# Revolution

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Rapid and fundamental political change

"Political revolution" redirects here. For Trotskyist concept, see [Political revolution (Trotskyism)](/source/Political_revolution_(Trotskyism)). For other uses, see [Revolution (disambiguation)](/source/Revolution_(disambiguation)) and [Revolutions (disambiguation)](/source/Revolutions_(disambiguation)).

[Eugène Delacroix](/source/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix)'s romantic painting, *[Liberty Leading the People](/source/Liberty_Leading_the_People)* ([French](/source/French_language): *La liberté guidant le peuple*), is an example of a revolution in the political sense.

Part of a series on Revolution Characteristics Bourgeois Colour Communist Counter-revolutionary Democratic Nonviolent Passive Permanent Proletarian From above Wave Social Methods Boycott Civil disorder Civil war Class struggle Contentious politics Coup d'état Demonstration Human chain Direct action Guerrilla warfare Insurgency Mass mobilization Mutiny Protest Rebellion Resistance Nonviolent Civil Disobedience Riot Samizdat Strike action Tax resistance Terror Examples English American Brabant Liège French Haitian Spanish American Serbian Greek 1820s 1830 July Belgian Texas 1848 Italian states February German Hungarian Eureka Bulgarian unification Philippine Iranian First Second Young Turk Mexican Chinese Xinhai Communist Cultural 1917–1923 Russian German Siamese Spanish August Guatemalan Indonesian Hungarian (1956) Cuban Rwandan Nicaraguan Argentine Carnation Saur People Power 1989 Yogurt Velvet Romanian Singing Bolivarian Bulldozer Rose Orange Tulip Kyrgyz Arab Spring Tunisian Egyptian Yemeni Euromaidan Second Arab Spring Sudanese Gen Z in Asia Bangladeshi Nepali Malagasy Politics portal v t e

In [political science](/source/Political_science), a **revolution** ([Latin](/source/Latin_language): *revolutio*, 'a turn around') is a rapid, fundamental transformation of a society's class, state, ethnic, or religious structures.[1] According to the [sociologist](/source/Sociologist) [Jack Goldstone](/source/Jack_Goldstone), all revolutions contain "a common set of elements at their core: (a) efforts to change the political [regime](/source/Regime) that draw on a competing vision (or visions) of a just order, (b) a notable degree of informal or formal [mass mobilization](/source/Mass_mobilization), and (c) efforts to force change through noninstitutionalized actions such as [mass demonstrations](/source/Political_demonstration), [protests](/source/Protest), strikes, or [violence](/source/Political_violence)."[2]

Revolutions have occurred throughout human history and varied in their methods, durations and outcomes.[3] Some revolutions started with [peasant uprisings](/source/List_of_peasant_revolts) or [guerrilla warfare](/source/Guerrilla_warfare) on the periphery of a country; others started with urban insurrection aimed at seizing the country's capital city.[2] Revolutions can be inspired by the rising popularity of certain political [ideologies](/source/Ideology), moral principles, or models of governance such as [nationalism](/source/Nationalism), [republicanism](/source/Republicanism), [egalitarianism](/source/Egalitarianism), [self-determination](/source/Self-determination), [human rights](/source/Human_rights), [democracy](/source/Democracy), [liberalism](/source/Liberalism), [fascism](/source/Fascism), or [socialism](/source/Socialism).[4] A regime may become vulnerable to revolution due to a recent military defeat, or economic chaos, or an affront to national pride and identity, or persistent repression and [corruption](/source/Corruption).[2] Revolutions typically trigger [counter-revolutions](/source/Counter-revolutions) which seek to halt revolutionary momentum, or to reverse the course of an ongoing revolutionary transformation.[5] [Autocracies](/source/Autocracy) that take power during revolutions tend to be exceptionally durable and long-lasting.[6]

Notable revolutions in recent centuries include the [American Revolution](/source/American_Revolution) (1765–1783), [French Revolution](/source/French_Revolution) (1789–1799), [Haitian Revolution](/source/Haitian_Revolution) (1791–1804), [Spanish American wars of independence](/source/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence) (1808–1826), [Revolutions of 1848](/source/Revolutions_of_1848) in Europe, [Mexican Revolution](/source/Mexican_Revolution) (1910–1920), [Xinhai Revolution](/source/Xinhai_Revolution) in China in 1911, [Revolutions of 1917–1923](/source/Revolutions_of_1917%E2%80%931923) in Europe (including the [Russian Revolution](/source/Russian_Revolution) and [German Revolution](/source/German_revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919)), [Chinese Communist Revolution](/source/Chinese_Communist_Revolution) (1927–1949), [Indian independence movement](/source/Indian_independence_movement) (1885-1947), [decolonization of Africa](/source/Decolonization_of_Africa) (mid-1950s to 1975), [Algerian War of Independence](/source/Algerian_War_of_Independence) (1954–1962), [Cuban Revolution](/source/Cuban_Revolution) in 1959, [Iranian Revolution](/source/Iranian_Revolution) and [Nicaraguan Revolution](/source/Nicaraguan_Revolution) in 1979, worldwide [Revolutions of 1989](/source/Revolutions_of_1989), and [Arab Spring](/source/Arab_Spring) in the early 2010s.

## Etymology

The [French](/source/French_language) noun *revolucion* traces back to the 13th century, and the [English](/source/English_language) equivalent "revolution" to the late 14th century. The word was limited then to mean the revolving motion of celestial bodies. "Revolution" in the sense of abrupt change in a [social order](/source/Social_order) was first recorded in the mid-15th century.[7][8] By 1688, the political meaning of the word was familiar enough that the replacement of [James II](/source/James_II_of_England) with [William III](/source/William_III_of_Orange) was termed the "[Glorious Revolution](/source/Glorious_Revolution)".[9]

## Definition

"Revolution" is now employed most often to denote a change in social and political institutions.[10][11][12] [Jeff Goodwin](/source/Jeff_Goodwin) offers two definitions. First, a broad one, including "any and all instances in which a state or a political regime is overthrown and thereby transformed by a popular movement in an irregular, extraconstitutional or violent fashion". Second, a narrow one, in which "revolutions entail not only [mass mobilization](/source/Mass_mobilization) and [regime change](/source/Regime_change), but also more or less rapid and fundamental social, economic or cultural change, during or soon after the struggle for state power".[13]

Jack Goldstone defines a revolution thusly:

"[Revolution is] an effort to transform the political institutions and the justifications for political authority in society, accompanied by formal or informal mass mobilization and noninstitutionalized actions that undermine authorities. This definition is broad enough to encompass events ranging from the [relatively peaceful revolutions that toppled communist regimes](/source/Revolutions_of_1989) to the [violent Islamic revolution in Afghanistan](/source/War_in_Afghanistan_(1978%E2%80%93present)). At the same time, this definition is strong enough to exclude coups, revolts, civil wars, and rebellions that make no effort to transform institutions or the justification for authority."[2]

Goldstone's definition excludes peaceful transitions to [democracy](/source/Democracy) through [plebiscite](/source/Plebiscite) or [free elections](/source/Election#Difficulties_with_elections), as occurred in [Spain](/source/Spain) after the death of [Francisco Franco](/source/Francisco_Franco), or in [Argentina](/source/Argentina) and [Chile](/source/Chile) after the demise of their [military juntas](/source/Military_junta).[2] Early scholars often debated the distinction between revolution and civil war.[3][14] They also questioned whether a revolution is purely political (i.e., concerned with the restructuring of government) or whether "it is an extensive and inclusive social change affecting all the various aspects of the life of a society, including the economic, religious, industrial, and familial as well as the political".[15]

## Types

There are numerous typologies of revolution in the social science literature.[16] [Alexis de Tocqueville](/source/Alexis_de_Tocqueville) differentiated between:

- sudden and violent revolutions that seek not only to establish a new political system but to overhaul an entire society, and;

- slow and relentless revolutions that involve sweeping transformations of the entire society and may take several generations to bring about (such as changes in religion).[17]

The [Revolutions of 1848](/source/Revolutions_of_1848) were essentially [bourgeois revolutions](/source/Bourgeois_revolution) and democratic and liberal in nature, with the aim of removing the old [monarchical](/source/Monarchy) structures and creating independent [nation-states](/source/Nation_state).

One of the [Marxist](/source/Marxist) typologies divides revolutions into:

- pre-capitalist

- early [bourgeois](/source/Bourgeois)

- bourgeois

- [bourgeois-democratic](/source/Bourgeois_revolution)

- early [proletarian](/source/Proletarian)

- [socialist](/source/Revolutionary_socialism)[18]

[Charles Tilly](/source/Charles_Tilly), a modern scholar of revolutions, differentiated between:

- [coup d'état](/source/Coup_d'%C3%A9tat) (a top-down seizure of power), e.g., [Poland, 1926](/source/May_Coup_(Poland))

- [civil war](/source/Civil_war)

- [revolt](/source/Revolt), and

- "great revolution" (a revolution that transforms economic and social structures as well as political institutions, such as the [French Revolution](/source/French_Revolution) of 1789, [Russian Revolution](/source/Russian_Revolution_of_1917) of 1917, or [Islamic Revolution of Iran](/source/Islamic_Revolution_of_Iran) in 1979).[19][20]

[Mark Katz](/source/Mark_N._Katz) identified six forms of revolution:

- rural revolution

- urban revolution

- coup d'état, e.g., [Egypt, 1952](/source/1952_Egyptian_revolution)

- revolution from above, e.g., [Mao Zedong](/source/Mao_Zedong)'s [Great Leap Forward](/source/Great_Leap_Forward) of 1958

- revolution from without, e.g., the Allied invasions of [Italy](/source/Kingdom_of_Italy) in 1943 and of [Germany](/source/Nazi_Germany) in 1945

- revolution by osmosis, e.g., the gradual [Islamization](/source/Islamization) of several countries.[21]

A [Watt steam engine](/source/Watt_steam_engine) in [Madrid](/source/Madrid). The development of the [steam engine](/source/Steam_engine) propelled the [Industrial Revolution](/source/Industrial_Revolution) in Britain and the world. The steam engine was created to pump water from [coal mines](/source/Coal_mine), enabling them to be deepened beyond [groundwater](/source/Groundwater) levels.

These categories are not mutually exclusive; the [Russian Revolution of 1917](/source/Russian_Revolution_of_1917) began with an urban revolution to depose the Czar, followed by a rural revolution, followed by the [Bolshevik](/source/Bolshevik) coup in November. Katz also cross-classified revolutions as follows:

- Central: countries, usually [Great Powers](/source/Great_Powers), which play a leading role in a [revolutionary wave](/source/Revolutionary_wave); e.g., the [USSR](/source/USSR), [Nazi Germany](/source/Nazi_Germany), [Iran](/source/Iran) since 1979[22]

- Aspiring revolutions, which follow the Central revolution

- subordinate or puppet revolutions

- rival revolutions, in which a former alliance is broken, such as [Yugoslavia after 1948](/source/Tito-Stalin_split), and [China after 1960](/source/Sino-Soviet_split).

A further dimension to Katz's typology is that revolutions are either against (anti-monarchy, anti-dictatorial, anti-communist, anti-democratic) or for (pro-fascism, pro-communism, pro-nationalism, etc.). In the latter cases, a transition period is generally necessary to decide which direction to take to achieve the desired form of government.[23] Other types of revolution, created for other typologies, include [proletarian](/source/Proletarian_revolution) or [communist revolutions](/source/Communist_revolutions) (inspired by the ideas of Marxism that aim to replace [capitalism](/source/Capitalism) with [communism](/source/Communism)); failed or abortive revolutions (that are not able to secure power after winning temporary victories or amassing large-scale mobilizations); or violent vs. [nonviolent revolutions](/source/Nonviolent_revolution). The term *revolution* has also been used to denote great changes outside the political sphere. Such revolutions, often labeled [social revolutions](/source/Social_revolution), are recognized as major transformations in a society's culture, philosophy, or technology, rather than in its [political system](/source/Political_system).[24] Some social revolutions are global in scope, while others are limited to single countries. Commonly cited examples of social revolution are the [Industrial Revolution](/source/Industrial_Revolution), [Scientific Revolution](/source/Scientific_Revolution), [Commercial Revolution](/source/Commercial_Revolution), and [Digital Revolution](/source/Digital_Revolution). These revolutions also fit the "slow revolution" type identified by Tocqueville.[25]

## Studies of revolution

R E V O L U T I O N, [graffiti](/source/Graffiti) with [political](/source/Political) message on a house wall in [Ystad, Sweden](/source/Ystad%2C_Sweden). Four letters have been written backwards and in a different color so that they also form the word [Love](/source/Love).

Main article: [Social revolution](/source/Social_revolution)

The [storming of the Bastille](/source/Storming_of_the_Bastille), 14 July 1789 during the [French Revolution](/source/French_Revolution).

[George Washington](/source/George_Washington), leader of the [American Revolution](/source/American_Revolution).

[Vladimir Lenin](/source/Vladimir_Lenin), leader of the [Bolshevik Revolution of 1917](/source/Bolshevik_Revolution_of_1917).

[Sun Yat-sen](/source/Sun_Yat-sen), leader of the Chinese [Xinhai Revolution](/source/Xinhai_Revolution) in 1911.

[Khana Ratsadon](/source/Khana_Ratsadon), a group of military officers and civil officials, who staged the [Siamese Revolution of 1932](/source/Siamese_Revolution_of_1932)

Political and socioeconomic revolutions have been studied in many [social sciences](/source/Social_sciences), particularly [sociology](/source/Sociology), [political science](/source/Political_science) and [history](/source/History).[26] Scholars of revolution differentiate four generations of theoretical research on the subject of revolution.[2][27] Theorists of the first generation, including [Gustave Le Bon](/source/Gustave_Le_Bon), [Charles A. Ellwood](/source/Charles_A._Ellwood), and [Pitirim Sorokin](/source/Pitirim_Sorokin), were mainly descriptive in their approach, and their explanations of the phenomena of revolutions were usually related to [social psychology](/source/Social_psychology), such as Le Bon's [crowd psychology](/source/Crowd_psychology) theory.[10] The second generation sought to develop detailed frameworks, grounded in [social behavior](/source/Social_behavior) theory, to explain why and when revolutions arise. Their work can be divided into three categories: psychological, sociological and political.[10]

The writings of [Ted Robert Gurr](/source/Ted_Robert_Gurr), Ivo K. Feierbrand, Rosalind L. Feierbrand, James A. Geschwender, [David C. Schwartz](/source/David_C._Schwartz), and Denton E. Morrison fall into the first category. They utilized theories of [cognitive psychology](/source/Cognitive_psychology) and [frustration-aggression theory](/source/Frustration-aggression_theory) to link the cause of revolution to the state of mind of the masses. While these theorists varied in their approach as to what exactly incited the people to revolt (e.g., modernization, recession, or discrimination), they agreed that the primary cause for revolution was a widespread frustration with the socio-political situation.[10]

The second group, composed of academics such as [Chalmers Johnson](/source/Chalmers_Johnson), [Neil Smelser](/source/Neil_Smelser), [Bob Jessop](/source/Bob_Jessop), [Mark Hart](/source/Mark_Hart), Edward A. Tiryakian, and Mark Hagopian, drew on the work of [Talcott Parsons](/source/Talcott_Parsons) and the [structural-functionalist](/source/Structural-functionalist) theory in sociology. They saw society as a system in equilibrium between various resources, demands, and subsystems (political, cultural, etc.). As in the psychological school, they differed in their definitions of what causes disequilibrium, but agreed that it is a state of severe disequilibrium that is responsible for revolutions.[10]

The third group, including writers such as [Charles Tilly](/source/Charles_Tilly), [Samuel P. Huntington](/source/Samuel_P._Huntington), [Peter Ammann](/source/Peter_Ammann), and [Arthur L. Stinchcombe](/source/Arthur_L._Stinchcombe), followed a [political science](/source/Political_science) path and looked at [pluralist theory](/source/Pluralist_theory) and [interest group conflict theory](/source/Conflict_theories). Those theories view events as outcomes of a [power struggle](/source/Power_struggle) between competing [interest groups](/source/Advocacy_group). In such a model, revolutions happen when two or more groups cannot come to terms within the current [political system](/source/Political_system)'s normal [decision-making](/source/Decision-making) process, and when they possess the required resources to employ force in pursuit of their goals.[10]

The second-generation theorists regarded the development of revolutionary situations as a two-step process: "First, a pattern of events arises that somehow marks a break or change from previous patterns. This change then affects some critical variable—the cognitive state of the masses, the equilibrium of the system, or the magnitude of conflict and resource control of competing interest groups. If the effect on the critical variable is of sufficient magnitude, a potentially revolutionary situation occurs."[10] Once this point is reached, a negative incident (a war, a riot, a bad harvest) that in the past might not have been enough to trigger a revolt, will now be enough. However, if authorities are cognizant of the danger, they can still prevent revolution through reform or repression.[10]

In his influential 1938 book *[The Anatomy of Revolution](/source/The_Anatomy_of_Revolution)*, historian [Crane Brinton](/source/Crane_Brinton) established a convention by choosing four major political revolutions—[England (1642)](/source/English_Civil_War), [Thirteen Colonies of America (1775)](/source/American_Revolution), [France (1789)](/source/French_Revolution), and [Russia (1917)](/source/Russian_Revolution)—for comparative study.[28] He outlined what he called their "uniformities", although the [American Revolution](/source/American_Revolution) deviated somewhat from the pattern.[29] As a result, most later comparative studies of revolution substituted [China (1949)](/source/Chinese_Communist_Revolution) in their lists, but they continued Brinton's practice of focusing on four.[2]

In subsequent decades, scholars began to classify hundreds of other events as revolutions (see [List of revolutions and rebellions](/source/List_of_revolutions_and_rebellions)). Their expanded notion of revolution engendered new approaches and explanations. The theories of the second generation came under criticism for being too limited in geographical scope, and for lacking a means of empirical verification. Also, while second-generation theories may have been capable of explaining a specific revolution, they could not adequately explain why revolutions failed to occur in other societies experiencing very similar circumstances.[2]

The criticism of the second generation led to the rise of a third generation of theories, put forth by writers such as [Theda Skocpol](/source/Theda_Skocpol), [Barrington Moore](/source/Barrington_Moore), Jeffrey Paige, and others expanding on the old [Marxist](/source/Marxism) [class-conflict](/source/Class_conflict) approach. They turned their attention to "rural agrarian-state conflicts, state conflicts with autonomous elites, and the impact of interstate economic and military competition on domestic political change."[2] In particular, Skocpol's *[States and Social Revolutions](/source/States_and_Social_Revolutions)* (1979) was a landmark book of the third generation. Skocpol defined revolution as "rapid, basic transformations of society's state and class structures ... accompanied and in part carried through by class-based revolts from below", and she attributed revolutions to "a conjunction of multiple conflicts involving state, elites and the lower classes".[1]

In the late 1980s, a new body of academic work started questioning the dominance of the third generation's theories. The old theories were also dealt a significant blow by a series of revolutionary events that they could not readily explain. The [Iranian](/source/Iranian_Revolution) and [Nicaraguan Revolutions](/source/Nicaraguan_Revolution) of 1979, the 1986 [People Power Revolution](/source/People_Power_Revolution) in the [Philippines](/source/Philippines), and the 1989 [Autumn of Nations](/source/Autumn_of_Nations) in Europe, Asia and Africa saw diverse opposition movements topple seemingly powerful regimes amidst popular demonstrations and [mass strikes](/source/General_strike) in [nonviolent revolutions](/source/Nonviolent_revolution).[11][2]

The fall of the [Berlin Wall](/source/Berlin_Wall) and most of the events of the [Autumn of Nations](/source/Autumn_of_Nations) in Europe, 1989, were sudden and peaceful.

For some historians, the traditional paradigm of revolutions as [class struggle](/source/Class_struggle)-driven conflicts centered in Europe, and involving a violent state versus its discontented people, was no longer sufficient to account for the multi-class coalitions toppling dictators around the world. Consequently, the study of revolutions began to evolve in three directions. As Goldstone describes it, scholars of revolution:

1. Extended the third generation's structural theories to a more heterogeneous set of cases, "well beyond the small number of 'great' social revolutions".[2]

1. Called for greater attention to conscious [agency](/source/Agency_(philosophy)) and contingency in understanding the course and outcome of revolutions.

1. Observed how studies of social movements—for women's rights, labor rights, and U.S. civil rights—had much in common with studies of revolution and could enrich the latter. Thus, "a new literature on 'contentious politics' has developed that attempts to combine insights from the literature on social movements and revolutions to better understand both phenomena."[2]

The fourth generation increasingly turned to quantitative techniques when formulating its theories. Political science research moved beyond individual or comparative case studies towards large-N statistical analysis assessing the causes and implications of revolution.[30] The initial fourth-generation books and journal articles generally relied on the [Polity data series](/source/Polity_data_series) on [democratization](/source/Democratization).[31] Such analyses, like those by A. J. Enterline,[32] [Zeev Maoz](/source/Zeev_Maoz),[33] and Edward D. Mansfield and Jack Snyder,[34][*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*] identified a revolution by a significant change in the country's score on Polity's autocracy-to-democracy scale.

Since the 2010s, scholars like Jeff Colgan have argued that the Polity data series—which evaluates the degree of democratic or autocratic authority in a state's governing institutions based on the openness of executive recruitment, constraints on executive authority, and political competition—is inadequate because it measures democratization, not revolution, and doesn't account for regimes which come to power by revolution but fail to change the structure of the state and society sufficiently to yield a notable difference in the Polity score.[35] Instead, Colgan offered a new data set to single out governments that "transform the existing social, political, and economic relationships of the state by overthrowing or rejecting the principal existing institutions of society."[36] This data set has been employed to make empirically based contributions to the literature on revolution by finding links between revolution and the likelihood of international disputes.

Revolutions have been further examined from an anthropological perspective. Drawing on Victor Turner's writings on ritual and performance, [Bjorn Thomassen](/source/Bjorn_Thomassen) suggested that revolutions can be understood as "liminal" moments: modern political revolutions very much resemble rituals and can therefore be studied within a process approach.[37] This would imply not only a focus on political behavior "from below", but also a recognition of moments where "high and low" are relativized, subverted, or made irrelevant, and where the micro and macro levels fuse together in critical conjunctions. Economist [Douglass North](/source/Douglass_North) raised a note of caution about revolutionary change, how it "is never as revolutionary as its rhetoric would have us believe".[38] While the "formal rules" of laws and constitutions can be changed virtually overnight, the "informal constraints" such as institutional inertia and cultural inheritance do not change quickly and thereby slow down the societal transformation. According to North, the tension between formal rules and informal constraints is "typically resolved by some restructuring of the overall constraints—in both directions—to produce a new equilibrium that is far less revolutionary than the rhetoric."[38]

Studies have been made on the stability of governments that took by revolution.[39] According to academics [Steven Levitsky](/source/Steven_Levitsky) and Lucan Way, regimes that came to power during revolutions such as China, Cuba, Iran and Vietnam tend to be among the most durable and long-lasting.[6] Their studies showed that autocracies that emerged out of revolutions lasted, on average, as long as three times as nonrevolutionary regimes and collapsed at a one-fifth at the rate of nonrevolutionary systems.[40] Additionally, revolutionary regimes tend to face contestation such as coups and large-scale protests at a smaller rate, and have more tools to thwart them when such threats emerge.[41] Revolutionary regimes have cohesive elite structures that minimize the chances of defections and tend to stay loyal during times of turmoil.[42] They have strong coercive institutions, including loyal militaries that protect the ruling regime's status.[43] Regimes that emerged out of social revolutions also tend to lack independent centers of power that allow for opposition.[44]

## See also

- [Age of Revolution](/source/Age_of_Revolution)

- [Classless society](/source/Classless_society)

- [Counterrevolution](/source/Counterrevolution)

- [List of revolutions and rebellions](/source/List_of_revolutions_and_rebellions)

- [Passive revolution](/source/Passive_revolution)

- [Political warfare](/source/Political_warfare)

- [Preference falsification](/source/Preference_falsification)

- [Psychological warfare](/source/Psychological_warfare)

- [Rebellion](/source/Rebellion)

- [Reformism](/source/Reformism)

- [Revolutionary wave](/source/Revolutionary_wave)

- [Right of revolution](/source/Right_of_revolution)

- [Social movement](/source/Social_movement)

- [Subversion](/source/Subversion)

- [User revolt](/source/User_revolt)

## References

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Skocpol_ssr_1-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Skocpol_ssr_1-1) Skocpol, Theda (1979). [*States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia and China*](https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/states-and-social-revolutions/9481262B2BDA1BFFB3C9218DBD447190). Cambridge University Press. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/cbo9780511815805](https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511815805). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-22439-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22439-0).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-7) [***i***](#cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-8) [***j***](#cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-9) [***k***](#cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-10) [***l***](#cite_ref-Goldstonet4_2-11) [Goldstone, Jack](/source/Jack_Goldstone) (2001). ["Towards a Fourth Generation of Revolutionary Theory"](https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.polisci.4.1.139). *[Annual Review of Political Science](/source/Annual_Review_of_Political_Science)*. **4**: 139–187. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1146/annurev.polisci.4.1.139](https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.polisci.4.1.139).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:1_3-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:1_3-1) Stone, Lawrence (1966). ["Theories of Revolution"](https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/world-politics/article/abs/theories-of-revolution/66CDA67FF55E08E0620257F0FDE14876). *World Politics*. **18** (2): 159–176. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/2009694](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2009694). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1086-3338](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1086-3338). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2009694](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2009694). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [154757362](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154757362).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** [Gunitsky 2018](#CITEREFGunitsky2018);[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*] [Gunitsky 2017](#CITEREFGunitsky2017);[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*] [Gunitsky 2021](#CITEREFGunitsky2021);[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*] [Reus-Smit 2013](#CITEREFReus-Smit2013);[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*] [Fukuyama 1992](#CITEREFFukuyama1992);[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*] [Getachew 2019](#CITEREFGetachew2019)[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:0_5-0)** Clarke, Killian (2023). ["Revolutionary Violence and Counterrevolution"](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0003055422001174). *[American Political Science Review](/source/American_Political_Science_Review)*. **117** (4): 1344–1360. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/S0003055422001174](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0003055422001174). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0003-0554](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-0554). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [254907991](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:254907991).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevitskyWay202214_6-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevitskyWay202214_6-1) [Levitsky & Way 2022](#CITEREFLevitskyWay2022), p. 14.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** [OED](/source/Oxford_English_Dictionary) vol Q-R p. 617 1979 Sense III states a usage, "Alteration, change, mutation", from 1400 but lists it as "rare". "c. 1450, Lydg 1196 *Secrees* of Elementys the Revoluciuons, Chaung of tymes and Complexiouns". The etymology shows the political meaning of "revolution" had been established by the early 15th century but did not come into common use until the 17th century.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** ["Revolution"](http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=revolution). *Online Etymology Dictionary*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** [Pipes, Richard](/source/Richard_Pipes). ["A Concise History of the Russian Revolution"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110511130014/http://chagala.com/russia/pipes.htm). Archived from [the original](http://chagala.com/russia/pipes.htm) on 11 May 2011.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Goldstonet3_10-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Goldstonet3_10-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Goldstonet3_10-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Goldstonet3_10-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Goldstonet3_10-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Goldstonet3_10-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-Goldstonet3_10-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-Goldstonet3_10-7) [Goldstone, Jack](/source/Jack_Goldstone) (1980). "Theories of Revolutions: The Third Generation". *[World Politics](/source/World_Politics)*. **32** (3): 425–453. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/2010111](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2010111). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2010111](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2010111). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [154287826](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154287826).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Forantorr_11-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Forantorr_11-1) [Foran, John](/source/John_Foran_(sociologist)) (1993). "Theories of Revolution Revisited: Toward a Fourth Generation". *[Sociological Theory](/source/Sociological_Theory_(journal))*. **11** (1): 1–20. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/201977](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F201977). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [201977](https://www.jstor.org/stable/201977).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Kroeber_12-0)** Kroeber, Clifton B. (1996). "Theory and History of Revolution". *[Journal of World History](/source/Journal_of_World_History)*. **7** (1): 21–40. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1353/jwh.2005.0056](https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjwh.2005.0056). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [144148530](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144148530).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodwin20019_13-0)** [Goodwin 2001](#CITEREFGoodwin2001), p. 9.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** Billington, James H. (1966). ["Six Views of the Russian Revolution"](https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/world-politics/article/abs/six-views-of-the-russian-revolution/F41844384239517497C9A8AC94A70E4C). *[World Politics](/source/World_Politics)*. **18** (3): 452–473. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/2009765](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2009765). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1086-3338](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1086-3338). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2009765](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2009765). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [154688891](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154688891).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** Yoder, Dale (1926). ["Current Definitions of Revolution"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2765544). *[American Journal of Sociology](/source/American_Journal_of_Sociology)*. **32** (3): 433–441. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/214128](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F214128). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0002-9602](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9602). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2765544](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2765544).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** Grinin, Leonid; Grinin, Anton; Korotayev, Andrey (2022). ["20th Century revolutions: characteristics, types, and waves"](https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fs41599-022-01120-9). *[Humanities and Social Sciences Communications](/source/Humanities_and_Social_Sciences_Communications)*. **9** (124) 124. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1057/s41599-022-01120-9](https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fs41599-022-01120-9).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** [Boesche, Roger](/source/Roger_Boesche) (2006). [*Tocqueville's Road Map: Methodology, Liberalism, Revolution, and Despotism*](https://books.google.com/books?id=fLL6Bil2gtcC&pg=PA87). [Lexington Books](/source/Lexington_Books). pp. 87–88. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-7391-1665-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7391-1665-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** Topolski, J. (1976). "Rewolucje w dziejach nowożytnych i najnowszych (xvii-xx wiek)" [Revolutions in modern and recent history (17th-20th century)]. *Kwartalnik Historyczny* (in Polish). **LXXXIII**: 251–267.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** [Tilly, Charles](/source/Charles_Tilly) (1995). *European Revolutions, 1492-1992*. [Blackwell Publishing](/source/Blackwell_Publishing). pp. [16](https://books.google.com/books?id=IJBNvCsXfnIC&pg=PA16). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-631-19903-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-19903-9).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** Lewis, Bernard. ["Iran in History"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070429144545/http://www.tau.ac.il/dayancenter/mel/lewis.html). *Moshe Dayan Center, [Tel Aviv University](/source/Tel_Aviv_University)*. Archived from [the original](http://www.tau.ac.il/dayancenter/mel/lewis.html) on 29 April 2007.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKatz19974_21-0)** [Katz 1997](#CITEREFKatz1997), p. 4.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKatz199713_22-0)** [Katz 1997](#CITEREFKatz1997), p. 13.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKatz199712_23-0)** [Katz 1997](#CITEREFKatz1997), p. 12.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** Fang, Irving E. (1997). *A History of Mass Communication: Six Information Revolutions*. [Focal Press](/source/Focal_Press). pp. xv. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-240-80254-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-240-80254-3).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** [Murray, Warwick E.](/source/Warwick_Murray) (2006). *Geographies of Globalization*. [Routledge](/source/Routledge). pp. [226](https://books.google.com/books?id=L-3Vq3aadTYC&pg=PA226). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-415-31800-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-31800-9).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-NOWO:5_26-0)** [Goodwin, Jeff](/source/Jeff_Goodwin) (2001). *No Other Way Out: States and Revolutionary Movements, 1945-1991*. [Cambridge University Press](/source/Cambridge_University_Press). p. 5.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** Beck, Colin J. (2018). ["The Structure of Comparison in the Study of Revolution"](https://osf.io/x8bf7/download). *Sociological Theory*. **36** (2): 134–161. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/0735275118777004](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0735275118777004). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0735-2751](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0735-2751). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [53669466](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53669466).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** [Brinton, Crane](/source/Crane_Brinton) (1965) [1938]. *[The Anatomy of Revolution](/source/The_Anatomy_of_Revolution)* (revised ed.). New York: Vintage Books.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** Armstrong, Stephen; Desrosiers, Marian (January 2012). ["Helping Students Analyze Revolutions"](https://www.socialstudies.org/system/files/publications/articles/se_760138.pdf) (PDF). *Social Education*. **76** (1): 38–46.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** Leroi, Armand M.; Lambert, Ben; Mauch, Matthias; Papadopoulou, Marina; Ananiadou, Sophia; Lindberg, Staffan I.; Lindenfors, Patrik (2020). ["On revolutions"](https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fs41599-019-0371-1). *[Palgrave Communications](/source/Palgrave_Communications)*. **6** (4) 4. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1057/s41599-019-0371-1](https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fs41599-019-0371-1). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[10044/1/74903](https://hdl.handle.net/10044%2F1%2F74903).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** ["PolityProject"](https://www.systemicpeace.org/polityproject.html). *Center for Systemic Peace*. Retrieved 17 February 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** Enterline, A. J. (1 December 1998). "Regime Changes, Neighborhoods, and Interstate Conflict, 1816-1992". *[Journal of Conflict Resolution](/source/Journal_of_Conflict_Resolution)*. **42** (6): 804–829. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/0022002798042006006](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022002798042006006). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0022-0027](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-0027). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [154877512](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154877512).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** Maoz, Zeev (1996). *Domestic sources of global change*. Ann Arbor, MI: [University of Michigan Press](/source/University_of_Michigan_Press).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-34)** Mansfield, Edward D.; Snyder, Jack (2007). *Electing to Fight: Why Emerging Democracies go to War*. [MIT Press](/source/MIT_Press).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-35)** Colgan, Jeff (1 September 2012). "Measuring Revolution". *[Conflict Management and Peace Science](/source/Conflict_Management_and_Peace_Science)*. **29** (4): 444–467. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/0738894212449093](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0738894212449093). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0738-8942](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0738-8942). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [220675692](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220675692).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** ["Data - Jeff D Colgan"](https://sites.google.com/site/jeffdcolgan/data). *sites.google.com*. Retrieved 17 February 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Thomassen_37-0)** [Thomassen, Bjorn](/source/Bjorn_Thomassen) (2012). ["Toward an anthropology of political revolutions"](https://web.archive.org/web/20190428205524/https://rucforsk.ruc.dk/ws/files/38613537/Notes_towards_an_Anthropology_of_Political_Revolutions.pdf) (PDF). *Comparative Studies in Society and History*. **54** (3): 679–706. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/s0010417512000278](https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0010417512000278). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [15806418](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15806418). Archived from [the original](https://rucforsk.ruc.dk/ws/files/38613537/Notes_towards_an_Anthropology_of_Political_Revolutions.pdf) (PDF) on 28 April 2019. Retrieved 13 June 2019.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-North_book_38-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-North_book_38-1) North, Douglass C. (1992). [*Transaction Costs, Institutions, and Economic Performance*](https://web.archive.org/web/20160201055849/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABM255.pdf) (PDF). San Francisco: ICS Press. p. 13. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-558-15211-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-558-15211-3). Archived from [the original](https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pnabm255.pdf) (PDF) on 1 February 2016 – via U.S. Agency for International Development.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** Fisher, Max (30 November 2022). ["The Long Odds Facing China's Protesters"](https://www.nytimes.com/2022/11/30/world/asia/china-covid-protests-xi-jinping.html). *[The New York Times](/source/The_New_York_Times)*. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0362-4331](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331). Retrieved 30 May 2026.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevitskyWay20222_40-0)** [Levitsky & Way 2022](#CITEREFLevitskyWay2022), p. 2.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevitskyWay20229_41-0)** [Levitsky & Way 2022](#CITEREFLevitskyWay2022), p. 9.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevitskyWay202228-29_42-0)** [Levitsky & Way 2022](#CITEREFLevitskyWay2022), p. 28-29.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevitskyWay202219-21_43-0)** [Levitsky & Way 2022](#CITEREFLevitskyWay2022), p. 19-21.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevitskyWay202222_44-0)** [Levitsky & Way 2022](#CITEREFLevitskyWay2022), p. 22.

### Bibliography

- [Fukuyama, Francis](/source/Francis_Fukuyama) (1992). [*The End of History and the Last Man*](https://books.google.com/books?id=azRfjououTAC). [Penguin](/source/Penguin_Books). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-140-13455-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-140-13455-1).

- Getachew, Adom (2019). [*Worldmaking After Empire: The Rise and Fall of Self-Determination*](https://books.google.com/books?id=J3OYDwAAQBAJ). [Princeton University Press](/source/Princeton_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-691-17915-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-17915-5).

- Gunitsky, Seva (2017). [*Aftershocks*](https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691172330/aftershocks). [Princeton University Press](/source/Princeton_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-691-17233-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-17233-0).

- Gunitsky, Seva (2018). "Democratic Waves in Historical Perspective". *[Perspectives on Politics](/source/Perspectives_on_Politics)*. **16** (3): 634–651. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/S1537592718001044](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1537592718001044). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1537-5927](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1537-5927). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [149523316](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149523316).

- Gunitsky, Seva (2021), Bartel, Fritz; Monteiro, Nuno P. (eds.), ["Great Powers and the Spread of Autocracy Since the Cold War"](https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/before-and-after-the-fall/great-powers-and-the-spread-of-autocracy-since-the-cold-war/D7F3EC6F0C4B41F5742693AB13DE28AD), *Before and After the Fall: World Politics and the End of the Cold War*, [Cambridge University Press](/source/Cambridge_University_Press), pp. 225–243, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/9781108910194.014](https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781108910194.014), [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-108-84334-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-84334-8), [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [244851964](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:244851964){{[citation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Citation)}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_work_parameter_with_ISBN))

- [Katz, Mark N.](/source/Mark_N._Katz) (1997). *Revolutions and Revolutionary Waves*. [St Martin's Press](/source/St_Martin's_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-312-17322-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-17322-7).

- Reus-Smit, Christian (2013). [*Individual Rights and the Making of the International System*](https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/individual-rights-and-the-making-of-the-international-system/A915E13F20DDBD0F5FEE91A59D7C827A). [Cambridge University Press](/source/Cambridge_University_Press). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/cbo9781139046527](https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9781139046527). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-85777-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85777-2).

- Levitsky, Steven; Way, Lucan (2022). *Revolution and Dictatorship: The Violent Origins of Durable Authoritarianism*. [Princeton University Press](/source/Princeton_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0691169521](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691169521).

## Further reading

- Beissinger, Mark R. 2022. *The Revolutionary City: Urbanization and the Global Transformation of Rebellion*. Princeton University Press

- Beissinger, Mark R. (2024). "[The Evolving Study of Revolution](https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/1/article/920225/pdf)". *World Politics.*

- Beck, Colin J. (2018). ["The Structure of Comparison in the Study of Revolution"](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0735275118777004?journalCode=stxa). *Sociological Theory*. **36** (2): 134–161. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/0735275118777004](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0735275118777004). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [53669466](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53669466).

- Edelstein, Dan (2025). *The Revolution to Come: A History of an Idea from Thucydides to Lenin*. [Princeton University Press](/source/Princeton_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780691231853](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691231853).

- Goldstone, Jack A. (1982). "[The Comparative and Historical Study of Revolutions](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2945993)". *Annual Review of Sociology*. **8**: 187–207

- [Peter Kropotkin](/source/Peter_Kropotkin) (1906), *[Memoirs of a Revolutionist](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73882)*. London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co., Ltd.

- Ness, Immanuel, ed. (2009). *The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest: 1500 to the Present*. Malden, MA: [Wiley & Sons](/source/Wiley_%26_Sons). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-405-18464-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-405-18464-9).

- Strang, David (1991). ["Global Patterns of Decolonization, 1500-1987"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2600949). *International Studies Quarterly*. **35** (4): 429–454. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/2600949](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2600949). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0020-8833](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-8833). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2600949](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2600949).

## External links

Look up ***[Revolution](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Revolution)*** in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikiquote has quotations related to ***[Revolution](https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Revolution)***.

- [Arendt, Hannah](/source/Hannah_Arendt) (1963). [IEP.UTM.edu](http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/arendt.htm#H5). *On Revolution*. Penguin Classics. New Ed edition: February 8, 1991. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-14-018421-X](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-018421-X).

v t e Political philosophy Terms Authority Citizenship‎ Duty Elite Emancipation Freedom Government Hegemony Hierarchy Justice Law Legitimacy Liberty Monopoly Nation Obedience Peace People Pluralism Power Progress Propaganda Property Regime Revolution Rights Ruling class Society Sovereignty‎ State Utopia War Government Aristocracy Oligarchy Autocracy Bureaucracy Dictatorship Democracy Ochlocracy Gerontocracy Meritocracy Monarchy Tyranny Plutocracy Republic Technocracy Theocracy Ideologies Agrarianism Anarchism Capitalism Christian democracy Colonialism Communism Communitarianism Confucianism Conservatism Corporatism Distributism Environmentalism Fascism Feminism Feudalism Hindutva Imperialism Islamism Liberalism Libertarianism Localism Marxism Monarchism Multiculturalism Nationalism Nazism Populism Republicanism Social Darwinism Social democracy Socialism Third Way Concepts Balance of power Bellum omnium contra omnes Body politic Clash of civilizations Common good Consent of the governed Divine right of kings Family as a model for the state Monopoly on violence Natural law Negative and positive rights Night-watchman state Noble lie Noblesse oblige Open society Ordered liberty Original position Overton window Separation of powers Social contract State of nature Statolatry Supermajority Tyranny of the majority Philosophers Antiquity Aristotle Chanakya Cicero Confucius Han Fei Lactantius Mencius Mozi Plato political philosophy Polybius Shang Sun Tzu Thucydides Xenophon Middle Ages Al-Farabi Aquinas Averroes Bruni Dante Gelasius al-Ghazali Ibn Khaldun Marsilius Muhammad Nizam al-Mulk Ockham Plethon Wang Early modern period Boétie Bodin Bossuet Calvin Campanella Filmer Grotius Guicciardini Hobbes political philosophy James Leibniz Locke Luther Machiavelli Milton More Müntzer Pufendorf Spinoza Suárez 18th and 19th centuries Al-Afghani Bakunin Bastiat Beccaria Bentham Bolingbroke Bonald Burke Carlyle Comte Condorcet Constant Cortés Engels Fichte Fourier Franklin Godwin Haller Hegel Herder Hume Iqbal Jefferson Kant political philosophy Le Bon Le Play Madison Maistre Marx Mazzini Mill Montesquieu Nietzsche Owen Paine Proudhon Renan Rousseau Sade Saint-Simon Smith Spencer de Staël Stirner Taine Thoreau Tocqueville Tucker Voltaire 20th and 21st centuries Agamben Ambedkar Apo Arendt Aron Badiou Bauman Benoist Berlin Bernstein Burnham Chomsky Dmowski Du Bois Dugin Dworkin Evola Fanon Fisher Foucault Fromm Fukuyama Gandhi Gentile Gramsci Guénon Habermas Hayek Hoppe Huntington Kautsky Khomeini Kirk Kropotkin Laclau Lenin Luxemburg Mansfield Mao Marcuse Maurras Michels Mises Mosca Mouffe Negri Nozick Nursi Nussbaum Oakeshott Ortega Pareto Popper Qutb Rand Rawls Röpke Rothbard Russell Sartre Savarkar Schmitt Scruton Shariati Sorel Spann Spengler Strauss Sun Taylor Voegelin Walzer Weber Works Analects of Confucius (c. 475 BCE) Republic (c. 375 BCE) Politics (c. 335 BCE) On the Republic (51 BCE) Siyasatnama (11th century) Treatise on Law (c. 1274) Monarchy (1313) Muqaddimah (1337) The Prince (1532) Patriarcha (1642) Leviathan (1651) Two Treatises of Government (1689) The Spirit of Law (1748) The Social Contract (1762) Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) Rights of Man (1791) Elements of the Philosophy of Right (1820) Democracy in America (1835–1840) The Communist Manifesto (1848) On Liberty (1859) The Revolt of the Masses (1929) The Road to Serfdom (1944) The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945) The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951) A Theory of Justice (1971) The End of History and the Last Man (1992) The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (1996) Related Authoritarianism Collectivism and individualism Conflict theories Contractualism Critique of political economy Egalitarianism Elite theory Elitism History of political thought Institutional discrimination Jurisprudence Justification for the state Political ethics Political spectrum Left-wing politics Centrism Right-wing politics Religion in politics Christianity Islam Judaism Secular state Separation of church and state State atheism Political violence Separatism Social justice Statism Totalitarianism Category:Political philosophy

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