) and the diaspora.

This system was dependent on the functioning of the Sanhedrin to declare the month, and to communicate this month to far-flung Jewish communities. In the 4th century CE, this became impossible and instead a fixed calendar of 29- and 30-day months (see [Hebrew calendar](/source/Hebrew_calendar) for details) was instituted by [Hillel II](/source/Hillel_II).[7] At the end of a 29-day month, Rosh Chodesh is celebrated for one day, on the first day of the new month. At the end of a 30-day month, Rosh Chodesh is celebrated for two days - the 30th day of the previous month, and the first day of the new month.[2]

## Observance

### Announcement

Despite the existence of a fixed calendar, Rosh Chodesh is still announced in [synagogues](/source/Synagogue) on the preceding [Shabbat](/source/Shabbat) (called [Shabbat Mevarchim](/source/Shabbat_Mevarchim) — The Shabbat of Blessing [the new month]). The announcement is made after the reading of the [sefer Torah](/source/Sefer_Torah), before returning it to the [Torah ark](/source/Torah_ark). The name of the new month, and the day of the week on which it falls, is given during the prayer. Some communities customarily precede the prayer by an announcement of the exact date and time of the new moon, referred to as the *molad*, or "birth".[8][1] Rosh Chodesh Tishrei (which is also [Rosh Hashanah](/source/Rosh_Hashanah)) is never announced, although according to the fixed Jewish calendar, it is the determining factor for all of the postponements (Dehioth) which determine when each Rosh Chodesh is actually observed.

### Traditional observances

On Rosh Chodesh, the prayer [Yaaleh V'Yavo](/source/Yaaleh_V'Yavo) is added to the Ritzeh (or "Avodah") blessing of the [Amidah](/source/Amidah).[9] In the morning service "half [Hallel](/source/Hallel)" ([Psalms](/source/Psalms) 113–118, with two paragraphs omitted) is recited (except on Rosh Chodesh Tevet, which is during Chanukkah, when the full Hallel is recited). The [Torah is read](/source/Torah_reading), specifically [Numbers 28:1–15](https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0428.htm#1) which includes the [sacrifices](/source/Korban) of Rosh Chodesh. An additional prayer service, called [Mussaf](/source/Mussaf), is added to commemorate the Rosh Chodesh sacrifices in the [Temple](/source/Temple_in_Jerusalem). Its middle blessing begins "Roshei Chadashim". After the service, many recite Psalm 104.

If Rosh Chodesh falls on [Shabbat](/source/Shabbat), the regular [Torah reading](/source/Torah_reading) is supplemented with a reading of Numbers 28:9-15. The German custom is to sing the Half Kaddish preceding Maftir to a special tune.[10] In most months (if it does not coincide with another special Haftarah), the regular [Haftarah](/source/Haftarah) is replaced by a special Rosh Chodesh Haftarah. The *Mussaf* prayer is also modified when Rosh Chodesh falls on Shabbat. The central benediction is replaced with an alternative version (*Ata Yatzarta*) that mentions both the Shabbat and Rosh Chodesh. If Rosh Chodesh falls on a Sunday and not on the Sabbath, the special Haftarah of *Mahar Chodesh* ("Tomorrow is the New Moon", [I Samuel](/source/Books_of_Samuel) 20:18-42) is read if it does not coincide with another special Haftarah.

[Kiddush Levanah](/source/Kiddush_Levanah) is recited soon after Rosh Chodesh, although most communities wait until three or seven days after the Molad (the time of the "birth" of the new moon).[11] It is common to wait until Saturday night to recite Kiddush Levanah.[12]

Many have a custom to eat a special meal in honor of Rosh Chodesh, as recommended by the [Shulchan Aruch](/source/Shulchan_Aruch).[13] This gives one the opportunity to recite the *Ya'a'le Ve-Yavo* in Birkat Hamazon. Some Hasidic Jews sing Psalm 104 during this meal.

### Work

Jews nowadays generally treat Rosh Chodesh as barely different from any other weekday (except for expansion of the prayer service).[1] The Torah does not prohibit work (*[melacha](/source/39_melachot)*) on Rosh Chodesh,[14] and the Talmud states that work is permitted on Rosh Chodesh.[15] The [Jerusalem Talmud](/source/Jerusalem_Talmud) states that women refrain from work on Rosh Hodesh, but only by custom as opposed to law.[16] This custom is recorded in the [Shulchan Aruch](/source/Shulchan_Aruch),[17] but does not seem to be commonly practised in modern times.

Yet for much of early Jewish history, Rosh Chodesh was observed much more seriously. In some Biblical sources, Rosh Hodesh is described as a day when business is not conducted[18] and which seems to have been devoted to worship[19] and feasting.[20] This is corroborated by an inscription from the [Arad ostraca](/source/Arad_ostraca) (c. 600 BCE) in which a military commander is told to deliver goods on the first of the month, but only to record this delivery in writing on the second of the month (seemingly because writing was considered a forbidden [melakha](/source/39_melakhot)).[21] In the Second Temple period, too, Rosh Chodesh was considered a day of rest according to some sources.[22] In the Talmudic period, one passage considered Rosh Chodesh to be a day on which work ceased (*bittul*);[23] another passage suggests that work ceased (*bittul*) but was not forbidden (*assur*).[24] To explain the current acceptance of working on Rosh Chodesh, [Shaagat Aryeh](/source/Aryeh_Leib_ben_Asher_Gunzberg) proposed that there indeed was a general prohibition on Rosh Chodesh work while the Temple stood, as the [mussaf](/source/Mussaf) sacrifice was offered on behalf of the entire people, and a general principle exists that a person may not work on a day when their sacrifice is offered.[25]

### Rosh Chodesh and women

According to the [Talmud](/source/Talmud), women do not engage in work on Rosh Chodesh.[26] [Rashi](/source/Rashi), in commenting on this passage, delineates the activities from which they must refrain: spinning, weaving, and sewing—the skills that women contributed to the building of the Mishkan ([Tabernacle](/source/Tabernacle)). The [Shulchan Aruch](/source/Shulchan_Aruch) writes that "Those women whose custom is not to do work on [Rosh Chodesh] have a good custom".[17]

The [midrash](/source/Midrash) *[Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer](/source/Pirke_De-Rabbi_Eliezer)* gives a historical explanation for this practice:

Aaron argued with himself, saying: "If I say to Israel, 'Give ye to me gold and silver,' they will bring it immediately; but behold I will say to them, 'Give ye to me the earrings of your wives and of your sons,' and forthwith the matter will fail," as it is said, "And Aaron said to them, 'Break off the golden rings.'" The women heard (this), but they were unwilling to give their earrings to their husbands; but they said to them: "Ye desire to make a graven image of a molten image without any power in it to deliver." The Holy One, blessed be He, gave the women their reward in this world and the world to come. What reward did He give them in this world? That they should observe the new moons more stringently than the men, and what reward will He give them in the world to come? They are destined to be renewed like the new moons, as it is said: "Who satisfieth thy years with good things; so that thy youth is renewed like the eagle."[27]

In modern times, female-centered Rosh Chodesh observances vary from group to group, but many are centered on small gatherings of women, called Rosh Chodesh groups. There is often a particular interest in the [Shekinah](/source/Shekinah), considered by the [kabbalah](/source/Kabbalah) to be a feminine aspect of God. These groups engage in a wide variety of activities that center around issues important to Jewish women, depending on the preference of the group's members. Many Rosh Chodesh groups explore spirituality, religious education, ritual, health issues, music, chanting, art, and/or cooking. Some groups also choose to educate young Jewish women in their community about sexuality, self-image, and other women's mental and physical health issues.[28]

Miriam's cup (for the prophet [Miriam](/source/Miriam)) originated in the 1980s in a Boston Rosh Chodesh group; it was invented by Stephanie Loo, who filled it with mayim hayim (living waters) and used it in a feminist ceremony of [guided meditation](/source/Guided_meditation).[29] Some seders (including the original Women's Seder, but not limited to women-only seders) now set Miriam's cup as well as the traditional cup for the prophet Elijah, sometimes accompanied by a ritual to honor Miriam.[30] Miriam's cup is linked to the *[midrash](/source/Midrash)* of [Miriam's well](/source/Miriam#Jewish_culture), which "is a rabbinic legend that tells of a miraculous well that accompanied the Israelites during their 40 years in the desert at the Exodus from Egypt".[31][32]

## See also

- [Judaism](/source/Judaism)

- [Hebrew calendar](/source/Hebrew_calendar)

- [Solar year](/source/Solar_year)

- [Lunar cycle](/source/Lunar_cycle)

- [Jewish feminism](/source/Jewish_feminism)

- [Yom Kippur Katan](/source/Yom_Kippur_Katan) - Fast day including Confessional ritual for the day preceding Rosh Chodesh

## References

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Kosofsky2009_1-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Kosofsky2009_1-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Kosofsky2009_1-2) Kosofsky, Scott-Martin (October 13, 2009). *The Book of Customs: A Complete Handbook for the Jewish Year*. me. pp. 91–92. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-06-173954-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-173954-5).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-ouk_2-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-ouk_2-1) [In the Jewish calendar, months are either 29 or 30 days in length. Why is it that for a 29 day month (known as a choser), we observe only one day Rosh Chodesh, while for a 30 day month (which is referred to as a moleh) we observe 2 days Rosh Chodesh?](https://oukosher.org/halacha-yomis/in-the-jewish-calendar-months-are-either-29-or-30-days-in-length-why-is-it-that-for-a-29-day-month-known-as-a-choser-we-observe-only-one-day-rosh-chodesh-while-for-a-30-day-month-which-is-refer/)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-JPS_3-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-JPS_3-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-JPS_3-2) *JPS Hebrew-English Tanakh*, Second Edition. Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society, 2003.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** Some [translations](/source/English_translations_of_the_bible) refer to "the appointed time" rather than to the full moon, e.g. [King James Version](/source/King_James_Version) and [Wycliffe Bible](/source/Wycliffe_Bible): the latter reads, "Blow ye with a trump in the new moon; in the noble day of your solemnity"

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** [Concordance - Dictionary: חֹדֶשׁ](https://mg.alhatorah.org/Dictionary/2320)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** [Mishnah](/source/Mishnah) *[Rosh Hashanah](/source/Rosh_Hashanah_(tractate))* 1

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** [Rosh Chodesh](https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/rosh-chodesh)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-''Tehillat_HaShem'',_p._8-0)** *Tehillat HaShem*, Merkos L'Inyonei Chinuch, 1988 (Standard Lubovitch prayerbook)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** ["Shulchan Arukh, Orach Chayim 422:1"](https://www.sefaria.org/Shulchan_Arukh,_Orach_Chayim.422.1?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en). *www.sefaria.org*. Retrieved 2024-11-12.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** For an example, see Chazan Michael Friedman (2014). ["Nusach According to the Ashkenaz Tradition"](http://www.kayj.net/nusach-internal/Special_Categories-Rosh_Chodesh.html). Jerusalem: K’hal Adas Yeshurun.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** Shulach Aruch OC 426:4 and commentaries.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** Shulach Aruch OC 426:2

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** Shulchan Aruch 419

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** [Numbers 28:11–15](https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0428.htm#11), in contrast with the holidays in the remainder of the chapter where a work prohibition is specified

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** Hagigah 18a

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** [Yerushalmi Taanit 1:6](https://www.sefaria.org.il/Jerusalem_Talmud_Taanit.1.6.3?lang=bi); see a different wording of the same ruling in [Tur](/source/Arba'ah_Turim) Orach Chaim 417

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-sa417_17-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-sa417_17-1) Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chaim 417

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** [Amos 8:5](https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt1508.htm#5); [1 Samuel 20:19](https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt08a20.htm#19) (referring to the day before Rosh Chodesh as "the day of work")

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** [2 Kings 4:23](https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt09b04.htm#23); [Isaiah 66:23](https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt1066.htm#23); [Ezekiel 46:1](https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt1246.htm#1)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** [1 Samuel 20:24–29](https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt08a20.htm#24)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** לונשטם, שמואל א'; Loewenstamn, Samuel E. (1976). ["Ostracan 7 from Arad, Attesting the Observance of the New-Moon-Day? / כתובת 7 מאוסטרקאות ערד, עדות לביטול מלאכה בראש חודש?"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/23503560). *Beit Mikra: Journal for the Study of the Bible and Its World / בית מקרא: כתב-עת לחקר המקרא ועולמו*. **כא** (ג (סו)): 330–332. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0005-979X](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0005-979X). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [23503560](https://www.jstor.org/stable/23503560).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** 1 Maccabees, 10:34

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** Rosh Hashana 23a

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** Megillah 22b

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** *Turei Even*, Megillah 22b. See also [Joseph B. Soloveitchik](/source/Joseph_B._Soloveitchik), *Shiurim lezecher abba mori*, "Hachrazat Rosh Chodesh Vechol Hamoed", who argues that omitting the addition *Yaaleh Veyavo* from Rosh Chodesh prayers does not require repeating the prayer at night because this recitation is fundamentally a consequence of the *mussaf* sacrifice which was only offered during the day.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** [Talmud](/source/Talmud), b. [Megillah 22b](https://www.sefaria.org/Megillah.22b)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** *Pirke de Rabbi Eliezer: The Chapters of Rabbi Eliezer the Great According to the Text of the Manuscript Belonging to Abraham Epstein of Vienna*. Translated by Friedlander, Gerald. New York: Hermon Press. 1965. pp. 353–354. (chapter 45)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** Gottlieb, Lynn (1995). "Ch. 12: The Initiation of the New Jewish Woman". *She Who Dwells Within: A Feminist Vision of a Renewed Judaism*. San Francisco: Harper San Francisco.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** ["Why Miriam's Cup? Because without Miriam, Jewish life would not exist | j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern California"](http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/74341/why-miriams-cup-because-without-miriam-jewish-life-would-not-exist/). *J*. Jweekly.com. 2015-04-02. Retrieved 2015-04-13.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** [Miriam's Cup: Miriam's Cup rituals for the family Passover seder](http://www.miriamscup.com/RitualFirst.htm) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150504070956/http://www.miriamscup.com/RitualFirst.htm) 2015-05-04 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine). Miriamscup.com. Retrieved on 18 October 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Esserman_defrosting_31-0)** Esserman, Rachel (1 September 2006). ["Defrosting Judaism: A look at the Ritualwell Website"](https://web.archive.org/web/20140407064500/http://www.rrc.edu/sites/default/files/legacy/Defrosting%20Judaism%20-%20Esserman.pdf) (PDF). *The Reporter*. Binghamton, NY. Jewish Federation of Greater Binghamton. p. 5. Archived from [the original](http://www.rrc.edu/sites/default/files/legacy/Defrosting%20Judaism%20-%20Esserman.pdf) (Print) on 7 April 2014. Retrieved 29 January 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** ["Miriam's Cup"](https://www.myjewishlearning.com/holidays/Jewish_Holidays/Passover/The_Seder/Seder_Plate_and_Table/Miriams_Cup.shtml). My Jewish Learning. 2014-01-22. Retrieved 2015-04-13.

## External links

- [My Jewish Learning: Rosh Chodesh](https://web.archive.org/web/20061019115125/http://www.myjewishlearning.com/holidays/About_Jewish_Holidays/Rosh_Chodesh.htm)

- [Jewish Virtual Library - Rosh Chodesh](http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Rosh_Chodesh.html)

- Rabbi [Eliezer Melamed](/source/Eliezer_Melamed), [Peninei Halakha](/source/Peninei_Halakha) - Zmanim, [Rosh Chodesh](https://ph.yhb.org.il/en/category/zemanim/05-01/)

v t e Jewish and Israeli holidays and observances Jewish holidays and observances Shabbat Shabbat Special Shabbat High Holy Days Rosh Hashanah Ten Days of Repentance Yom Kippur Three Pilgrimage Festivals Passover Fast of the Firstborn Pesach Sheni Shavuot Sukkot Hoshana Rabbah Shemini Atzeret Simchat Torah Yom tov sheni shel galuyot Chol HaMoed Isru chag Rosh Chodesh Fast of Gedalia Hanukkah Tenth of Tevet Tu BiShvat Fast of Esther Purim Purim Katan Counting of the Omer Lag BaOmer 17th of Tammuz The Three Weeks The Nine Days Tisha B'Av Tu B'Av Rosh Hashanah LeMa'sar Behemah Israeli national days National holiday Yom HaAtzmaut (Independence Day) Remembrance days Yom HaZikaron (Memorial Day) Yom HaShoah (Holocaust Remembrance Day) Commemorative days Remembrance Day for the Fallen of the Swords of Iron War Yom Yerushalayim (Jerusalem Day) Yom HaAliyah (Aliyah Day) Ben-Gurion Day Herzl Day Jabotinsky Day Rabin Day Day to Mark the Departure and Expulsion of Jews from the Arab Countries and Iran Israeli ethnic holidays Mimouna Seharane Sigd Hebrew months Nisan Iyar Sivan Tammuz Av Elul Tishrei Cheshvan Kislev Tevet Shevat Adar and Adar Sheni Related National Memorial Ceremony of October 7 Families

---
Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Rosh Chodesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosh_Chodesh) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosh_Chodesh?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.