# Psychiatric medication

> Mediated Wiki article. Canonical URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Psychiatric_medication
> Markdown URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Psychiatric_medication.md
> Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatric_medication
> Source revision: 1339860976
> License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/)

Medication used to treat mental disorders

See also: [List of psychotropic medications](/source/List_of_psychotropic_medications) and [List of psychiatric medications by condition treated](/source/List_of_psychiatric_medications_by_condition_treated)

A **psychiatric** or **psychotropic medication** is a [psychoactive drug](/source/Psychoactive_drug) taken to exert an effect on the chemical makeup of the [brain](/source/Brain) and nervous system. Thus, these medications are used to treat [mental illnesses](/source/Mental_disorder). These medications are typically made of [synthetic](/source/Chemical_synthesis) [chemical compounds](/source/Chemical_compound) and are usually prescribed in [psychiatric](/source/Psychiatry) settings, potentially [involuntarily](/source/Involuntary_treatment) during [commitment](/source/Involuntary_commitment).

Since the mid-20th century, such medications have been leading treatments for a broad range of mental disorders and have decreased the need for long-term hospitalization, thereby lowering the cost of mental health care.[1][2][3][4] The [recidivism](/source/Relapse) or rehospitalization of the mentally ill is at a high rate in many countries, and the reasons for the [relapses](/source/Relapse) are under research.[5][6][7][8]

Psychiatric medications are [prescription-only](/source/Prescription_drug) and come in forms such as pills, patches, injections, or inhalation. They carry risks like [neurotoxicity](/source/Neurotoxicity), [withdrawal](/source/Drug_withdrawal), and complications from untested drug combinations. Their use is controversial, with critics citing [overmedicalization](/source/Medicalization), [placebo](/source/Placebo) effects, and potential long-term brain changes. Untreated mental illness also poses cognitive risks.

A 2022 [umbrella review](/source/Umbrella_review) of over 100 [meta-analyses](/source/Meta-analysis) found that both psychotherapies and pharmacotherapies for adult mental disorders generally yield small effect sizes, suggesting current treatment research may have reached a ceiling and needs a paradigm shift.[9]

## History

Several significant psychiatric drugs were developed in the mid-20th century. In 1948, [lithium](/source/Lithium_(medication)) was first used as a psychiatric medicine. One of the most important discoveries was [chlorpromazine](/source/Chlorpromazine), an [antipsychotic](/source/Antipsychotic) that was first given to a patient in 1952. In the same decade, [Julius Axelrod](/source/Julius_Axelrod) carried out research into the interaction of neurotransmitters, which provided a foundation for the development of further drugs.[10] The popularity of these drugs have increased significantly since then, with millions prescribed annually.[11]

The introduction of these drugs brought profound changes to the treatment of mental illness. It meant that more patients could be treated without the need for confinement in a [psychiatric hospital](/source/Psychiatric_hospital). It was one of the key reasons why many countries moved towards [deinstitutionalization](/source/Deinstitutionalization), closing many of these hospitals so that patients could be treated at home, in general hospitals and smaller facilities.[12][13] Use of physical restraints such as [straitjackets](/source/Straitjacket) also declined.

## Administration

Psychiatric medications are [prescription medications](/source/Prescription_medication), requiring a prescription from a [physician](/source/Physician), such as a [psychiatrist](/source/Psychiatrist), or a psychiatric [nurse practitioner](/source/Nurse_practitioner), PMHNP, before they can be obtained. Some [U.S. states](/source/U.S._states) and [territories](/source/U.S._Territories), following the creation of the [prescriptive authority for psychologists movement](/source/Prescriptive_authority_for_psychologists_movement), have granted prescriptive privileges to [clinical psychologists](/source/Clinical_psychologists) who have undergone additional specialised education and training in [medical psychology](/source/Medical_psychology).[14] In addition to the familiar dosage in pill form, psychiatric medications are evolving into more novel methods of drug delivery. New technologies include [transdermal](/source/Transdermal), [transmucosal](/source/Transmucosal), [inhalation](/source/Inhalation), [suppository](/source/Suppository) or [depot injection](/source/Depot_injection) supplements.[15][16]

## Research

Main article: [Psychopharmacology](/source/Psychopharmacology)

Psychopharmacology studies a wide range of substances with various types of psychoactive properties. The professional and commercial fields of [pharmacology](/source/Pharmacology) and psychopharmacology do not typically focus on [psychedelic](/source/Psychedelic_drug) or [recreational drugs](/source/Recreational_drug_use), and so the majority of studies are conducted on psychiatric medication. While studies are conducted on all psychoactive drugs by both fields, psychopharmacology focuses on psychoactive and chemical interactions within the brain. Physicians who research psychiatric medications are [psychopharmacologists](/source/Psychopharmacologist), specialists in the field of psychopharmacology.

A 2022 [umbrella review](/source/Umbrella_review) of over 100 [meta-analyses](/source/Meta-analysis) found that both psychotherapies and pharmacotherapies for adult mental disorders generally yield small effect sizes, suggesting current treatment research may have reached a ceiling and needs a paradigm shift.[17]

## Adverse and withdrawal effects

Psychiatric disorders, including depression, psychosis, and bipolar disorder, are common and gaining more acceptance in the United States. The most commonly used classes of medications for these disorders are antidepressants, antipsychotics, and lithium. Unfortunately, these medications are associated with significant neurotoxicities.

Psychiatric medications carry risk for neurotoxic [adverse effects](/source/Adverse_effect). The occurrence of neurotoxic effects can potentially reduce [drug compliance](/source/Compliance_(medicine)). Some adverse effects can be [treated symptomatically](/source/Symptomatic_treatment) by using adjunct medications such as [anticholinergics](/source/Anticholinergic) (antimuscarinics). Some [rebound](/source/Rebound_effect) or [withdrawal](/source/Drug_withdrawal) adverse effects, such as the possibility of a sudden or severe emergence or re-emergence of [psychosis](/source/Psychosis) in antipsychotic withdrawal, may appear when the drugs are discontinued, or discontinued too rapidly.[18]

### Medicine combinations with clinically untried risks

While [clinical trials](/source/Clinical_trial) of psychiatric medications, like other medications, typically test medicines separately, there is a practice in psychiatry (more so than in somatic medicine) to use [polypharmacy](/source/Polypharmacy) in combinations of medicines that have never been tested together in clinical trials (though all medicines involved have passed clinical trials separately).[19][20][21] Polypharmacy that includes a [benzodiazepine](/source/Benzodiazepine) is associated with increased mortality in patients with schizophrenia.[22]

## Types

See also: [List of psychiatric medications](/source/List_of_psychiatric_medications) and [List of psychiatric medications by condition treated](/source/List_of_psychiatric_medications_by_condition_treated)

There are five main groups of psychiatric medications.

- [Antidepressants](/source/Antidepressant), which treat disparate disorders such as [clinical depression](/source/Clinical_depression), [dysthymia](/source/Dysthymia), [anxiety disorders](/source/Anxiety_disorders), [eating disorders](/source/Eating_disorder) and [borderline personality disorder](/source/Borderline_personality_disorder).[23]

- [Antipsychotics](/source/Antipsychotic), which treat [psychotic disorders](/source/Psychotic_disorder) such as [schizophrenia](/source/Schizophrenia) and [psychotic](/source/Psychotic) symptoms occurring in the context of other disorders such as [mood disorders](/source/Mood_disorder). They are also used for the treatment of bipolar disorder.

- [Anxiolytics](/source/Anxiolytic), which treat [anxiety disorders](/source/Anxiety_disorder), and include [hypnotics](/source/Hypnotic) and [sedatives](/source/Sedative)

- [Mood stabilizers](/source/Mood_stabilizer), which treat [bipolar disorder](/source/Bipolar_disorder) and [schizoaffective disorder](/source/Schizoaffective_disorder).

- [Stimulants](/source/Stimulant), which treat disorders such as [attention deficit hyperactivity disorder](/source/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder) and [narcolepsy](/source/Narcolepsy).

### Antidepressants

Main article: [Antidepressant](/source/Antidepressant)

Antidepressants are drugs used to treat [clinical depression](/source/Clinical_depression), and they are also often used for anxiety and other disorders. Most antidepressants will hinder the breakdown of [serotonin](/source/Serotonin), [norepinephrine](/source/Norepinephrine), and/or [dopamine](/source/Dopamine). A commonly used class of antidepressants are called [selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors](/source/Selective_serotonin_reuptake_inhibitor) (SSRIs), which act on serotonin transporters in the brain to increase levels of serotonin in the [synaptic cleft](/source/Synaptic_cleft).[24] Another is the [serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors](/source/Serotonin-norepinephrine_reuptake_inhibitors) (SNRIs), which increase both serotonin and norepinephrine. Antidepressants will often take 3–5 weeks to have a noticeable effect as the regulation of receptors in the brain adapts. There are multiple classes of antidepressants which have different mechanisms of action. Another type of antidepressant is a [monoamine oxidase inhibitor](/source/Monoamine_oxidase_inhibitor) (MAOI), which is thought to block the action of [monoamine oxidase](/source/Monoamine_oxidase), an enzyme that breaks down serotonin and [norepinephrine](/source/Norepinephrine). MAOIs are not used as first-line treatment due to the risk of [hypertensive crisis](/source/Hypertensive_crisis) related to the consumption of foods containing the trace amine [tyramine](/source/Tyramine).[24]

Common antidepressants:

- [Fluoxetine](/source/Fluoxetine) (Prozac), SSRI

- [Paroxetine](/source/Paroxetine) (Paxil, Seroxat), SSRI

- [Citalopram](/source/Citalopram) (Celexa), SSRI

- [Escitalopram](/source/Escitalopram) (Lexapro), SSRI

- [Sertraline](/source/Sertraline) (Zoloft), SSRI

- [Duloxetine](/source/Duloxetine) (Cymbalta), SNRI

- [Venlafaxine](/source/Venlafaxine) (Effexor), SNRI

- [Bupropion](/source/Bupropion) (Wellbutrin), [NDRI](/source/Norepinephrine-dopamine_reuptake_inhibitor)[25]

- [Mirtazapine](/source/Mirtazapine) (Remeron), [NaSSA](/source/NaSSA)

- [Isocarboxazid](/source/Isocarboxazid) (Marplan), MAOI

- [Phenelzine](/source/Phenelzine) (Nardil), MAOI

- [Tranylcypromine](/source/Tranylcypromine) (Parnate), MAOI

- [Amitriptyline](/source/Amitriptyline) (Elavil), TCA

### Antipsychotics

Main article: [Antipsychotics](/source/Antipsychotics)

Antipsychotics are drugs used to treat various symptoms of psychosis, such as those caused by psychotic disorders or [schizophrenia](/source/Schizophrenia). [Atypical antipsychotics](/source/Atypical_antipsychotic) are also used as [mood stabilizers](/source/Mood_stabilizers) in the treatment of [bipolar disorder](/source/Bipolar_disorder), and they can augment the action of antidepressants in [major depressive disorder](/source/Major_depressive_disorder).[24] Antipsychotics are sometimes referred to as neuroleptic drugs or major tranquilizers.

There are two categories of antipsychotics: [typical antipsychotics](/source/Typical_antipsychotic) and [atypical antipsychotics](/source/Atypical_antipsychotic). Most antipsychotics are available only by prescription.

Common antipsychotics:

Typical antipsychotics Atypical antipsychotics Chlorpromazine (Thorazine) Haloperidol (Haldol) Perphenazine (Trilafon) Thioridazine (Melleril) Thiothixene (Navane) Flupenthixol (Fluanxol) Trifluoperazine (Stelazine) Levomepromazine (Nozinan) Aripiprazole (Abilify) Clozapine (Clozaril) Lurasidone (Latuda) Olanzapine (Zyprexa) Paliperidone (Invega) Quetiapine (Seroquel) Risperidone (Risperdal) Zotepine (Nipolept) Ziprasidone (Geodon)

### Anxiolytics and hypnotics

See also: [List of benzodiazepines](/source/List_of_benzodiazepines) and [benzodiazepines](/source/Benzodiazepines)

[Benzodiazepines](/source/Benzodiazepine) are effective as hypnotics, anxiolytics, anticonvulsants, myorelaxants and amnesics.[26] Having less proclivity for overdose and toxicity, they have widely supplanted [barbiturates](/source/Barbiturate), although barbiturates (such as [pentobarbital](/source/Pentobarbital)) are still used for [euthanasia](/source/Euthanasia).[27][28]

Developed in the 1950s onward, benzodiazepines were originally thought to be non-addictive at therapeutic doses, but are now known to cause [withdrawal](/source/Drug_withdrawal) symptoms similar to barbiturates and [alcohol](/source/Alcohol_withdrawal_syndrome).[29] Benzodiazepines are generally recommended for short-term use.[26]

[Z-drugs](/source/Z-drug) are a group of drugs with effects generally similar to benzodiazepines, which are used in the treatment of insomnia.

Common benzodiazepines and z-drugs include:

Benzodiazepines Z-drug hypnotics Alprazolam (Xanax), anxiolytic Chlordiazepoxide (Librium), anxiolytic Clonazepam (Klonopin), anxiolytic Diazepam (Valium), anxiolytic Lorazepam (Ativan), anxiolytic Nitrazepam (Mogadon), hypnotic Temazepam (Restoril), hypnotic Midazolam (Versed), hypnotic Eszopiclone (Lunesta) Zaleplon (Sonata) Zolpidem (Ambien, Stilnox) Zopiclone (Imovan)

### Mood stabilizers

Main article: [Mood stabilizers](/source/Mood_stabilizers)

In 1949, the Australian [John Cade](/source/John_Cade) discovered that [lithium salts](/source/Lithium_pharmacology) could control [mania](/source/Mania), reducing the frequency and severity of manic episodes. This introduced the now popular drug [lithium carbonate](/source/Lithium_carbonate) to the mainstream public, as well as being the first mood stabilizer to be approved by the U.S. [Food & Drug Administration](/source/Food_%26_Drug_Administration). Besides lithium, several [anticonvulsants](/source/Anticonvulsants) and [atypical antipsychotics](/source/Atypical_antipsychotic) have mood stabilizing activity. The mechanism of action of mood stabilizers is not well understood.

Common non-antipsychotic mood stabilizers include:

- [Lithium](/source/Lithium_(medication)) (Lithobid, Eskalith), the oldest mood stabilizer

- Anticonvulsants - [Carbamazepine](/source/Carbamazepine) (Tegretol) and the related compound [oxcarbazepine](/source/Oxcarbazepine) (Trileptal) - [Valproic acid](/source/Valproic_acid), and salts (Depakene, Depakote) - [Lamotrigine](/source/Lamotrigine) (Lamictal)

### Stimulants

Main article: [Stimulant](/source/Stimulant)

A stimulant is a drug that stimulates the central nervous system, increasing arousal, attention and endurance. Stimulants are used in psychiatry to treat [attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder](/source/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder). Because the medications can be addictive, patients with a history of drug abuse are typically monitored closely or treated with a non-stimulant.

Common stimulants:

- [Methylphenidate](/source/Methylphenidate) (Ritalin, Concerta), a [norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor](/source/Norepinephrine-dopamine_reuptake_inhibitor)

- [Dexmethylphenidate](/source/Dexmethylphenidate) (Focalin), the active dextro-enantiomer of methylphenidate

- [Serdexmethylphenidate/dexmethylphenidate](/source/Serdexmethylphenidate%2Fdexmethylphenidate) (Azstarys)

- [Mixed amphetamine salts](/source/Adderall) (Adderall), a 3:1 mix of dextro/levo-enantiomers of [amphetamine](/source/Amphetamine)

- [Dextroamphetamine](/source/Dextroamphetamine) (Dexedrine), the dextro-enantiomer of amphetamine

- [Lisdexamfetamine](/source/Lisdexamfetamine) (Vyvanse), a [prodrug](/source/Prodrug) containing the dextro-enantiomer of amphetamine

- [Methamphetamine](/source/Methamphetamine) (Desoxyn), a potent but infrequently prescribed amphetamine

## Controversies

Main articles: [Controversies about psychiatry](/source/Controversies_about_psychiatry) and [Political abuse of psychiatry](/source/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry)

Professionals, such as [David Rosenhan](/source/David_Rosenhan), [Peter Breggin](/source/Peter_Breggin), [Paula Caplan](/source/Paula_Caplan), [Thomas Szasz](/source/Thomas_Szasz), [Giorgio Antonucci](/source/Giorgio_Antonucci) and [Stuart A. Kirk](/source/Stuart_A._Kirk), sustain that psychiatry engages "in the systematic medicalization of normality".[30] More recently these concerns have come from insiders who have worked for and promoted the APA (e.g., [Robert Spitzer](/source/Robert_Spitzer_(psychiatrist)), [Allen Frances](/source/Allen_Frances)).[31]: 185

Scholars such as [Cooper](/source/David_Cooper_(psychiatrist)), [Foucalt](/source/Michel_Foucault), [Goffman](/source/Erving_Goffman), [Deleuze](/source/Gilles_Deleuze) and [Szasz](/source/Thomas_Szasz) believe that pharmacological "treatment" is only a [placebo](/source/Placebo) effect,[32] and that administration of drugs is just a [religion](/source/Religion) in disguise and ritualistic chemistry.[33] Other scholars[*[who?](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions)*] have argued against psychiatric medication in that significant aspects of mental illness are related to the psyche or environmental factors, but medication works exclusively on a pharmacological basis.

Antipsychotics have been associated with decreases in brain volume over time ([cerebral atrophy](/source/Cerebral_atrophy)), which may indicate a neurotoxic effect. However, untreated psychosis has also been associated with decreases in brain volume and treatments have been shown improve cognitive functioning.[34][35][36][37]

## See also

- [Psychopharmacology](/source/Psychopharmacology)

- [Medication](/source/Medication)

- [Medicine](/source/Medicine)

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** Rose, Nikolas (2010). "Chapter 2 Historical changes in mental health practice". *Historical changes in mental health practice*. Oxford University Press. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/med/9780199565498.003.0012](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmed%2F9780199565498.003.0012). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-956549-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956549-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** Grob, Gerald N. (2010). "Chapter 3 Mental health policy in modern America". *Mental health policy in modern America*. Oxford University Press. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/med/9780199565498.003.0014](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmed%2F9780199565498.003.0014). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-956549-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956549-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** Becker, Thomas; Koesters, Markus (2010). "Chapter 16 Psychiatric outpatient clinics". *Psychiatric outpatient clinics*. Oxford University Press. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/med/9780199565498.003.0086](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmed%2F9780199565498.003.0086). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-956549-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956549-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** Shaywitz, Jonathan; Marder, Stephen (2010). "Chapter 22 Medication treatment for anxiety, depression, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder in the community setting". *Medication treatment for anxiety, depression, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder in the community setting*. Oxford University Press. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/med/9780199565498.003.0109](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmed%2F9780199565498.003.0109). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-956549-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956549-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** Jaramillo-Gonzalez, Luis Eduardo; Sanchez-Pedraza, Ricardo; Herazo, Maria Isabel (2014). ["The frequency of rehospitalization and associated factors in Colombian psychiatric patients: a cohort study"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4059735). *BMC Psychiatry*. **14**: 161. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1186/1471-244X-14-161](https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1471-244X-14-161). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [4059735](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4059735). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [24888262](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24888262).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** Oyffe I, Kurs R, Gelkopf M, Melamed Y, Bleich A (2009). ["Revolving-door patients in a public psychiatric hospital in Israel: cross sectional study"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2802091). *Croat Med J*. **50** (6): 575–82. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3325/cmj.2009.50.575](https://doi.org/10.3325%2Fcmj.2009.50.575). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [2802091](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2802091). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [20017226](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20017226).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** Frick U, Frick H, Langguth B, Landgrebe M, Hübner-Liebermann B, Hajak G (2013). ["The revolving door phenomenon revisited: time to readmission in 17'145 \[corrected\] patients with 37'697 hospitalisations at a German psychiatric hospital"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3792950). *PLOS ONE*. **8** (10) e75612. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1371/journal.pone.0075612](https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0075612). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [3792950](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3792950). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [24116059](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24116059).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** ["Are There Schizophrenics for Whom Drugs May be Unnecessary or Contraindicated?". Authors Rappaport M, Hopkins HK, Hall, Belleza and Silverman. International Pharmacopsychiatry (Neuropsychobiology) 13:100–111 (1978)](http://psychrights.org/research/Digest/Chronicity/contraindicated.pdf)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** Leichsenring, Falk; Steinert, Christiane; Rabung, Sven; [Ioannidis, John P. A.](/source/John_Ioannidis) (February 2022). ["The efficacy of psychotherapies and pharmacotherapies for mental disorders in adults: an umbrella review and meta-analytic evaluation of recent meta-analyses"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8751557). *[World Psychiatry](/source/World_Psychiatry)*. **21** (1): 133–145. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/wps.20941](https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fwps.20941). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [8751557](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8751557). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [35015359](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35015359).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** ["The Julius Axelrod Papers"](https://web.archive.org/web/20000816010059/http://www.profiles.nlm.nih.gov/HH/). National Library of Medicine. Archived from [the original](http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/HH/) on August 16, 2000. Retrieved 6 May 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** Martin, Emily; Rhodes, Lorna A. ["Resources on the History of Psychiatry"](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/pdf/historypsychiatry.pdf) (PDF). National Library of Medicine. Retrieved 6 May 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Stroman_12-0)** Stroman, Duane (2003). *The Disability Rights Movement: From Deinstitutionalization to Self-determination*. University Press of America.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Eisenberg_13-0)** [Eisenberg, Leon](/source/Leon_Eisenberg); Guttmacher, Laurence (August 2010). ["Were we all asleep at the switch? A personal reminiscence of psychiatry from 1940 to 2010"](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1600-0447.2010.01544.x). *[Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica](/source/Acta_Psychiatrica_Scandinavica)*. **122** (2): 89–102. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1600-0447.2010.01544.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1600-0447.2010.01544.x). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [20618173](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20618173).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Bridget_14-0)** Murray, Bridget (October 2003). ["A Brief History of RxP"](http://www.apa.org/monitor/oct03/rxp.html). APA Monitor. Retrieved 11 April 2007.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** DeVane, C. Lindsay. ["New Methods for the Administration of Psychiatric Medicine"](http://www.medscape.org/viewarticle/550958). *Medscape*. Retrieved 6 May 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** Brissos, Sofia; Veguilla, Miguel Ruiz; Taylor, David; Balanzá-Martinez, Vicent (2014). ["The role of long-acting injectable antipsychotics in schizophrenia: a critical appraisal"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4212490). *Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology*. **4** (5): 198–219. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/2045125314540297](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2045125314540297). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2045-1253](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2045-1253). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [4212490](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4212490). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [25360245](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25360245).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** Leichsenring, Falk; Steinert, Christiane; Rabung, Sven; [Ioannidis, John P. A.](/source/John_Ioannidis) (February 2022). ["The efficacy of psychotherapies and pharmacotherapies for mental disorders in adults: an umbrella review and meta-analytic evaluation of recent meta-analyses"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8751557). *[World Psychiatry](/source/World_Psychiatry)*. **21** (1): 133–145. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/wps.20941](https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fwps.20941). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [8751557](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8751557). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [35015359](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35015359).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Moncrieff_18-0)** Moncrieff, Joanna (23 March 2006). ["Does antipsychotic withdrawal provoke psychosis? Review of the literature on rapid onset psychosis (supersensitivity psychosis) and withdrawal-related relapse"](http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118626311/abstract). *Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica*. **114** (1): 3–13. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1600-0447.2006.00787.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1600-0447.2006.00787.x). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1600-0447](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1600-0447). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [16774655](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16774655). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [6267180](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6267180). Retrieved 3 May 2009.{{[cite journal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_journal)}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_deprecated_archival_service))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** Michael S Ritsner (2013) "Polypharmacy in Psychiatry Practice, Volume I: Multiple Medication Use Strategies"

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** Michael S Ritsner (2013) "Polypharmacy in Psychiatry Practice, Volume II: Use of Polypharmacy in the "Real World""

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** Otto Benkert, Wolfgang Maier, Karl Rickels (2012) "Methodology of the Evaluation of Psychotropic Drugs"

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** Tiihonen, Jari; Suokas, Jaana T.; Suvisaari, Jaana M.; Haukka, Jari; Korhonen, Pasi (2012-05-01). ["Polypharmacy With Antipsychotics, Antidepressants, or Benzodiazepines and Mortality in Schizophrenia"](http://web.archive.org/web/20251119095538/https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/1151489). *Archives of General Psychiatry*. **69** (5). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1001/archgenp](https://doi.org/10.1001%2Farchgenp). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0003-990X](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-990X). Archived from [the original](https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/1151489) on 2025-11-19.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** Schatzberg, A.F. (2000). "New indications for antidepressants". *Journal of Clinical Psychiatry*. **61** (11): 9–17. [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [10926050](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10926050).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Stahl_24-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Stahl_24-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Stahl_24-2) Stahl, S. M. (2008). [*Stahl's Essential Psychopharmacology: Neuroscientific basis and practical applications*](https://archive.org/details/stahlsessentialp00stah). Cambridge University Press.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** Stephen M. Stahl, M.D.; et al. (2004). ["A Review of the Neuropharmacology of Bupropion, a Dual Norepinephrine and Dopamine Reuptake Inhibitor"](http://www.psychiatrist.com/pcc/pccpdf/v06n04/v06n0403.pdf) (PDF). Journal of Clinical Psychiatry; 6(04) 159-166 2004 PHYSICIANS POSTGRADUATE PRESS, INC. Retrieved 2006-09-02. {{[cite journal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_journal)}}: Cite journal requires |journal= ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical))

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Ashton_25–40_26-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Ashton_25–40_26-1) Ashton, Heather (July 1994). "Guidelines for the rational use of benzodiazepines. When and what to use". *Drugs*. **48** (1): 25–40. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2165/00003495-199448010-00004](https://doi.org/10.2165%2F00003495-199448010-00004). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [7525193](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7525193). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [46966796](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46966796).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** Martin, Hannah (2020-08-14). ["Euthanasia referendum: What drugs are used in assisted dying, and how do they work?"](https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/health/euthanasia-debate/300073069/euthanasia-referendum-what-drugs-are-used-in-assisted-dying-and-how-do-they-work). *www.stuff.co.nz*. Retrieved 2024-04-14.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** Pepper, Brianne Marlene; Chan, Hedia; Ward, Michael P.; Quain, Anne (2023-04-27). ["Euthanasia of Dogs by Australian Veterinarians: A Survey of Current Practices"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10224218). *Veterinary Sciences*. **10** (5): 317. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3390/vetsci10050317](https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fvetsci10050317). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2306-7381](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2306-7381). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [10224218](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10224218). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [37235400](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37235400).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** MacKinnon GL, Parker WA (1982). "Benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome: a literature review and evaluation". *Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse*. **9** (1): 19–33. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3109/00952998209002608](https://doi.org/10.3109%2F00952998209002608). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [6133446](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6133446).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Kirk_2013_p._185_30-0)** Kirk, Stuart (2013). *Mad science: psychiatric coercion, diagnosis, and drugs*. New Brunswick, N.J: Transaction Publishers. p. 185. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4128-4976-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4128-4976-0). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [808769553](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/808769553).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Kirk2013_31-0)** Kirk, Stuart A. (2013). *Mad Science: Psychiatric Coercion, Diagnosis, and Drugs*. Transaction Publishers.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** Szasz, Thomas Stephen (2003). *Ceremonial chemistry: the ritual persecution of drugs, addicts, and pushers*. Syracuse Univ. Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-8156-0768-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8156-0768-7). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [834790127](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/834790127).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** Szasz, Thomas S. (October 1974). "The Myth of Psychotherapy". *American Journal of Psychotherapy*. **28** (4): 517–526. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1974.28.4.517](https://doi.org/10.1176%2Fappi.psychotherapy.1974.28.4.517). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0002-9564](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9564). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [4429160](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4429160).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-34)** ["Kampf den Vorurteilen - Wie uns Stereotype und Klischees in die Irre führen können"](https://drvolkerbusch.de/kampf-den-vorurteilen-podcast-gehirn-gehoert-folge-15/). 21 July 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-35)** Moncrieff, Joanna; Cohen, David (May 29, 2009). ["How do psychiatric drugs work?"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3230235). *The BMJ*. **338** b1963. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1136/bmj.b1963](https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.b1963). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [3230235](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3230235). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [19482870](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19482870).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** Ho, Beng-Choon; Andreasen, Nancy C.; Ziebell, Steven; Pierson, Ronald; Magnotta, Vincent (February 2011). ["Long-term Antipsychotic Treatment and Brain Volumes"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3476840). *Archives of General Psychiatry*. **68** (2): 128–137. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.199](https://doi.org/10.1001%2Farchgenpsychiatry.2010.199). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0003-990X](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-990X). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [3476840](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3476840). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [21300943](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21300943).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** ["Antipsychotics and the Shrinking Brain"](https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/antipsychotics-and-shrinking-brain). *Psychiatric Times*. Psychiatric Times Vol 28 No 4. **28** (4). 4 May 2011. Retrieved 2020-07-25.

## External links

- [Children and Psychiatric Medication – a multimodal presentation](https://web.archive.org/web/20060721082804/http://www.childadvocate.net/childpresentations/child_medication.htm)

- [Psychiatric Drugs: Antidepressant, Antipsychotic, Antianxiety, Antimanic Agent, Stimulant Prescription Drugs](http://www.psychiatricdrugs.net/)

v t e Major chemical drug groups – based upon the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System gastrointestinal tract / metabolism (A) stomach acid Antacids H2 antagonists Proton-pump inhibitors Antiemetics Laxatives Antidiarrhoeals / Antipropulsives Anti-obesity drugs Diabetes medication Vitamins Dietary minerals blood and blood forming organs (B) Antithrombotics Antiplatelets Anticoagulants Thrombolytics / fibrinolytics Antihemorrhagics Platelets Coagulants Antifibrinolytics cardiovascular system (C) cardiac therapy / antianginals Cardiac glycosides Antiarrhythmics Cardiac stimulants Antihypertensives Diuretics Vasodilators Beta blockers Calcium channel blockers renin–angiotensin system ACE inhibitors Angiotensin II receptor antagonists Renin inhibitors Antihyperlipidemics Statins Fibrates Bile acid sequestrants skin (D) Emollients Cicatrizants Antipruritics Antipsoriatics Medicated dressings genitourinary system (G) Hormonal contraception Fertility agents Selective estrogen receptor modulators Sex hormones endocrine system (H) Hypothalamic–pituitary hormones Corticosteroids Glucocorticoids Mineralocorticoids Sex hormones Thyroid hormones / Antithyroid agents infections and infestations (J, P, QI) Antimicrobials: Antibacterials (Antimycobacterials) Antifungals Antivirals Antiparasitics Antiprotozoals Anthelmintics Ectoparasiticides Intravenous immunoglobulin Vaccines malignant disease (L01–L02) Anticancer agents Antimetabolites Alkylating Spindle poisons Antineoplastic Topoisomerase inhibitors immune disease (L03–L04) Immunomodulators Immunostimulants Immunosuppressants muscles, bones, and joints (M) Anabolic steroids Anti-inflammatories Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs Antirheumatics Corticosteroids Muscle relaxants Bisphosphonates brain and nervous system (N) Analgesics Anesthetics General Local Anorectics Anti-ADHD agents Antiaddictives Anticonvulsants Antidementia agents Antidepressants Antimigraine agents Antiparkinson agents Antipsychotics Anxiolytics Aphrodisiacs Depressants Entactogens Entheogens Euphoriants Hallucinogens Psychedelics Dissociatives Deliriants Hypnotics / Sedatives Mood stabilizers Motivation-enhancing drug Neuroprotectives Nootropics Neurotoxins Orexigenics Serenics Stimulants Wakefulness-promoting agents respiratory system (R) Decongestants Bronchodilators Cough medicines H1 antagonists sensory organs (S) Ophthalmologicals Otologicals other ATC (V) Antidotes Contrast media Radiopharmaceuticals Dressings Senotherapeutics Drugs Pharmacological classification systems ATC codes Medicine portal

v t e Chemical classes of psychoactive drugs Stimulants Amphetamine-type/dopamine releasing agents: Alkylamines Cycloalkylaminopropanes Arylpiperazines Benzylpiperazines Phenylpiperazines Phenethylamines Aminorexes/phenyloxazolamines Amphetamines/α-methylphenethylamines Cathinones/β-ketoamphetamines β-Hydroxyamphetamines/cathinols Naphthylaminopropanes Phentermines Phenylisobutylamines/α-ethylphenethylamines α-Propylphenethylamines Phenylmorpholines/phenmetrazines Thiopropamines/thienylaminopropanes Cocaine-type/typical dopamine reuptake inhibitors: Phenethylamines Phenidates/benzylpiperidines Phenylethylpyrrolidines Pyrrolidinophenones Phenyltropanes/cocaine analogues Modafinil-type/atypical dopamine reuptake inhibitors: Modafinil analogues Phenylpiracetams Caffeine-type/adenosine receptor antagonists: Xanthines/methylxanthines Nicotine-type/nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonists: Nicotine analogues Depressants GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators: Alcohols/ethanol analogues Barbiturates Benzodiazepines Pyrrolobenzodiazepines Thienobenzodiazepines Thienodiazepines Thienotriazolodiazepines Triazolobenzodiazepines Carbamates Ethers Neuroactive steroids Nonbenzodiazepines β-Carbolines Cyclopyrrolones Imidazopyridines Pyrazolopyrimidines Phenols Piperidinediones Quinazolinones GABAA receptor agonists: Isoxazoles GHB receptor agonists: 1,4-Butanediols α2δ subunit-containing voltage-gated calcium channel blockers: Gabapentinoids Opioids/μ-opioid receptor agonists: Benzimidazoles Nitazenes Fentanyl analogues/phenylpiperidines Mitragyna alkaloids Morphinans/phenanthrenes Opiates/opium alkaloids Utopioids Antihistamines/H1 receptor antagonists: Benzimidazoles Diarylmethanes Ethylenediamines Tricyclics Dibenzocycloheptenes Hallucinogens Serotonergic psychedelics/serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonists: Arylpiperazines Phenylpiperazines Quinolinylpiperazines Cyclized phenethylamines 3-Benzazepines Cyclized tryptamines Azepinoindoles Ibogalogs Iboga alkaloids β-Carbolines Harmala alkaloids Ergolines Lysergamides Simplified/partial lysergamides Phenethylamines (methoxyphenethylamines) 2Cs 25-NB/NBOMes 2C-Os 2C-Ts HOT-x TWEETIOs Amphetamines/α-methylphenethylamines 3Cs 3C-Desoxyscalines Dimethoxyamphetamines/DMAs DOx Alephs Ethylenedioxyamphetamines/EDxx Methylenedioxyamphetamines/MDxx Trimethoxyamphetamines/TMAs BOx Desoxyscalines FLYs/benzofurans Phenylisobutylamines/α-ethylphenethylamines 4Cs Scalines Thioscalines Ψ-PEAs Tryptamines α-Alkyltryptamines α-Alkyl-β-ketotryptamines 4-Hydroxytryptamines 5-Hydroxytryptamines 5-Methoxytryptamines Miscellaneous Dissociatives/NMDA receptor antagonists: Adamantanes Arylcyclohexylamines Diarylethylamines Morphinans κ-Opioid receptor agonists: Benzomorphans Salvinorins GABAA receptor agonists: Isoxazoles Deliriants/anticholinergics/muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonists: Diarylmethanes Tropanes Others: Cyclized tryptamines Azepinoindoles Iboga alkaloids (Phyto)cannabinoids Entactogens Serotonin releasing agents: Phenethylamines 2-Aminoindanes 2-Aminotetralins Amphetamines Benzofuranylaminopropanes Benzothiophenylaminopropanes Ethylenedioxyamphetamines/EDxx Indanylaminopropanes Indolylaminopropanes Methylenedioxyamphetamines/MDxx Tetralinylaminopropanes Tryptamines α-Alkyltryptamines Miscellaneous Psychiatric drugs Anxiolytics: Azapirones Benzodiazepines Pyrrolobenzodiazepines Thienobenzodiazepines Thienodiazepines Thienotriazolodiazepines Triazolobenzodiazepines Antidepressants: Tricyclic antidepressants Dibenzazepines Dibenzocycloheptenes Dibenzothiepins Dibenzoxazepines Dibenzoxepins Tetracyclic antidepressants Antipsychotics/dopamine D2 receptor antagonists or partial agonists: Benzamides Benzimidazoles Benzisothiazoles Benzisoxazoles Butyrophenones Diphenylbutylpiperidines Phenylpiperazines Tricyclics Dibenzazepines Dibenzodiazepines Dibenzothiazepines Dibenzothiepins Dibenzoxazepines Phenothiazines Thienobenzodiazepines Mood stabilizers/anticonvulsants: Gabapentinoids Tricyclics Dibenzazepines Valproates Others Nootropics: Racetams Phenylpiracetams Miscellaneous: 3-Benzazepines Adamantanes Catecholamines Tetrahydroisoquinolines Yohimbans

Authority control databases International GND National Czech Republic Spain Other Yale LUX

---
Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Psychiatric medication](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatric_medication) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatric_medication?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.