# Psychedelic experience

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Altered state of consciousness

For the book, see [*The Psychedelic Experience*](/source/The_Psychedelic_Experience).

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A **psychedelic experience**, also known colloquially as a "**trip**", is a temporary [altered state of consciousness](/source/Altered_state_of_consciousness) induced by the consumption of a [psychedelic](/source/Psychedelic) substance. Classic psychedelics include semisynthetic ergolines such as [LSD](/source/Lysergic_acid_diethylamide), [psilocybin](/source/Psilocybin) contained in several mushroom species, [DMT](/source/Dimethyltryptamine) contained in the [ayahuasca](/source/Ayahuasca) brew, or [mescaline](/source/Mescaline) contained in several cacti.[1][2]

For example, an **acid trip** is a psychedelic experience brought on by the use of LSD, while a **mushroom trip** is a psychedelic experience brought on by the use of psilocybin. Psychedelic experiences feature alterations in normal [perception](/source/Perception) such as visual distortions and a subjective [loss of self-identity](/source/Ego_dissolution), sometimes interpreted as [mystical experiences](/source/Mystical_experience).[3] Psychedelic experiences lack predictability, as they can range from being highly pleasurable (known as a good trip) to frightening (known as a [bad trip](/source/Bad_trip)). The outcome of a psychedelic experience is heavily influenced by the person's mood, personality, expectations, and environment (also known as [set and setting](/source/Set_and_setting)).[4]

Researchers have interpreted psychedelic experiences in light of a range of scientific theories, including [model psychosis](/source/Psychotomimetic) theory, filtration theory, [psychoanalytic theory](/source/Psychoanalytic_theory), entropic brain theory, [integrated information theory](/source/Integrated_information_theory), and [predictive processing](/source/Predictive_processing). Psychedelic experiences are also induced and interpreted in religious and spiritual contexts.

Along with psilocybin's unique effect on the state of mind, psilocybin has been subject to the idea of being used for therapeutic treatments. This rapidly developing field of psilocybin-assisted therapy has produced promising results in studies targeting mental disorders like depression,[5] post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD),[6] and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).[7]

## Etymology

The term *[psychedelic](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/psychedelic)* was coined by the psychiatrist [Humphrey Osmond](/source/Humphrey_Osmond) during written correspondence with author [Aldous Huxley](/source/Aldous_Huxley) and presented to the New York Academy of Sciences by Osmond in 1957.[8] It is derived from the [Greek](/source/Greek_language) words ψυχή, *psychḗ*, 'soul, mind' and δηλείν, *dēleín*, 'to manifest' thus meaning "mind manifesting," the implication being that psychedelics can develop untapped potentials of the human mind.[9] The term *trip* was first coined by US Army scientists during the 1950s when they were experimenting with LSD.[10]

## Phenomenology

Despite several attempts that have been made, starting in the 19th and 20th centuries, to define common [phenomenological](/source/Phenomenology_(psychology)) structures of the effects produced by classic psychedelics, a universally accepted taxonomy does not yet exist.[11][12]

### Visual alteration

A prominent element of psychedelic experiences is visual alteration.[11] Psychedelic visual alteration often includes spontaneous formation of complex flowing geometric visual patterning in the visual field.[12] When the eyes are open, the visual alteration is overlaid onto the objects and spaces in the physical environment; when the eyes are closed the visual alteration is seen in the "inner world" behind the eyelids.[12] These visual effects increase in complexity with higher dosages, and also when the eyes are closed.[12] The visual alteration does not normally constitute [hallucinations](/source/Hallucination), because the person undergoing the experience can still distinguish between real and imagined visual phenomena, though in some cases, true hallucinations are present.[11] More rarely, psychedelic experiences can include complex hallucinations of objects, animals, people, or even whole landscapes.[11] Visual alterations also include other effects such as [afterimages](/source/Afterimage), shifting of color hues, and [pareidolia](/source/Pareidolia). The appearance of [colors](/source/Color) and [light](/source/Photophobia) are usually enhanced.

[Psychedelic replications](/source/Psychedelic_replication), or reproductions of the visual/perceptual effects of psychedelics, have been created.[13][14][15][16][17]

### Mystical experiences

Further information: [Ego death](/source/Ego_death)

A number of studies by [Roland R. Griffiths](/source/Roland_R._Griffiths) and other researchers have concluded that high doses of [psilocybin](/source/Psilocybin) and other classic psychedelics trigger [mystical experiences](/source/Mystical_experience) in most research participants.[18][19][20][21] Mystical experiences have been measured by a number of [psychometric](/source/Psychometric) scales, including the [Hood](/source/Ralph_W._Hood) Mysticism Scale, the Spiritual Transcendence Scale, and the Mystical Experience Questionnaire.[21] The revised version of the Mystical Experience Questionnaire, for example, asks participants about four dimensions of their experience, namely the "mystical" quality, positive mood such as the experience of amazement, the loss of the usual sense of time and space, and the sense that the experience cannot be adequately conveyed through words.[21] The questions on the "mystical" quality in turn probe multiple aspects: the sense of "pure" being, the sense of unity with one's surroundings, the sense that what one experienced was real, and the sense of sacredness.[21] Some researchers have questioned the interpretation of the results from these studies and whether the framework and terminology of mysticism are appropriate in a scientific context, while other researchers have responded to those criticisms and argued that descriptions of mystical experiences are compatible with a scientific worldview.[22][23][24]

A group of researchers concluded in a 2011 study that psilocybin "occasions personally and spiritually significant mystical experiences that predict long-term changes in behaviors, attitudes and values".[25]

Some research has found similarities between psychedelic experiences and non-ordinary forms of consciousness experienced in [meditation](/source/Meditation)[26] and [near-death experiences](/source/Near-death_experience).[27] The phenomenon of [ego dissolution](/source/Ego_dissolution) is often described as a key feature of the psychedelic experience.[28][29][30]

Individuals who have psychedelic experiences often describe what they experienced as "more real" than ordinary experience. For example, the psychologist [Benny Shanon](/source/Benny_Shanon), after observing [ayahuasca](/source/Ayahuasca) trips, referred to "the assessment, very common with ayahuasca, that what is seen and thought during the course of intoxication defines the real, whereas the world that is ordinarily perceived is actually an illusion."[31] Similarly, the psychiatrist [Stanislav Grof](/source/Stanislav_Grof) described the LSD experience as "complex revelatory insights into the nature of existence… typically accompanied by a sense of certainty that this knowledge is ultimately more relevant and 'real' than the perceptions and beliefs we share in everyday life."[32]

### Bad trips

Main article: [Bad trip](/source/Bad_trip)

A "bad trip" is a highly unpleasant psychedelic experience.[11][33] A bad trip on psilocybin, for instance, often features intense anxiety, confusion, agitation, or even [psychotic](/source/Psychotic) episodes.[34] Bad trips can be connected to the anxious ego-dissolution (AED) dimension of the [APZ questionnaire](/source/APZ_questionnaire) used in research on psychedelic experiences.[11] As of 2011, exact data on the frequency of bad trips are not available.[34] Some research suggests that the risk of a bad trip on psilocybin is higher when multiple drugs are used, when the user has a history of certain mental illnesses, and when the user is not supervised by a sober person.[33]

In clinical research settings, precautions including the screening and preparation of participants, the training of the session monitors who will be present during the experience, and the selection of appropriate physical setting can minimize the likelihood of psychological distress.[35] Researchers have suggested that the presence of professional "[trip sitters](/source/Trip_sitter)" (i.e., session monitors) may significantly reduce the negative experiences associated with a bad trip.[36] In most cases in which anxiety arises during a supervised psychedelic experience, reassurance from the session monitor is adequate to resolve it; however, if distress becomes intense it can be treated pharmacologically, for example with the [benzodiazepine](/source/Benzodiazepine) [diazepam](/source/Diazepam).[35]

Research shows that preparing for the psychedelic experience, as well as the set and setting of the individual and environment they will be in, can help mitigate "bad trips''.[37][38] Harvard Psychologist [Timothy Leary](/source/Timothy_Leary) has said that "set" and "setting" are important to the experience.[37][38][39] Set refers to the participants' internal state – their mental, emotional and physical state, as well as their intentions for the experience (whether they want to solve a complex problem, discover the underlying secrets of the universe, or heal from a past trauma) – the better these preliminary conditions, the better the experience usually goes.[37][38] Setting refers to the environment the experience will take place in. Leary and others have found that, due to the highly suggestible nature of the psychedelic experience, the environment the participant is in plays a critical role.[37][38][40] For example, a warmly decorated room with a comfortable couch, nice music and an overall welcoming atmosphere will have a much more positive effect than a cold stainless steel and concrete reinforced hospital room.[37][38] Taking these necessary precautions before a psychedelic experience, along with the presence of trained professionals, have been shown to significantly reduce an overall negative experience.[37][38]

The psychiatrist [Stanislav Grof](/source/Stanislav_Grof) wrote that unpleasant psychedelic experiences are not necessarily unhealthy or undesirable, arguing that they may have potential for psychological healing and lead to breakthrough and resolution of unresolved psychic issues.[41][*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*] Drawing on [narrative theory](/source/Narrative_theory), the authors of a 2021 study of 50 users of psychedelics found that many described bad trips as having been sources of insight or even turning points in life.[36]

## Scientific models

Link R. Swanson divides scientific frameworks for understanding psychedelic experiences into two waves. In the first wave, encompassing nineteenth- and twentieth-century frameworks, he includes model [psychosis](/source/Psychosis) theory (the [psychotomimetic](/source/Psychotomimetic) paradigm), filtration theory, and [psychoanalytic theory](/source/Psychoanalytic_theory).[12] In the second wave of theories, encompassing twenty-first-century frameworks, Swanson includes entropic brain theory, [integrated information theory](/source/Integrated_information_theory), and [predictive processing](/source/Predictive_processing).[12]

### Model psychosis theory

Researchers studying mescaline in the early twentieth century and LSD in the mid-twentieth century took interest in these drugs as producing a temporary "model psychosis" that could assist researchers and medical students in understanding the experiences of patients with [schizophrenia](/source/Schizophrenia) and other psychotic disorders.[42]

It was popular to compare between experiences of psychedelics and psychosis in the mid-20th century.[43] The scales used in psychosis and psychedelic research, in the late-20th and 21st century, are more different.[43] Despite the many similarities that were observed between experiences of psychedelics and psychosis in the past, contemporary psychosis and psychedelic research highlight some features more than others (since they have different goals and assumptions), such as mysticism, connectedness, awe, peace, ego dissolution, hallucinations, suspiciousness, disorganization, hostility, grandiosity, and withdrawal.[43]

### Filtration theory

[Aldous Huxley](/source/Aldous_Huxley) and [Humphrey Osmond](/source/Humphrey_Osmond) applied the pre-existing ideas of filtration theory, which held that the brain filters what enters into consciousness, to explain psychedelic experiences (and it is from this paradigm that the term *psychedelic* is derived).[12] Huxley believed that the brain was filtering reality itself and that psychedelics granted conscious access to "[Mind at Large](/source/Mind_at_Large)," whereas Osmond believed that the brain was filtering aspects of the mind out of consciousness.[12] Swanson writes that Osmond's view seems "less radical, more compatible with [materialist](/source/Materialist) science, and less [epistemically](/source/Epistemology) and [ontologically](/source/Ontology) committed" than Huxley's.[12]

### Psychoanalytic theory

Psychoanalytic theory was the predominant interpretive framework in mid-twentieth-century [psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy](/source/Psychedelic_therapy).[12] For instance, Czech psychiatrist [Stanislav Grof](/source/Stanislav_Grof) characterised psychedelic experiencing as "non-specific amplification of unconscious mental processes", and he analysed the phenomenology of the LSD experience (particularly the experience of what he termed psychospiritual death and rebirth) in terms of [Otto Rank](/source/Otto_Rank)'s theory of the unresolved memory of the primal birth trauma.[44]

### Entropic brain theory

Entropic brain theory is a theory of [consciousness](/source/Consciousness) proposed in 2014 by neuroscientist [Robin Carhart-Harris](/source/Robin_Carhart-Harris) and colleagues that was inspired by research on psychedelic drugs.[45] The theory suggests that the [entropy](/source/Entropy_(information_theory)) of brain activity within certain limits indexes the richness of conscious states, particularly under the influence of psychedelics. This theory posits that elevated brain entropy correlates with heightened informational richness, suggesting that psychedelics increase brain criticality, making it more sensitive to internal and external perturbations.[46] This enhanced state of brain activity is proposed to influence susceptibility to environmental factors ("set" and "setting") and potentially offer new insights for treating psychiatric and neurological disorders, including depression and disorders of consciousness.

### Integrated information theory

Integrated information theory is a theory of consciousness proposing to explain all forms of consciousness, and has been applied specifically to psychedelic experiences by Andrew Gallimore.[47]

### Predictive processing

Sarit Pink-Hashkes and colleagues have applied the predictive processing paradigm in neuroscience to psychedelic experiences in order to formalize the idea of the entropic brain.[48]

## In religious and spiritual contexts

Further information: [Entheogen](/source/Entheogen)

[Alan Watts](/source/Alan_Watts) likened psychedelic experiencing to the transformations of consciousness that are undertaken in [Taoism](/source/Taoism) and [Zen](/source/Zen), which he says is, "more like the correction of faulty perception or the curing of a disease… not an acquisitive process of learning more and more facts or greater and greater skills, but rather an unlearning of wrong habits and opinions."[49] Watts further described the LSD experience as, "revelations of the secret workings of the brain, of the associative and patterning processes, the ordering systems which carry out all our sensing and thinking."[50]

According to [Luis Luna](/source/Luis_Eduardo_Luna), psychedelic experiences have a distinctly [gnosis](/source/Gnosis)-like quality; it is a learning experience that elevates consciousness and makes a profound contribution to personal development. For this reason, the plant sources of some psychedelic drugs such as ayahuasca and mescaline-containing cacti are sometimes referred to as "plant teachers" by those using those drugs.[51]

Furthermore, psychedelic drugs have a history of religious use across the world that extends back for hundreds or perhaps thousands of years.[52] They are often called [entheogens](/source/Entheogen) because of the kinds of experiences they can induce,[53] however various entheogens happen to also be [hypnotics](/source/Hypnotic) ([muscimol mushrooms](/source/Muscimol_mushroom)), [deliriants](/source/Deliriant) (*[jimsonweed](/source/Jimsonweed)*) or atypical/quasi-psychedelics like [cannabis](/source/Cannabis_(drug)). Some small contemporary religious movements base their religious activities and beliefs around psychedelic experiences, such as [Santo Daime](/source/Santo_Daime)[54] and the [Native American Church](/source/Native_American_Church).[55]

## Psilocybin-assisted therapy

Main article: [Psilocybin therapy](/source/Psilocybin_therapy)

### Depression

Studies on psilocybin-assisted therapy have found participants experience reduced depressive symptoms afterwards, as well as reduced anxiety symptoms.[5] Studies have also found that reductions in symptoms continued long afterwards, suggesting psilocybin could potentially be effective as a long-term treatment.[5]

### Post-traumatic stress disorder

Individuals who suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) may also benefit from psilocybin-assisted therapy.[6] Based on studies so far, MDMA-assisted therapy appears to be effective for reducing symptoms of PTSD, leading a group of researchers to argue that psilocybin-assisted therapy may also be effective in PTSD and call for a study on the topic.[6]

### Obsessive-compulsive disorder

In a study that reviewed a variety of drugs to determine if it had an impact on symptoms of OCD, psilocybin was also tested and determined effective in reducing symptoms.[7] This reduction in symptoms applied to all individuals who participated in the study, proving psilocybin to be very reliable along with efficiency in reducing OCD symptoms.[7]

## See also

- [Cannabis and time perception](/source/Cannabis_and_time_perception)

- [Default mode network](/source/Default_mode_network)

- [Eight-circuit model of consciousness](/source/Eight-circuit_model_of_consciousness)

- [List of hallucinogen scales](/source/List_of_hallucinogen_scales)

- [List of psychedelic literature](/source/List_of_psychedelic_literature)

- [Mindstate Design Labs](/source/Mindstate_Design_Labs)

- [Numinous](/source/Numinous) experience

- [Philosophy of psychedelics](/source/Philosophy_of_psychedelics)

- [Psychedelic microdosing](/source/Psychedelic_microdosing)

- [Psychonautics](/source/Psychonautics)

- [Subjective Effect Index](/source/Subjective_Effect_Index)

- [Trip killer](/source/Trip_killer)

- [Trip report](/source/Trip_report)

## References

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-Rosa2022_17-0)** Rosa, Tomáš (25 November 2022). ["Jak člověk vidí svět pod vlivem halucinogenů? Vědkyně vytvořila přesná videa"](https://www.denik.cz/veda/halucinogeny-drogy-uzivani-video.html?utm_source=www.seznam.cz&utm_medium=sekce-z-internetu#dop_ab_variant=0&dop_source_zone_name=hpfeed.sznhp.box) [How does one see the world under the influence of hallucinogens? A scientist created accurate video]. *Deník.cz* (in Czech). Retrieved 15 March 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Griffiths2006_18-0)** R. R. Griffiths; W. A. Richards; U. McCann; R. Jesse (7 July 2006). "Psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance". *Psychopharmacology*. **187** (3): 268–283. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/s00213-006-0457-5](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00213-006-0457-5). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [16826400](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16826400). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [7845214](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7845214).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-barrett-et-al-2015_19-0)** Barrett, Frederick S.; Johnson, Matthew W.; Griffiths, Roland R. (2015). ["Validation of the revised Mystical Experience Questionnaire in experimental sessions with psilocybin"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5203697). *Journal of Psychopharmacology*. **29** (11): 1182–1190. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/0269881115609019](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0269881115609019). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [5203697](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5203697). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [26442957](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26442957).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5-meo-dmt-mystical_20-0)** Barsuglia, Joseph; Davis, Alan K.; Palmer, Robert; Lancelotta, Rafael; Windham-Herman, Austin-Marley; Peterson, Kristel; Polanco, Martin; Grant, Robert; Griffiths, Roland R. (2018). ["Intensity of Mystical Experiences Occasioned by 5-MeO-DMT and Comparison With a Prior Psilocybin Study"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6292276). *Frontiers in Psychology*. **9** 2459. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02459](https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2018.02459). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [6292276](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6292276). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [30574112](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30574112).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-johnson-et-al-2019_21-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-johnson-et-al-2019_21-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-johnson-et-al-2019_21-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-johnson-et-al-2019_21-3) Johnson, Matthew W.; Hendricks, Peter S.; Barrett, Frederick S.; Griffiths, Roland R. (2019). "Classic psychedelics: An integrative review of epidemiology, therapeutics, mystical experience, and brain network function". *Pharmacology & Therapeutics*. **197**: 83–102. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.pharmthera.2018.11.010](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.pharmthera.2018.11.010). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [30521880](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30521880). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [54467870](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:54467870).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-sanders-zijlmans-2021_22-0)** Sanders, James W.; Zijlmans, Josjan (2021). ["Moving Past Mysticism in Psychedelic Science"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8205234). *ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science*. **4** (3): 1253–1255. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1021/acsptsci.1c00097](https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facsptsci.1c00097). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [8205234](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8205234). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [34151217](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34151217).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-breeksema-van-elk-2021_23-0)** Breeksema, Joost J.; van Elk, Michiel (2021). ["Working with Weirdness: A Response to "Moving Past Mysticism in Psychedelic Science""](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8369678). *ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science*. **4** (4): 1471–1474. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1021/acsptsci.1c00149](https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facsptsci.1c00149). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [8369678](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8369678). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [34423279](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34423279).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-jylkka-2021_24-0)** Jylkkä, Jussi (2021). ["Reconciling Mystical Experiences with Naturalistic Psychedelic Science: Reply to Sanders and Zijlmans"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8369668). *ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science*. **4** (4): 1468–1470. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1021/acsptsci.1c00137](https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facsptsci.1c00137). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [8369668](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8369668). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [34423278](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34423278).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Openness-psilocybin2011_25-0)** MacLean, Katherine A.; Johnson, Matthew W.; Griffiths, Roland R. (2011). ["Mystical experiences occasioned by the hallucinogen psilocybin lead to increases in the personality domain of openness"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3537171). *Journal of Psychopharmacology*. **25** (11): 1453–1461. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/0269881111420188](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0269881111420188). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [3537171](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3537171). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [21956378](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21956378).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-psych-meditation-self_26-0)** Millière, Raphaël; Carhart-Harris, Robin L.; Roseman, Leor; Trautwein, Fynn-Mathis; Berkovich-Ohana, Aviva (2018). ["Psychedelics, Meditation, and Self-Consciousness"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6137697). *Frontiers in Psychology*. **9** 1475. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01475](https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2018.01475). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [6137697](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6137697). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [30245648](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30245648).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-dmt-nde_27-0)** Timmermann, Christopher; Roseman, Leor; Williams, Luke; Erritzoe, David; Martial, Charlotte; Cassol, Héléna; Laureys, Steven; Nutt, David; Carhart-Harris, Robin (2018). ["DMT Models the Near-Death Experience"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6107838). *Frontiers in Psychology*. **9** 1424. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01424](https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2018.01424). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [6107838](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6107838). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [30174629](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30174629).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-letheby-gerrans_28-0)** Letheby, Chris; Gerrans, Philip (2017). ["Self unbound: ego dissolution in psychedelic experience"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6007152). *Neuroscience of Consciousness*. **3** (1) nix016. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/nc/nix016](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fnc%2Fnix016). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [6007152](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6007152). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [30042848](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30042848).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-mason-et-al-2020_29-0)** Mason, N. L.; Kuypers, K. P. C.; Müller, F.; Reckweg, J.; Tse, D. H. Y.; Toennes, S. W.; Hutten, N. R. P. W.; Jansen, J. F. A.; Stiers, P.; Feilding, A.; Ramaekers, J. G. (2020). ["Me, myself, bye: regional alterations in glutamate and the experience of ego dissolution with psilocybin"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7547711). *Neuropsychopharmacology*. **45** (12): 2003–2011. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1038/s41386-020-0718-8](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41386-020-0718-8). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [7547711](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7547711). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [32446245](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32446245).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-nour-et-al-2016_30-0)** Nour, Matthew M.; Evans, Lisa; Nutt, David; Carhart-Harris, Robin L. (2016). ["Ego-Dissolution and Psychedelics: Validation of the Ego-Dissolution Inventory (EDI)"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4906025). *Frontiers in Human Neuroscience*. **10**: 269. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3389/fnhum.2016.00269](https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffnhum.2016.00269). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [4906025](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4906025). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [27378878](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27378878).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** Shanon, Benny (2002). *The antipodes of the mind: charting the phenomenology of the Ayahuasca experience* (Reprinted ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 205. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-925292-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-925292-3).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** Bennett, Stanislav Grof with Hal Zina (2006). *The holotropic mind: the three levels of human consciousness and how they shape our lives* (1st paperback ed., [Nachdr.] ed.). San Francisco, Calif.: HarperSanFrancisco. p. 38. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-06-250659-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-250659-7).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-roberts-et-al_33-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-roberts-et-al_33-1) Roberts, Carl A.; Osborne-Miller, Isaac; Cole, Jon; Gage, Suzanne H.; Christiansen, Paul (2020). "Perceived harm, motivations for use and subjective experiences of recreational psychedelic 'magic' mushroom use". *Journal of Psychopharmacology*. **34** (9): 999–1007. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/0269881120936508](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0269881120936508). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [32674668](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32674668). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [220607863](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220607863).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-van-amsterdam-et-al_34-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-van-amsterdam-et-al_34-1) van Amsterdam, Jan; Opperhuizen, Antoon; van den Brink, Wim (2011). "Harm potential of magic mushroom use: A review". *Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology*. **59** (3): 423–429. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.yrtph.2011.01.006](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.yrtph.2011.01.006). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [21256914](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21256914).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-johnson-et-al-2008_35-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-johnson-et-al-2008_35-1) Johnson, Matthew W.; Richards, William A.; Griffiths, Roland R. (2008). ["Human Hallucinogen Research: Guidelines for Safety"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3056407). *Journal of Psychopharmacology*. **22** (6): 603–620. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/0269881108093587](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0269881108093587). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [3056407](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3056407). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [18593734](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18593734).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-gashi-et-al-2021_36-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-gashi-et-al-2021_36-1) Gashi, Liridona; Sandberg, Sveinung; Pederson, Willy (2021). "Making "bad trips" good: How users of psychedelics narratively transform challenging trips into valuable experiences". *International Journal of Drug Policy*. **87** 102997. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.102997](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.drugpo.2020.102997). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[10852/81144](https://hdl.handle.net/10852%2F81144). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [33080454](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33080454). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [224821288](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:224821288).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:0_37-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:0_37-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-:0_37-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-:0_37-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-:0_37-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-:0_37-5) Fadiman, James (2011). *The psychedelic explorer's guide: safe, therapeutic, and sacred journeys*. Rochester, Vt: Park Street Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-59477-402-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59477-402-7).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:1_38-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:1_38-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-:1_38-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-:1_38-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-:1_38-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-:1_38-5) Pollan, Michael (2018). *How to change your mind*. New York: Penguin Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-59420-422-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59420-422-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** Waldman, Ayelet (2017). *A Really Good Day* (1st ed.). Knopf.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-41)** Grof, Stanislav (2008). [*LSD Psychotherapy*](https://books.google.com/books?id=jAvSPgAACAAJ). Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-9798622-0-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9798622-0-5).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-aday-et-al-2019_42-0)** Aday, Jacob S.; Bloesch, Emily K.; Davoli, Christopher C. (2019). "Beyond LSD: A Broader Psychedelic Zeitgeist during the Early to Mid-20th Century". *Journal of Psychoactive Drugs*. **51** (3): 210–217. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/02791072.2019.1581961](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02791072.2019.1581961). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [30836890](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30836890). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [73466221](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:73466221).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-doi.org_43-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-doi.org_43-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-doi.org_43-2) Friesen P. Psychosis and psychedelics: Historical entanglements and contemporary contrasts. Transcultural Psychiatry. 2022;59(5):592-609. [https://doi.org/10.1177/13634615221129116](https://doi.org/10.1177/13634615221129116)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-44)** Grof, Stanislav (1976). *Realms of the human unconscious: observations from LSD research*. New York: Dutton. p. 98. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-525-47438-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-525-47438-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-carhart-harris-et-al-2014_45-0)** Carhart-Harris, Robin; Leech, Robert; Hellyer, Peter J.; Shanahan, Murray; Feilding, Amanda; Tagliazucchi, Enzo; Chialvo, Dante R.; Nutt, David (2014). ["The entropic brain: a theory of conscious states informed by neuroimaging research with psychedelic drugs"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3909994). *Frontiers in Human Neuroscience*. **8**: 20. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3389/fnhum.2014.00020](https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffnhum.2014.00020). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [3909994](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3909994). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [24550805](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24550805).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-46)** Carhart-Harris, Robin L. (2018-11-01). ["The entropic brain - revisited"](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0028390818301175). *Neuropharmacology*. Psychedelics: New Doors, Altered Perceptions. **142**: 167–178. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.03.010](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuropharm.2018.03.010). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0028-3908](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-3908). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [29548884](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29548884).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-gallimore-2015_47-0)** Gallimore, Andrew R. (2015). ["Restructuring consciousness –the psychedelic state in light of integrated information theory"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4464176). *Frontiers in Human Neuroscience*. **9**: 346. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3389/fnhum.2015.00346](https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffnhum.2015.00346). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [4464176](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4464176). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [26124719](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26124719).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-pink-hashkes-et-al-2017_48-0)** Pink-Hashkes, Sarit; van Rooij, Iris; Kwisthout, Johan (2017). [*Perception is in the Details: A Predictive Coding Account of the Psychedelic Phenomenon*](https://www.socsci.ru.nl/johank/hashkes_170201.pdf) (PDF). The 39th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-49)** Watts, Alan W. (2013). *The Joyous Cosmology: Adventures in the Chemistry of Consciousness* (Second ed.). New World Library. p. 15. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-60868-204-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60868-204-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-50)** Watts, Alan W. (2013). *The Joyous Cosmology: Adventures in the Chemistry of Consciousness* (Second ed.). New World Library. p. 44. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-60868-204-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60868-204-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-luna-peru_51-0)** Luna, Luis Eduardo (1984). ["The concept of plants as teachers among four mestizo shamans of Iquitos, northeastern Peru"](http://home.iscte-iul.pt/~fgvs/Luna_plants.pdf) (PDF). *Journal of Ethnopharmacology*. **11** (2): 135–156. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/0378-8741(84)90036-9](https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0378-8741%2884%2990036-9). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [6492831](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6492831). Retrieved 10 July 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-griffiths-et-al-2008_52-0)** Griffiths, R. R.; Richards, W. A.; Johnson, M. W.; McCann, U. D.; Jesse, R. (2008). ["Mystical-type experiences occasioned by psilocybin mediate the attribution of personal meaning and spiritual significance 14 months later"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3050654). *Journal of Psychopharmacology*. **22** (6): 621–632. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/0269881108094300](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0269881108094300). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0269-8811](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0269-8811). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [3050654](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3050654). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [18593735](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18593735).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-53)** Rätsch, Richard Evans Schultes, Albert Hofmann, Christian (2001). *Plants of the gods: their sacred, healing, and hallucinogenic powers* (Rev. and expanded ed.). Rochester, Vt.: Healing Arts Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-89281-979-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89281-979-0).{{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-santos-et-al_54-0)** Santos, R. G.; Landeira-Fernandez, J.; Strassman, R. J.; Motta, V.; Cruz, A. P. M. (2007). "Effects of ayahuasca on psychometric measures of anxiety, panic-like and hopelessness in Santo Daime members". *Journal of Ethnopharmacology*. **112** (3): 507–513. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.jep.2007.04.012](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jep.2007.04.012). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [17532158](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17532158).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-calabrese_55-0)** Calabrese, Joseph D. (1997). "Spiritual healing and human development in the Native American church: Toward a cultural psychiatry of peyote". *Psychoanalytic Review*. **84** (2): 237–255. [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [9211587](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9211587).

## Further reading

- Grinspoon, Lester; Bakalar, James. B., eds. (1983). *Psychedelic Reflections*. New York: Human Sciences Press. pp. 13–14. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-89885-129-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89885-129-7).

- Halberstadt, Adam L.; Franz X. Vollenweider; David E. Nichols, eds. (2018). *Behavioral Neurobiology of Psychedelic Drugs*. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences. Vol. 36. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-662-55878-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-662-55878-2).

- Letheby, Chris (2021). *Philosophy of Psychedelics*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/med/9780198843122.001.0001](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmed%2F9780198843122.001.0001). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-884312-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-884312-2).

- Richards, William A. (2016). *Sacred Knowledge: Psychedelics and Religious Experiences*. New York: Columbia University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-231-54091-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-54091-9).

v t e Recreational drug use Major recreational drugs Depressants Barbiturates Benzodiazepines Carbamates Ethanol (alcohol) Alcoholic beverage Beer Wine Gabapentinoids GHB Inhalants Medical Nitrous oxide (recreational use) Hazardous solvents contact adhesives Gasoline nail polish remover Paint thinner Other Freon Kava Nonbenzodiazepines Quinazolinones Quaaludes Opioids Buprenorphine Suboxone Subutex Codeine Lean Desomorphine Krokodil Dextropropoxyphene Darvocet Darvon Fentanyl Diamorphine Heroin Hydrocodone Hydromorphone Dilaudid Methadone Mitragyna speciosa Kratom Morphine Opium Oxycodone /paracetamol Tramadol Stimulants Amphetamine Arecoline Areca Betel Caffeine Coffee Energy drinks Tea Cathinone Khat Cocaine Coca Cocaine paste Crack Ephedrine Ephedra MDPV Mephedrone Methamphetamine Methylone Methylphenidate Modafinil Nicotine Polacrilex Salt Tobacco Theobromine Cocoa Chocolate Entactogens 2C series 6-APB Benzofury AMT MDA MDMA Ecstasy Molly Hallucinogens Psychedelics 2C-B 25I-NBOMe 4-AcO-DMT 5-MeO-DMT Psychoactive toads Bufotenin Vilca Yopo DMT Ayahuasca LSA and iso-LSA Morning glory Ergot LSD Mescaline Peruvian torch Peyote San Pedro Psilocybin and psilocin Psilocybin mushrooms Dissociatives DXM (recreational use) Inhalants Nitrous oxide (recreational use) Ketamine MXE PCP Deliriants Atropine and Scopolamine Atropa belladonna Datura Hyoscyamus niger Mandragora officinarum Dimenhydrinate Diphenhydramine Cannabinoids THC Cannabis (Marijuana) Hashish Hash oil Synthetic cannabinoids JWH-018 APICA APINACA Spice Others Ibogaine Tabernanthe iboga Muscimol Amanita muscaria Oneirogens Calea zacatechichi Silene capensis Salvinorin A Salvia divinorum Drug culture Cannabis culture 420 Cannabis consumption Cannabis cultivation Cannabis edible Cannabis rights Cannabis rights leaders List of cannabis rights organizations Cannabis smoking Cannabis Social Club Cannabis tea Cannabis vaping Head shop Legal history of cannabis in the United States Legality of cannabis Marijuana Policy Project Medical cannabis Mushroom edible NORML Cannabis and religion Stoner film Coffee culture Coffee break Coffeehouse Latte art Teahouse Drinking culture Bartending Beer culture Beer festival Binge drinking Diethyl ether Drinking games Drinking song Happy hour Hip flask Nightclub Oktoberfest Pub Pub crawl Sommelier Sports bar Tailgate party Wine bar Wine tasting Psychedelia Psychonautics Art Drug Era Experience Literature Music Microdosing Smart shop Therapy Trip report Smoking culture Cigarette card Fashion cigarettes Cloud-chasing Loosie Smokeasy Smoking fetishism Tobacco smoking Other Chasing the dragon Club drug Counterculture of the 1960s Dance party Drug paraphernalia Drug tourism Entheogen Hippie Needle sharing Nootropic Party and play Poly drug use Rave Religion and drugs Self-medication Sex and drugs Urban legends about drugs Whoonga Legality of drug use International International drug control conventions 1961 Narcotic Drugs 1971 Psychotropic Substances 1988 Drug Trafficking Other treaties addressing drugs Law of the Sea Convention Convention Against Doping Council of the European Union decisions on designer drugs State level Drug policy Decriminalization Legalization Prohibition Regulation Supply reduction Policy reform Demand reduction Drug Policy Alliance Harm reduction Law Enforcement Action Partnership Liberalization Latin America Students for Sensible Drug Policy Drug policy by country Australia Canada China Czech Republic Germany India Laos Netherlands Philippines Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia South Korea Soviet Union Sweden Switzerland United States Just Say No Office of National Drug Control Policy School district drug policies California Colorado Maryland Oregon Virginia United Kingdom Drug legality Alcohol legality Anabolic steroid legality Cannabis legality Cocaine legality Methamphetamine legality Psilocybin decriminalization in the U.S. Psilocybin mushrooms legality Salvia legality Other Arguments for and against drug prohibition Cannabis rights Capital punishment for drug trafficking Cognitive liberty Designer drug Drug court Drug possession Drug test Narc Politics of drug abuse War on drugs Mexican drug war Plan Colombia Philippine drug war Zero tolerance Other Drug production and trade Drug production Coca production in Colombia Drug precursors Opium production in Afghanistan Rolling meth lab Government drug experiments MKUltra Edgewood Arsenal human experiments Operation Midnight Climax Drug trade Illegal drug trade Afghanistan Aruba Australia Bangladesh Belize Benin Bhutan Bolivia Brazil Burma Cambodia Chile China Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Cyprus Dominican Republic El Salvador Estonia Finland Germany Haiti Honduras India Indian Ocean region Iran Italy Japan Kenya Kosovo Kyrgyzstan Laos Latin America Latvia Malaysia Mauritius Moldova Nigeria Norway Oman Panama Papua New Guinea Paraguay Philippines Poland Portugal Puerto Rico Russia Saint Kitts and Nevis Seychelles Slovakia South Africa South Korea Spain Suriname Switzerland Taiwan Thailand Turkey Turks and Caicos Islands United Arab Emirates United States Venezuela Darknet market Online illicit drug vendor Pharmaceutical distribution Beer shop Cannabis shop Liquor store Liquor license Issues with drug use Abuse Addiction Date rape drug Dependence Driving impaired Drug harmfulness Effects of cannabis Drug-related crime Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder Long-term effects of cannabis Neurotoxicity Overdose Passive smoking of tobacco or other substances Harm reduction Drug checking Drug legalization Drug rehabilitation Needle and syringe programmes Opioid replacement therapy Pharmacovigilance Reagent testing Regulation of therapeutic goods Responsible drug use Substance abuse prevention Supervised injection site Trip killer Countries by drug use Alcohol consumption Cocaine use Cannabis Annual use Lifetime use Opiates use Tobacco consumption Other Psilocybin therapy

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Psychedelic experience](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychedelic_experience) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychedelic_experience?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.