# Proto-Siouan language

> Mediated Wiki article. Canonical URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Proto-Siouan_language
> Markdown URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Proto-Siouan_language.md
> Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Siouan_language
> Source revision: 1353348509
> License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/)

Common ancestor of the Siouan languages

Proto-Siouan Proto-Siouan–Catawban Reconstruction of Siouan languages Region Ohio River Valley Era c. 3000 BC – 2000 BC

**Proto-Siouan**,[a] sometimes known as **Proto-Siouan–Catawban**,[b] is the [reconstructed](/source/Linguistic_reconstruction) ancestor of the [Siouan languages](/source/Siouan_languages). Although the attested [daughter languages](/source/Daughter_language) are largely native to the [Great Plains](/source/Great_Plains) region of the United States and Canada, Proto-Siouan is believed to have been [originally spoken](/source/Linguistic_homeland) in and around the [Ohio River Valley](/source/Ohio_River_Valley) between 3000 BC and 2000 BC before splitting off into the [Eastern](/source/Eastern_Siouan_languages) and [Western Siouan languages](/source/Western_Siouan_languages). Siouan-speaking peoples were eventually displaced or assimilated after losing several [wars of conquest](/source/Wars_of_conquest) against their northern [Iroquois](/source/Iroquois) neighbors during the 17th century, though their presence along the [American Eastern Seaboard](/source/East_Coast_of_the_United_States) is supported by [toponymic](/source/Toponymic) and [onomastic](/source/Onomastic) data.

Proto-Siouan [phonology](/source/Phonology) had five oral and three [nasal vowels](/source/Nasal_vowel), each distinguishable by [length](/source/Vowel_length), and a complex set of consonants including a four-way [stop](/source/Stop_consonant) distinction. The language also distinguished between at least two [tones](/source/Tone_(linguistics)), high and non-high, though a [falling tone](/source/Falling_tone) may have also been present. Grammatically, the language was [head-marking](/source/Head-marking) with simple [agglutination](/source/Agglutination). It has been reconstructed with an [active–stative morphosyntactic alignment](/source/Active%E2%80%93stative_alignment) and [subject–object–verb word order](/source/Subject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb_word_order). The language also had a fairly complex morphophonology, using [sound symbolism](/source/Sound_symbolism), [phonesthemes](/source/Phonestheme), and [apophony](/source/Apophony) as ways of conveying semantic meaning, sometimes in combination.

As early as the first half of the 19th century, linguists have attempted to develop a broader understanding of the Siouan languages' relationships to other [indigenous languages of the Americas](/source/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas). Early successes linked the larger Western Siouan family to the Catawban family, composed of two poorly attested languages, [Catawba](/source/Catawba_language) and [Woccon](/source/Woccon_language), and there has been some acceptance of linking the family with the [Yuchi language](/source/Yuchi_language) indigenous to eastern Tennessee. Wider attempts to link the language family variously to the [Iroquoian](/source/Iroquoian_languages), [Caddoan](/source/Caddoan_languages), and [Muskogean languages](/source/Muskogean_languages) as well as a number of other [language isolates](/source/Language_isolate) have largely met with criticism and are not widely accepted.

## History

[Albert Gatschet](/source/Albert_Gatschet) (left) and [Horatio Hale](/source/Horatio_Hale) both recognized the relationship of some eastern Siouan-speaking  peoples to those of the [Great Plains](/source/Great_Plains) in the 1880s.

The Proto-Siouan language is the [reconstructed](/source/Linguistic_reconstruction) ancestor of the [Siouan languages](/source/Siouan_languages).[1] The interrelatedness of the [language family](/source/Language_family) was first identified in 1836 by [Albert Gallatin](/source/Albert_Gallatin), a [Genevan](/source/Republic_of_Geneva)-American ethnologist and [Founding Father](/source/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States), who named it after its most-widely recognized members, the [Sioux](/source/Sioux).[2][3] In 1881, the Swiss-American scholar [Albert Gatschet](/source/Albert_Gatschet) worked on documenting the [Catawba language](/source/Catawba_language) of [South Carolina](/source/South_Carolina) and commented on its similarity to the Siouan languages of the [Great Plains](/source/Great_Plains) of the United States and Canada.[4] Two years later, [Horatio Hale](/source/Horatio_Hale) similarly linked the [Tutelo language](/source/Tutelo_language) of [Virginia](/source/Virginia) to other Great Plains Siouan languages in his 1883 description of the tribe.[5]

In 1816, the work of the German scholars [Johann Adelung](/source/Johann_Christoph_Adelung) and [Johann Vater](/source/Johann_Severin_Vater) first described the relationship between Catawba and [Woccon](/source/Woccon_language) using primarily a side-by-side [word list](/source/Word_list). Twenty years later, Gallatin built significantly on their work, describing the relationship as phylogenetic and relating these languages to the Siouan family.[2] Work published by [Frank Siebert](/source/Frank_Siebert) in 1945 is considered to have definitively proven the relationship.[6]

Although historians have identified at least twenty-five Siouan-speaking [ethnic groups](/source/Ethnic_group), it is difficult to estimate the number of languages spoken, as [dialectal](/source/Dialect) differences and, in some cases, scant [attestations](/source/Attested_language) make determining the precise number difficult.[3] David Rood and John E. Koontz estimate that there are between fifteen and eighteen attested Siouan languages.[7] [Robert L. Rankin](/source/Robert_L._Rankin) puts the number as simply "more than fifteen".[8]

## Origins

### Dating

Proto-Siouan was probably spoken around 3000 BC, splitting off into the [Eastern Siouan](/source/Eastern_Siouan) and [Western Siouan languages](/source/Western_Siouan_languages) around a thousand years later.[9] Earlier efforts to date the language differed drastically from one another, from the end of [Pleistocene](/source/Pleistocene) to around 800 AD, but archeological records and research into shared vocabulary has yielded a more narrow estimate of around five thousand years ago.[10] [Glottochronological](/source/Glottochronological) dating of the Eastern–Western split has yielded mixed results. Robert Headley estimated that the Eastern and Western Siouan languages split around 1150 BC.[11] By contrast, the mathematician Thaddeus C. Grimm employed a methodology developed by the American linguists [Morris Swadesh](/source/Morris_Swadesh) and [Robert Lees](/source/Robert_Lees_(linguist)), and estimated the same split occurred around 2285 BC, though another one of his calculations argued for 5000 BC.[11] Rankin argued that this split should be dated to roughly 2000 BC.[11]

Archeological evidence has also supported the 3000 BC date for Proto-Siouan. The [gourd](/source/Gourd) species *[Cucurbita pepo](/source/Cucurbita_pepo)*, for example, has been used as one basis for this estimate; evidence that [cucurbits](/source/Cucurbitaceae) were beginning to be domesticated appears in the archeological records between around 3400 BC to around 2300 BC.[12] The Siouan languages share a commonly-derived term for the plant across great geographic and phylogenetic distances, such as in the case of the [Mandan language](/source/Mandan_language), formerly spoken in [North Dakota](/source/North_Dakota), and the [Biloxi language](/source/Biloxi_language), formerly spoken in [Mississippi](/source/Mississippi) and [Louisiana](/source/Louisiana).[12] The Proto-Siouan term for these cucurbits has been reconstructed as **hkó:-re* and its descendants include [Crow](/source/Crow_language) *kakúwi* ('squash, pumpkin'), Mandan *kóore* ('squash'), Biloxi *akó:di* ('gourd, gourd cup'), and [Osage](/source/Osage_language) *hkohkó ma* ('cucumber').[13]

Several other terms for plants have helped linguists frame the Proto-Siouan period, as well as reconstruct lower phylogenetic relationships within the greater Siouan family.[14] For example, the Siouan languages do not share a common term for '[corn](/source/Maize)'; thus, the first divisions of Proto-Siouan must precede its introduction from [Mesoamerica](/source/Mesoamerica) around 200 AD.[15] The Mandan term, *kóoxą'te* (lit. 'gourd grass'), was borrowed into Hidatsa (*kóoxaati*) and Crow (*xóoxaashi*) after the Mandan probably introduced either the plant itself or agricultural techniques related to its cultivation, while Ofo and Biloxi borrowed their term from a [Caddoan language](/source/Caddoan_language).[16] Because of the disparity in terminology, the four major divisions within [Siouan proper](/source/Siouan_proper) – Missouri River Siouan, Mississippi Valley Siouan, Ohio Valley Siouan, and Mandan – must have already occurred before the turn of the 11th century, since corn as an agricultural effort only reached the upper Mississippi Valley around that time.[17]

It is likely that Mississippi Valley Siouan was beginning to split into its subfamilies around this time as well.[18] For example, the Dhegihan languages adapted a borrowed term from the [Southeast](/source/Southeastern_United_States) – perhaps from a [Muskogean](/source/Muskogean_language) language – with a suffix; this nominal suffix, **-se*, was reanalyzed in several languages by [folk etymology](/source/Folk_etymology) to *-zi* meaning 'yellow'.[19] By contrast, [Ho-Chunk](/source/Ho-Chunk_language) and the Dakotan languages borrowed the word for 'gourd' from an [Algonquian](/source/Algonquian_languages) source as their word for 'squash' and derived 'corn' from it using a suffix, such as *-heza* perhaps meaning 'striped'.[20]

### *Urheimat*

For broader coverage of this topic, see [Linguistic homeland](/source/Linguistic_homeland).

The [Ohio River Valley](/source/Ohio_River_Valley) (in yellow) is considered a likely *[Urheimat](/source/Urheimat)* for Proto-Siouan.

Although the modern Siouan languages are mostly spoken in the Great Plains, scholars believe that Proto-Siouan [originated](/source/Linguistic_homeland) in the [Ohio River Valley](/source/Ohio_River_Valley).[21][22] Earlier scholarship, namely the work of the American archeologist [James Bennett Griffin](/source/James_Bennett_Griffin), argued that the Siouan homeland was somewhere in the [Allegheny Piedmont](/source/Piedmont_(United_States)) in modern-day Virginia and North Carolina during [first contact](/source/First_contact_(anthropology)) with European settlers.[23] Siouan-speaking peoples had a wide area of influence in the eastern regions of the modern-day United States. Horatio Hale noticed that several [toponyms](/source/Toponym) in the [Appalachian region](/source/Appalachia) appeared to be of Siouan origin, especially between modern-day Virginia and [North Carolina](/source/North_Carolina).[4] Other [onomastic](/source/Onomastic) data has helped to confirm this view.[24] The [oral history](/source/Oral_history) of modern Siouan-speaking peoples also provides some support; [John R. Swanton](/source/John_R._Swanton) gathered a number of accounts from speakers which indicated a homeland east of the [Ohio River](/source/Ohio_River), and the [Hidatsa people](/source/Hidatsa_people) indicated similar origins to [Washington Matthews](/source/Washington_Matthews).[23] A [Kaw](/source/Kaw_people) chieftain recounted to [James Owen Dorsey](/source/James_Owen_Dorsey) that his people originated in modern-day New York abutting the Atlantic, which they called the "Great Water".[23]

It appears that the push westward was the result of several [wars of conquest](/source/Wars_of_conquest) over hunting grounds by the [Iroquois](/source/Iroquois) pushing southward from their own *Urheimat* in the [Finger Lakes](/source/Finger_Lakes) region of [Western](/source/Western_New_York) and [Central New York](/source/Central_New_York).[25] Successive Iroquois victories caused a massive displacement of Siouan-speaking populations, probably occurring during the 1600s following an increase in European colonization efforts on the [American Eastern Seaboard](/source/East_Coast_of_the_United_States) and the start of the [Beaver Wars](/source/Beaver_Wars). However, the push was not instantaneous nor universal; the [Lakota](/source/Lakota_people) are attested near modern-day [Chicago](/source/Chicago) in 1648, putting estimates of their migration over the [Mississippi River](/source/Mississippi_River) sometime around the turn of the 18th century.[26] Other members of the Siouan family, however, were adopted by the Iroquois; the [Tutelo people](/source/Tutelo_people), for example, were formally adopted in 1753, settling around [Cayuga Lake](/source/Cayuga_Lake), one of the Finger Lakes, in 1771.[27] They remained with the [Cayuga people](/source/Cayuga_people) during their subsequent migration to Canada following the [American Revolution](/source/American_Revolution).[27]

The displaced tribes' migration from the original *Urheimat* obfuscated the relationship of some of the languages, with some such as Biloxi and [Ofo](/source/Ofo_language) being pushed into, and influenced by, the [Lower Mississippi Valley *sprachbund*](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lower_Mississippi_Valley_sprachbund&action=edit&redlink=1).[28] The Ofo language, indigenous to modern-day Ohio before being forced out by the Iroquois, was thought for many years to be a member of the [Muskogean languages](/source/Muskogean_languages) of the [Deep South](/source/Deep_South), in part because it contained the /f/ phoneme which is absent from all other Siouan languages.[4][29] In 1908, Swanton met an Ofo speaker, Rosa Pierrette, living among the [Tunica people](/source/Tunica_people) in [Marksville, Louisiana](/source/Marksville%2C_Louisiana).[29] His work linked the language to the [Dakota language](/source/Dakota_language) in the Great Plains.[4][29] Similarly, Gatschet's published work on Biloxi, then found in the [Gulf Coast regions](/source/Gulf_Coast_of_the_United_States) of modern-day Mississippi and Louisiana, placed it phylogenetically in the Siouan family; his work was later supported by Dorsey's ethnographic work on the tribe in 1893.[4]

## Phonology

### Vowels

Reconstructions of Proto-Siouan's vowel system indicate five oral vowels and three [nasal vowels](/source/Nasal_vowel), each of which had contrastive [vowel length](/source/Vowel_length).[30][31] The vowels reconstructed for Proto-Siouan are as follows:[32]

Front Central Back Oral Nasal Oral Nasal Oral Nasal Close *i *iː *ĩ *ĩː *u *uː *ũ *ũː Mid *e *eː *o *oː Open *a *aː *ã *ãː

It is possible that an earlier form of the language, known as "pre-Proto-Siouan", may have had nasalized forms of **e* and **o*, but these may have been lost as the result of a merger with the oral forms.[33] Because most Siouan languages mark for vowel length, vowels in Proto-Siouan have been reconstructed as having both long and short forms, though the modern understanding of vowel length in the family's extinct members has proven difficult as earlier research did not typically account for length at all.[34] Length in Proto-Siouan was probably somewhat predictable and had different effects on tone in the [daughter languages](/source/Daughter_language).[35]

[Nasal vowels](/source/Nasal_vowels) are notable in Proto-Siouan in part due to the typologically-rare absence of [nasal consonants](/source/Nasal_consonant).[34][36] All examples of nasal consonants in modern Siouan languages are explainable through series resonants followed by nasal vowels; for example, when **w* is followed by a nasal vowel, it may become [m].[34]

### Consonants

The consonants have been reconstructed as follows:[37]

Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Stop plain *p *t *k *ʔ preaspirated *ʰp ⟨hp⟩ *ʰt ⟨ht⟩ *ʰk ⟨hk⟩ aspirated *pʰ *tʰ *kʰ glottalized *pˀ *tˀ *kˀ Fricative plain *s *ʃ ⟨š⟩ *x *h glottalized *sˀ *ʃˀ ⟨šˀ⟩ *xˀ Resonant plain *w *r *j ⟨y⟩ "funny" *W *R

The language contained two consonants known as "funny w" and "funny r", written as **W* and **R*, respectively.[38] While these consonants are thought to have been similar to **w* and **r*, their reflexes in attested Siouan languages are distinct; while the outcomes of **w* and **r* remained resonants in the descendant languages, **W* and **R* typically develop into obstruents or resonant–stop clusters.[39][40] Evidence suggests that **W* may have been the result of a [geminated](/source/Geminate) **w*, typically crossing a [morpheme](/source/Morpheme) boundary, or more rarely when **w* is abutting a [laryngeal consonant](/source/Laryngeal_consonant).[34] The origin of the **R* phoneme is less clear, though it may represent a clustering with a laryngeal or some other consonant; **r* tends towards similar reflexes when in clusters such as **wr*, **sr*, and **šr*. Similarly, Mandan evidence supports that a rhotic–[glottal stop](/source/Glottal_stop) cluster may have led to this outcome.[34] Linguists have attempted to remove these phonemes from the roster, though without a clear origin they have remained a part of the historical analysis.[41] More recently, scholars such as [Juliette Blevins](/source/Juliette_Blevins) have argued that the voiced stops [[b](/source/Voiced_bilabial_plosive)] and [[d](/source/Voiced_alveolar_plosive)] may be better representations of "funny w" and "funny r", respectively.[40] This analysis argues that the behavior of these sounds in clusters – [progressive assimilation](/source/Progressive_assimilation) causing the voiced consonant to voice the following voiceless one – is more typologically common than the inverse.[40] This theory also helps to explain some of the phonological properties found in [Lakota](/source/Lakota_language).[42]

#### Carter's law

"Carter's law" redirects here; not to be confused with [*Jack Carter's Law*](/source/Jack_Carter's_Law).

Proto-Siouan has also been reconstructed with [preaspirated](/source/Preaspiration) stops. Several Siouan languages either retain a preaspirated series or have a descended set of reflexes; in either case, this set is treated as a [single unit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Singleton_(linguistics)&action=edit&redlink=1) in [syllabification](/source/Syllabification) and [segmentation](/source/Speech_segmentation).[30][43] The preaspirated series was not originally [phonemic](/source/Phonemic), but rather the result of a regular phonological process whereby plain voiceless stops were preaspirated whenever the following vowel is [stressed](/source/Stress_(linguistics)). This process has been termed Carter's law, after [Richard T. Carter](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Richard_T._Carter&action=edit&redlink=1) [[Wikidata](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q134944588#sitelinks-wikipedia)] who first described the phenomenon in his work on Ofo.[30][44] This change, however, was later phonemicized and several sets of cognates attest the set as distinct phonemes.[45]

Although this series is considered to have been phonemic, several languages – including [Hidatsa](/source/Hidatsa_language), Crow, and Mandan – lost this series during their linguistic evolution.[46][c] In Ofo, Ho-Chunk, the Dakotan languages, and the [Chiwere dialects](/source/Chiwere_language), the preaspiration became postaspiration, though these were independently motivated and do not express a family-internal phylogenetic relationship. In the [Dhegihan languages](/source/Dhegihan_languages), this series either remained preaspirated or converted the consonant into a plain geminate.[48]

Because the development of the stop series is so transparent, the consonant inventory is sometimes presented in a minimalist fashion, which removes the complex stop series and glottalized forms.[49] Rankin describes the minimalist form without phonological conditioning as pre-Proto-Siouan since the language may have had a more parsimonious inventory at an earlier date. This inventory is also a closer match to that of the Catawba language.[50] The minimalist form is as follows:[50][40]

Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Stops **p **t **k **ʔ Fricatives **s **ʃ **x **h Resonants **w **r **j

### Tone and prosody

Accent was typically placed on the second syllable of a Proto-Siouan word.[51] The stressed vowel was typically long, though this is not universal.[34] The language's [syllable structure](/source/Syllable_structure) was probably CCV, though these syllable-initial clusters are typically bimorphemic and roots routinely comprise CV structures.[52] In Mandan and Lakota, for example, the Proto-Siouan prefixes **wa-*, marking inanimate absolutives and indefinite third-person objects, and **wi-*, marking animals, often collapsed into a single-phoneme prefix independently in both languages, leading to a CCV syllable cluster with its stem. Examples include Proto-Siouan **wišį́:ka* ('[flying squirrel](/source/Flying_squirrel)') becoming Lakota *pšįčá* and Proto-Siouan **warį́* ('water') becoming Mandan *wrį́ʔ*.[53][d] Other CCV roots are often the result of [phonesthemic](/source/Phonesthemic) forms, a kind of [sound symbolism](/source/Sound_symbolism) used for groups of sounds or sound-producing motions.[56] Earlier research suggested that Proto-Siouan had syllable-final glottal stops, but the evidence for these codas actually suggest they are actually the result of excrescence between vowels rather than preserved [liaison](/source/Liaison_(linguistics)).[57] Some reconstructed CVC clusters have been identified, but they are incredibly rare and almost exclusively the result of [apocopic](/source/Apocopic) root extensions, though several are semantically obscure.[58]

Proto-Siouan had at least two contrastive [tones](/source/Tone_(linguistics)): high, which is marked with an acute accent (◌́) on the vowel, and non-high, which is unmarked. It is possible that the language also had a [falling tone](/source/Falling_tone), marked with a circumflex (◌̂).[30] Although the existence of a falling tone is common areally and typologically, Proto-Siouan is not typically reconstructed as having a falling tone. It is possible that the falling tone existed at an earlier point, perhaps in pre-Proto-Siouan, and the tone's interaction with plain stops resulted in the glottalized stop series.[59][60] If the accented vowel had a falling tone, it usually lost this tone and became glottalized.[61] Examples of this process include the reconstructed form **kû*, meaning 'give'. In Proto-Siouan, this falling tone shifted to **kuʔ* in Proto–Missouri Valley Siouan and Proto-Mandan, exhibiting a non-high tone with an [excrescent](/source/Excrescence_(linguistics)) word-final glottal stop. In modern Crow, the glottal stop was [vocalized](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vocalization_(phonetics)&action=edit&redlink=1) leading to *kúu*, reflecting a long vowel with a high tone; modern Mandan and Hidatsa maintained the syllable-final stop.[59] In the Mississippi Valley Siouan languages – including [Chiwere](/source/Chiwere_language)–[Winnebago](/source/Ho-Chunk_language), the [Dhegihan languages](/source/Dhegihan_languages), and the Dakota languages[62][63] – these excrescent glottal stops [metathesized](/source/Metathesis_(linguistics)) with the vowel continued as a class of glottalized stops, while in Ohio Valley Siouan the stop appears to have metathesized to the onset, leading to unique outcomes in the daughter languages there including an initial [prothetic](/source/Prothesis_(linguistics)) vowel, as in Ofo, or [prenasalized consonants](/source/Prenasalized_consonants) in onset, as in Tutelo.[64]

### Ablaut

For broader coverage of this topic, see [Apophony](/source/Apophony).

All attested Siouan languages express a final-vowel root [alternation](/source/Alternation_(linguistics)) known as [ablaut](/source/Apophony) which is reconstructable to Proto-Siouan.[43] Typically, this alternation is between *-a* and *-e*, though some languages also include a word-final *-i* or *-ĩ*. There is no clear phonological condition under which this ablaut occurs, though they may be determined by the following word, a suffix, or a postclitic.[43] The ablaut can be seen in examples from Lakota, where *káğe* ('s/he made it'), *káğa he?* ('did s/he make it?'), and *káğiŋ kte* ('s/he will make it') show the tripartite division, all derived from an ablauting root – *káğA* ('to make something') – where the capital A signifies the alternating vowel.[65]

### Sound symbolism

For broader coverage of this topic, see [Sound symbolism](/source/Sound_symbolism).

The Siouan languages exhibit what is called "fricative-graded sound symbolism", sometimes termed "spirant gradation", a pervasive kind of sound symbolism using [fricative](/source/Fricative) consonants.[66][67] The pervasiveness of this symbolic use of language makes reconstruction back to Proto-Siouan possible.[68] This sound symbolism is used to express gradation in intensity, volume, roughness, and other similar concepts.[66][69] In Lakota, for example, the root set meaning 'crack' has several forms based on the intensity of the damage: *-suzA-* for a single crack, *-šužA-* for a few cracks or a bad bruising, and *-ȟuǧA-* for fractured or crushed.[66]

Proto-Siouan also contained a series of [phonesthemic](/source/Phonesthemic) root-initial clusters used to describe certain kinds of sounds or sound-producing motions. Like the spirant gradation previously described, these roots often differ through the realization of the vowel, of spirant gradation, or as a result of both.[56] Examples include series symbolizing ripping – **sré-* ('split'), **šré-* ('split, shred'), and **xré-* ('rip, tear') – and series symbolizing slippery motions or actions – **srą́-* ('dribble'), **srí-* ('ooze out, slurp, lick'), **srú-* ('slide, masturbate').[56] These series are sometimes reconstructed with an **l* instead of an **r* and are similar to the English-language *sl-* equivalents, such as *slime*, *sludge*, *slick*, and *slobber*.[70]

## Grammar

Given the widespread use of object–verb syntax among the Siouan languages, Proto-Siouan almost certainly had a [constituent word order](/source/Word_order) of [subject–object–verb](/source/Subject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb).[50] It was [head-marking](/source/Head-marking) and adjectives followed their head nouns.[50] Typologically, the language was a somewhat [agglutinative language](/source/Agglutinative_language) with a tendency towards simple [incorporation](/source/Incorporation_(linguistics)), though its output is more in line with basic [compounding](/source/Compound_(linguistics)).[71] [Morphosyntactically](/source/Morphosyntactic_alignment), it had [active–stative alignment](/source/Active%E2%80%93stative_alignment).[72] The Ofo and Biloxi languages, two of the three attested Ohio Valley Siouan languages, however, are known to have had a different alignment, but they are unique in this way among Siouan languages.[72] Although some descendants exhibit [clusivity](/source/Clusivity) distinctions and an involuntary [desiderative](/source/Desiderative),[e] both of which occur in Hidatsa and Crow, these are not reconstructable in Proto-Siouan.[74]

Verbs in Proto-Siouan were [inflected](/source/Inflection) for [person](/source/Person_(grammar)), [number](/source/Number_(grammar)), [aspect](/source/Aspect_(grammar)), [mode](/source/Mode_(grammar)), [tense](/source/Tense_(grammar)), instrument, and likely other markers. Attested Siouan languages mark variously for [grammatical gender](/source/Grammatical_gender), [evidentiality](/source/Evidentiality), and [quotativity](/source/Quotative), though it is unclear which of these were present in Proto-Siouan, if any.[50] The verb template in Proto-Siouan is somewhat differentiated from those of its daughter languages as many languages developed innovative forms to the original template.[75] At least three locative prefixes – **a-* ('on, at'), **o-* ('in'), and **i-* ('toward') – as well as the general instrumental prefix **í-*, were probably [proclitics](/source/Proclitic) and not true affixes in Proto-Siouan, or even pre-Proto-Siouan, as evidence indicates that they were accented long vowels.[76] The language's first- and second-person agent markers – **w(a)-* and **y(a)-*, respectively – preceded agent markers; these markers similarly avoid typical phonological processes so they are also believed to have been proclitics.[77] The only reconstructable template elements are the root, first- and second-person agent markers, and [dative](/source/Dative_case)–possessive markers.[78]

Proto-Siouan also marked for a tripartite system for verbs of motion.[79] This system maps the departure, progression, and arrival of an [agent](/source/Agent_(linguistics)) against a [deictic center](/source/Deictic_center), a "home base", and an [apogee](/source/Apogee) – that is, when the agent begins the return to their home base.[80] The home base is described as a "location to which the traveler belongs", which may have a long duration like a home or workplace or a shorter one such as meeting or social gathering.[81] The system has been reconstructed in Proto-Siouan as follows, where the capital E represents an ablauting vowel:[79]

Departure Progression Arrival Away from deictic center Away from base *hi:rÉ: *rÉ: *hí: Toward base *ki:krÉ: *krÉ: *kí: Toward deictic center Away from base *rhi:hú: *hú: *rhí: Toward base *kri:kú: *kú: *krí:

Among the Siouan languages, instrumentally-prefixed verbs comprise the vast majority of active verbs.[67] These verbs comprise a fusion of a [root verb](/source/Root_verb), typically a [bound morpheme](/source/Bound_morpheme), and a prefix which expresses the manner by which the action is achieved, such as **aRá* 'by heating' or **ra* 'using the mouth'.[67][82] In Proto-Siouan, these prefixes probably began as either proclitics or independent verbs, as evidence shows that these prefixes do not undergo the same phonological changes found in other prefixes.[76] They may have also been derived from some kind of compounding or some other opaque derivational system.[83] Because they behave differently from other affixes, they are sometimes termed "root extensions", especially since the root verb cannot usually stand on its own without them.[83]

Proto-Siouan made use of a class of verbs to mark the [continuative aspect](/source/Continuative_aspect). These verbs – **rą́:ke* ('sit'), **rahé* ('stand', inanimate), **hą́:ke* ('stand', animate), **ʔų́:ke* ('lie'), and **rį́:* ('move') – are used in virtually all Siouan languages to mark the continuative aspect.[84] In all of the attested [Dhegihan languages](/source/Dhegihan_languages), however, these functions were lost, but the terms later came to be used as a kind of [noun class](/source/Noun_class) marking. For example, in [Omaha–Ponca](/source/Omaha%E2%80%93Ponca_language), a singular, non-agentive animate noun was marked with *ðį*, as in *tté-žįga ðį* ('the [moving] buffalo calf'), while singular nouns – irrespective of animacy – seen "lying down" in some sense, were marked with *khe*, as in *waˀú khe* ('the [reclining] woman') or *né khe* ('the lake').[85]

## Potential external relationships

### Yuchi

The [Yuchi language](/source/Yuchi_language), once spoken around the [Upper Tennessee Valley](/source/Tennessee_Valley) before the [Yuchis](/source/Yuchi_people) were displaced, is generally considered a [language isolate](/source/Language_isolate), but the relationship between Yuchi and the Siouan languages has been long debated.[86][87] Evidence shows that the Yuchi and Catawba peoples, as well as some other Siouan-speaking peoples, shared a geographic area around the Eastern United States for a significant period prior to the exploration and colonization of the region by Europeans.[88] The first arguments for the linguistic relationship came from [Edward Sapir](/source/Edward_Sapir) in 1929, based on a relatively small number of supposed [cognates](/source/Cognate).[89] In 1998, [Robert L. Rankin](/source/Robert_L._Rankin) also evaluated the relationship, focusing more on the relative morphological resemblances.[89] Rankin found a "strong probability" that the relationship would be accepted because the grammatical evidence was so compelling, particularly in [irregular verbal paradigms](/source/Irregular_verb).[90]

Arguments in favor of the relationship have focused on lexical and morphological similarities.[91] For example, noun classes found in both are unusually similar, including the Siouan animate non-human prefix **wi-* and its Yuchi analog *we-* and the Siouan impersonal human marker **ko-* and Yuchi *go-*.[92] Another argument in favor of the relationship is that, like the Siouan languages, Yuchi exhibits fricative-graded sound symbolism in a similar fashion.[66][93] Examples in Yuchi include *'ispi* ('black') as compared to *'išpi* ('dirty') and *čʰaɬa* ('pink') as compared to *tsʰaɬa* ('red').[93] Likewise, Yuchi exhibits a similar ablauting to the Siouan languages, including the use of the final nasal vowel to mark the future tense, similar to its use in Lakota.[94][95] A relationship between the Siouan languages and Yuchi is among the more accepted proposals among Siouanists.[96] If the relationship is phylogenetic, new models suggest that Yuchi could be a second branch of the Catawban subfamily, rather than a third branch of the larger Siouan–Catawban family tree.[97][98]

### Macro-Siouan

Main article: [Macro-Siouan](/source/Macro-Siouan)

Among the first to propose a larger relationship between Siouan and other indigenous languages of the Americas was [Robert Latham](/source/Robert_Gordon_Latham), an English ethnologist, who first attempted to link the Siouan languages with the [Iroquoian languages](/source/Iroquoian_languages) in 1856, though he also suspected that Catawba, [Cherokee](/source/Cherokee_language), [Choctaw](/source/Choctaw_language), and [Caddo](/source/Caddo_language) may also be distantly related.[96] After researching several of the treaties signed by the Cayuga, [Lewis H. Morgan](/source/Lewis_H._Morgan) came to believe that the Iroquoian languages were descended from the Dakotan languages, formally proposing the link in 1871.[96][99] Neither of these approaches, however, enjoyed widespread acceptance; they were built on shakey data and small sets of comparanda.[96]

Sapir's 1929 proposal to link Yuchi to the Siouan languages did not stop there; he proposed what he called the "Hokan–Siouan languages", now known as "[Macro-Siouan](/source/Macro-Siouan)", comprising the Siouan–Catawban, Iroquoian, [Caddoan](/source/Caddoan_languages), and [Muskogean languages](/source/Muskogean_languages), along with several isolates including [Natchez](/source/Natchez_language), [Tunica](/source/Tunica_language), and others.[96] Similarly, his student [Mary Haas](/source/Mary_Haas) attempted to link the putative [Gulf languages](/source/Gulf_languages) – comprising the Muskogean languages, Natchez, Tunica, [Chitimacha](/source/Chitimacha_language), and [Atakapa](/source/Atakapa_language) – with the Siouan and the [Algonquian languages](/source/Algonquian_languages) in the 1950s.[91] This hypothesis, however, does not have widespread support among linguists.[100]

## See also

- [Classification of the Indigenous languages of the Americas](/source/Classification_of_the_Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas)

- [Dorsey's law](/source/Dorsey's_law)

- [List of proto-languages](/source/List_of_proto-languages)

## References

### Notes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** [/ˌproʊtoʊ ˈsuː.ən/](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English) [*PROH-toh SOO-ən*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** [/ˌproʊtoʊ ˌsuːən kəˈtɔːbən/](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English) [*PROH-toh SOO-ən kə-TAW-bən*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-50)** Strictly speaking, modern Hidatsa does exhibit preaspiration, though it is the result of another process causing /x/ to [lenite](/source/Lenition) to [h] before /k/.[47]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-59)** The Mandan word for 'water' is *miní* (pronounced [\[mĩˈnĩ\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA)).[54] The form given by [Rankin (1996)](#CITEREFRankin1996) shows its [underlying representation](/source/Underlying_representation).[55] For further discussion of Mandan phonological processes, see [Kasak (2024)](#CITEREFKasak2024).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-78)** The semantic meaning of the involuntary desiderative is something akin to 'feel like' or 'need to', as in the Hidatsa word *maeexíhtihisaacic* ('I kind of have to pee').[73]

### Citations

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** - [Sutton 2024](#CITEREFSutton2024), pp. 328–329. - [Collette & Kennedy 2023](#CITEREFColletteKennedy2023), p. xvii. - [Kaufman 2016](#CITEREFKaufman2016), p. 40.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak20168_4-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak20168_4-1) [Kasak 2016](#CITEREFKasak2016), p. 8.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMirzayan20231448_5-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMirzayan20231448_5-1) [Mirzayan 2023](#CITEREFMirzayan2023), p. 1448.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak20169_6-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak20169_6-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak20169_6-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak20169_6-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak20169_6-4) [Kasak 2016](#CITEREFKasak2016), p. 9.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak20168–9_7-0)** [Kasak 2016](#CITEREFKasak2016), pp. 8–9.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell1997140_8-0)** [Campbell 1997](#CITEREFCampbell1997), p. 140.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoodKoontz2002259_9-0)** [Rood & Koontz 2002](#CITEREFRoodKoontz2002), p. 259.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankin2004202_10-0)** [Rankin 2004](#CITEREFRankin2004), p. 202.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** - [Kasak 2016](#CITEREFKasak2016), p. 7. - [Rankin 1996](#CITEREFRankin1996), p. 124. - [Miestamo, Bakker & Arppe 2016](#CITEREFMiestamoBakkerArppe2016), p. 246. - [Campbell 1997](#CITEREFCampbell1997), p. 142. - [Coen 2021](#CITEREFCoen2021), p. 14. - [Kasak 2013](#CITEREFKasak2013), pp. 2–3.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** - For earlier datings, see [Rankin 2003](#CITEREFRankin2003), p. 264. - For everything else, see [Rankin 2003](#CITEREFRankin2003), pp. 290–291.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankin2003264_13-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankin2003264_13-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankin2003264_13-2) [Rankin 2003](#CITEREFRankin2003), p. 264.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankin2003267_14-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankin2003267_14-1) [Rankin 2003](#CITEREFRankin2003), p. 267.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankin2003268_15-0)** [Rankin 2003](#CITEREFRankin2003), p. 268.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankin2003290–291_16-0)** [Rankin 2003](#CITEREFRankin2003), pp. 290–291.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** - For corn's origins in Mesoamerica, see [Piperno 2011](#CITEREFPiperno2011), p. S459. - For the period of corn's introduction, see [Rankin 2003](#CITEREFRankin2003), p. 270. - For everything else, see [Rankin 2003](#CITEREFRankin2003), p. 272.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankin2003270–272_18-0)** [Rankin 2003](#CITEREFRankin2003), pp. 270–272.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankin2003270_19-0)** [Rankin 2003](#CITEREFRankin2003), p. 270.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankin2003270,_272–273_20-0)** [Rankin 2003](#CITEREFRankin2003), pp. 270, 272–273.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankin2003271–273_21-0)** [Rankin 2003](#CITEREFRankin2003), pp. 271–273.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankin2003272–273_22-0)** [Rankin 2003](#CITEREFRankin2003), pp. 272–273.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak201611_23-0)** [Kasak 2016](#CITEREFKasak2016), p. 11.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufman2018145–146_24-0)** [Kaufman 2018](#CITEREFKaufman2018), pp. 145–146.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufman2018146_25-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufman2018146_25-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufman2018146_25-2) [Kaufman 2018](#CITEREFKaufman2018), p. 146.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufman2018145_26-0)** [Kaufman 2018](#CITEREFKaufman2018), p. 145.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** - For the origins of the Iroquois, see [Schillaci et al. 2017](#CITEREFSchillaciKoprisWichmannDewar2017), p. 448. - For everything else, see [Kasak 2016](#CITEREFKasak2016), pp. 10–11.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak201610–11_28-0)** [Kasak 2016](#CITEREFKasak2016), pp. 10–11.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell1997141_29-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell1997141_29-1) [Campbell 1997](#CITEREFCampbell1997), p. 141.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufman201639_30-0)** [Kaufman 2016](#CITEREFKaufman2016), p. 39.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankin201552_31-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankin201552_31-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankin201552_31-2) [Rankin 2015](#CITEREFRankin2015), p. 52.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankinCarterJones1998366_32-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankinCarterJones1998366_32-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankinCarterJones1998366_32-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankinCarterJones1998366_32-3) [Rankin, Carter & Jones 1998](#CITEREFRankinCarterJones1998), p. 366.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak202430,_76_33-0)** [Kasak 2024](#CITEREFKasak2024), pp. 30, 76.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-34)** - [Rankin, Carter & Jones 1998](#CITEREFRankinCarterJones1998), p. 366. - [Mirzayan 2023](#CITEREFMirzayan2023), p. 1466. - [Blevins, Egurtzegi & Ullrich 2020](#CITEREFBlevinsEgurtzegiUllrich2020), p. 327. - [Kasak 2024](#CITEREFKasak2024), p. 30.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak202477_35-0)** [Kasak 2024](#CITEREFKasak2024), p. 77.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankinCarterJones1998370_36-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankinCarterJones1998370_36-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankinCarterJones1998370_36-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankinCarterJones1998370_36-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankinCarterJones1998370_36-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankinCarterJones1998370_36-5) [Rankin, Carter & Jones 1998](#CITEREFRankinCarterJones1998), p. 370.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** - For the predictability of vowel length, see [Rankin, Carter & Jones 1998](#CITEREFRankinCarterJones1998), p. 370. - For its effect on tone, see [Rankin, Carter & Jones 1998](#CITEREFRankinCarterJones1998), pp. 368–369.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak202430,_50_38-0)** [Kasak 2024](#CITEREFKasak2024), pp. 30, 50.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** - [Rankin, Carter & Jones 1998](#CITEREFRankinCarterJones1998), p. 366. - [Mirzayan 2023](#CITEREFMirzayan2023), p. 1466. - [Blevins, Egurtzegi & Ullrich 2020](#CITEREFBlevinsEgurtzegiUllrich2020), p. 327. - [Kasak 2016](#CITEREFKasak2016), p. 16.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMirzayan20231466_40-0)** [Mirzayan 2023](#CITEREFMirzayan2023), p. 1466.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMirzayan20231466–1467_41-0)** [Mirzayan 2023](#CITEREFMirzayan2023), pp. 1466–1467.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlevinsEgurtzegiUllrich2020327_42-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlevinsEgurtzegiUllrich2020327_42-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlevinsEgurtzegiUllrich2020327_42-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlevinsEgurtzegiUllrich2020327_42-3) [Blevins, Egurtzegi & Ullrich 2020](#CITEREFBlevinsEgurtzegiUllrich2020), p. 327.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell1997142_43-0)** [Campbell 1997](#CITEREFCampbell1997), p. 142.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlevinsEgurtzegiUllrich2020327–328_44-0)** [Blevins, Egurtzegi & Ullrich 2020](#CITEREFBlevinsEgurtzegiUllrich2020), pp. 327–328.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMirzayan20231467_45-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMirzayan20231467_45-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMirzayan20231467_45-2) [Mirzayan 2023](#CITEREFMirzayan2023), p. 1467.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak2024151_46-0)** [Kasak 2024](#CITEREFKasak2024), p. 151.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankinCarterJones1998366–367_47-0)** [Rankin, Carter & Jones 1998](#CITEREFRankinCarterJones1998), pp. 366–367.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson201666_48-0)** [Larson 2016](#CITEREFLarson2016), p. 66.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-49)** - For Hidatsa having preaspirates, see [Mirzayan 2023](#CITEREFMirzayan2023), p. 1466. - For the process, see [Larson 2016](#CITEREFLarson2016), p. 67.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankinCarterJones1998367_51-0)** [Rankin, Carter & Jones 1998](#CITEREFRankinCarterJones1998), p. 367.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlevinsEgurtzegiUllrich2020326–327_52-0)** [Blevins, Egurtzegi & Ullrich 2020](#CITEREFBlevinsEgurtzegiUllrich2020), pp. 326–327.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankinCarterJones1998373_53-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankinCarterJones1998373_53-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankinCarterJones1998373_53-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankinCarterJones1998373_53-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankinCarterJones1998373_53-4) [Rankin, Carter & Jones 1998](#CITEREFRankinCarterJones1998), p. 373.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-54)** - [Larson 2016](#CITEREFLarson2016), p. 66. - [Rankin, Carter & Jones 1998](#CITEREFRankinCarterJones1998), p. 370. - [Campbell 1997](#CITEREFCampbell1997), p. 142.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-55)** - [Rankin 1996](#CITEREFRankin1996), p. 120. - [Mirzayan 2023](#CITEREFMirzayan2023), p. 1470. - [Kasak 2024](#CITEREFKasak2024), p. 87.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankin1996119–120_56-0)** [Rankin 1996](#CITEREFRankin1996), pp. 119–120.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak202476_57-0)** [Kasak 2024](#CITEREFKasak2024), p. 76.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak202476,_123,_160_58-0)** [Kasak 2024](#CITEREFKasak2024), pp. 76, 123, 160.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankin1996120–121_60-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankin1996120–121_60-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankin1996120–121_60-2) [Rankin 1996](#CITEREFRankin1996), pp. 120–121.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak202492_61-0)** [Kasak 2024](#CITEREFKasak2024), p. 92.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankin1996120,_125_62-0)** [Rankin 1996](#CITEREFRankin1996), pp. 120, 125.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankinCarterJones1998368–369_63-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankinCarterJones1998368–369_63-1) [Rankin, Carter & Jones 1998](#CITEREFRankinCarterJones1998), pp. 368–369.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMirzayan20231472_64-0)** [Mirzayan 2023](#CITEREFMirzayan2023), p. 1472.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankinCarterJones1998370–371_65-0)** [Rankin, Carter & Jones 1998](#CITEREFRankinCarterJones1998), pp. 370–371.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankin1996117_66-0)** [Rankin 1996](#CITEREFRankin1996), p. 117.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankin2003265_67-0)** [Rankin 2003](#CITEREFRankin2003), p. 265.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankinCarterJones1998369_68-0)** [Rankin, Carter & Jones 1998](#CITEREFRankinCarterJones1998), p. 369.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMirzayan20231467–1468_69-0)** [Mirzayan 2023](#CITEREFMirzayan2023), pp. 1467–1468.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMirzayan20231469_70-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMirzayan20231469_70-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMirzayan20231469_70-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMirzayan20231469_70-3) [Mirzayan 2023](#CITEREFMirzayan2023), p. 1469.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1990505_71-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1990505_71-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1990505_71-2) [Jones 1990](#CITEREFJones1990), p. 505.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell1997226,_340_72-0)** [Campbell 1997](#CITEREFCampbell1997), pp. 226, 340.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1990505–506_73-0)** [Jones 1990](#CITEREFJones1990), pp. 505–506.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankin1996120_74-0)** [Rankin 1996](#CITEREFRankin1996), p. 120.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankinCarterJones1998371_75-0)** [Rankin, Carter & Jones 1998](#CITEREFRankinCarterJones1998), p. 371.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMunro201534_76-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMunro201534_76-1) [Munro 2015](#CITEREFMunro2015), p. 34.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKo202395–96_77-0)** [Ko 2023](#CITEREFKo2023), pp. 95–96.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKo202389,_96_79-0)** [Ko 2023](#CITEREFKo2023), pp. 89, 96.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankinCarterJones1998373–374_80-0)** [Rankin, Carter & Jones 1998](#CITEREFRankinCarterJones1998), pp. 373–374.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankinCarterJones1998374_81-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankinCarterJones1998374_81-1) [Rankin, Carter & Jones 1998](#CITEREFRankinCarterJones1998), p. 374.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-82)** - For the order of the markers and their probable origins as proclitics, see [Rankin, Carter & Jones 1998](#CITEREFRankinCarterJones1998), p. 374. - For the markers themselves, see [Rudes 2015](#CITEREFRudes2015), p. 86 and [Rankin 1996](#CITEREFRankin1996), pp. 122–123.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankin1996123_83-0)** [Rankin 1996](#CITEREFRankin1996), p. 123.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak201321_84-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak201321_84-1) [Kasak 2013](#CITEREFKasak2013), p. 21.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak20135–6_85-0)** [Kasak 2013](#CITEREFKasak2013), pp. 5–6.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak20136_86-0)** [Kasak 2013](#CITEREFKasak2013), p. 6.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankinCarterJones1998374–375_87-0)** [Rankin, Carter & Jones 1998](#CITEREFRankinCarterJones1998), pp. 374–375.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1990506_88-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1990506_88-1) [Jones 1990](#CITEREFJones1990), p. 506.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankin2004203,_209_89-0)** [Rankin 2004](#CITEREFRankin2004), p. 203, 209.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-90)** - For the loss of this feature in this class of verbs, see [Rankin 2004](#CITEREFRankin2004), p. 217. - For everything else, see [Rankin 2004](#CITEREFRankin2004), pp. 211–212.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak20165,_11_91-0)** [Kasak 2016](#CITEREFKasak2016), pp. 5, 11.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell1997150_92-0)** [Campbell 1997](#CITEREFCampbell1997), p. 150.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak201612–13_93-0)** [Kasak 2016](#CITEREFKasak2016), pp. 12–13.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak201615_94-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak201615_94-1) [Kasak 2016](#CITEREFKasak2016), p. 15.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankin1998164–165_95-0)** [Rankin 1998](#CITEREFRankin1998), p. 164–165.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChafe197653–54_96-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChafe197653–54_96-1) [Chafe 1976](#CITEREFChafe1976), pp. 53–54.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankin1996126_97-0)** [Rankin 1996](#CITEREFRankin1996), p. 126.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak201631_98-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak201631_98-1) [Kasak 2016](#CITEREFKasak2016), p. 31.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMirzayan20231468–1469_99-0)** [Mirzayan 2023](#CITEREFMirzayan2023), pp. 1468–1469.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak201631–32_100-0)** [Kasak 2016](#CITEREFKasak2016), pp. 31–32.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak201613_101-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak201613_101-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak201613_101-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak201613_101-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak201613_101-4) [Kasak 2016](#CITEREFKasak2016), p. 13.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoen202114_102-0)** [Coen 2021](#CITEREFCoen2021), p. 14.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasak202419_103-0)** [Kasak 2024](#CITEREFKasak2024), p. 19.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChafe197643_104-0)** [Chafe 1976](#CITEREFChafe1976), p. 43.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankin2002195_105-0)** [Rankin 2002](#CITEREFRankin2002), p. 195.

### Sources

- [Blevins, Juliette](/source/Juliette_Blevins); Egurtzegi, Ander; Ullrich, Jan (2020). ["Final obstruent voicing in Lakota: Phonetic evidence and phonological implications"](https://muse.jhu.edu/article/757630/pdf). *[Language](/source/Language_(journal))*. **96** (2): 294–337. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1353/lan.2020.0022](https://doi.org/10.1353%2Flan.2020.0022). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1535-0665](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1535-0665).

- [Campbell, Lyle](/source/Lyle_Campbell) (1997). *American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America*. Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics. Vol. 4. Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-509427-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509427-5).

- [Chafe, Wallace L.](/source/Wallace_Chafe) (1976). [*The Caddoan, Iroquoian, and Siouan Languages*](https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110804669/html). De Gruyter. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1515/9783110804669](https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110804669). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-279-3443-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-279-3443-7).

- Coen, Noah Michael (2021). "(Para-)Adpositional Morphosyntax in Siouan: A Case Study of Lakhota-Dakota-Nakota, Catawba, and Crow". In Kasak, Ryan M.; Rudin, Catherine; Mirzayan, Armik; Dutta, Samiron (eds.). [*Proceedings of the 41st Siouan and Caddoan Languages Conference*](http://www.siouan.org/proceedings/sclc41). Siouan and Caddoan Languages Conference. [Norman, Oklahoma](/source/Norman%2C_Oklahoma). pp. 13–58. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2641-9904](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2641-9904).

- Collette, Vincent; Kennedy, Wilma (2023). [*A Concise Dictionary of Nakoda (Assiniboine)*](https://muse.jhu.edu/book/100260). [Lincoln, Nebraska](/source/Lincoln%2C_Nebraska): University of Nebraska Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4962-3272-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4962-3272-4).

- Mirzayan, Armik (2023). "56. Sketch of the Siouan Language Family". In Dagostino, Carmen; [Mithun, Marianne](/source/Marianne_Mithun); Rice, Keren (eds.). [*The Languages and Linguistics of Indigenous North America: A Comprehensive Guide, Volume 2*](https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110712742/html). The World of Linguistics. Vol. 13.2. [De Gruyter](/source/De_Gruyter). pp. 1447–1518. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1515/9783110712742](https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110712742). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-11-071274-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-071274-2).

- Jones, A. Wesley (1990). ["The Case for Root Extensions in Proto-Siouan"](https://csd.clld.org/static/Jones_root_extensions.pdf) (PDF). In Ingemann, Frances (ed.). *1990 Mid-America Linguistics Conference Papers*. Mid-America Linguistics Conference. Lawrence, Kansas: University of Kansas Department of Linguistics. pp. 505–517.

- Kasak, Ryan M. (2013). *A Reconstruction of Verbs of Motion in Proto-Siouan*. Joint LSA–SSILA Winter Meeting 2013. Boston: Society for the Study of Indigenous Languages of the Americas. pp. 1–24.

- Kasak, Ryan M. (2024). [*A Grammar of Mandan*](http://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/446). Comprehensive Grammar Library. Vol. 10. Berlin: [Language Science Press](/source/Language_Science_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-96110-495-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-96110-495-6). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2749-7798](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2749-7798).

- Kaufman, David V. (2018). ["Biloxi Origins"](https://muse.jhu.edu/article/699968). *Native South*. **11** (1): 145–157. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1353/nso.2018.0005](https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fnso.2018.0005). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2152-4025](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2152-4025).

- Ko, Edwin (2023). [*Studies in Crow Linguistics: Documentation, Grammar, and History*](https://escholarship.org/uc/item/8xn8h1xr) (Doctoral thesis). [University of California at Berkeley](/source/University_of_California_at_Berkeley).

- Miestamo, Matti; Bakker, Dik; Arppe, Antti (2016). ["Sampling for variety"](https://doi.org/10.1515%2Flingty-2016-0006). *Linguistic Typology*. **20** (2): 233–296. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1515/lingty-2016-0006](https://doi.org/10.1515%2Flingty-2016-0006). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1430-0532](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1430-0532).

- Picone, Michael D.; Davies, Catherine Evans, eds. (2015). [*New Perspectives on Language Variety in the South: Historical and Contemporary Approaches*](https://muse.jhu.edu/book/38807). [Tuscaloosa, Alabama](/source/Tuscaloosa%2C_Alabama): University of Alabama Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8173-8736-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8173-8736-5). - Munro, Pamela. "2. American Indian Languages of the Southeast: An Introduction". In [Picone & Davies (2015)](#CITEREFPiconeDavies2015), pp. 21–42. - [Rankin, Robert L.](/source/Robert_L._Rankin) "4. The Ofo Language of Louisiana: Recovery of Grammar and Typology". In [Picone & Davies (2015)](#CITEREFPiconeDavies2015), pp. 52–71. - Rudes, Blair A. "6. Pre-Columbian Links to the Caribbean: Evidence Connecting Cusabo to Taíno". In [Picone & Davies (2015)](#CITEREFPiconeDavies2015), pp. 82–93.

- [Piperno, Dolores R.](/source/Dolores_Piperno) (2011). ["The Origins of Plant Cultivation and Domestication in the New World Tropics: Patterns, Process, and New Developments"](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F659998). *Current Anthropology*. **52** (S4): S453–S470. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/659998](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F659998). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0011-3204](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0011-3204).

- [Rankin, Robert L.](/source/Robert_L._Rankin) (1996). ["Deeper Genetic Relationships in North America: Some Tempered Pessimism"](https://journals.linguisticsociety.org/proceedings/index.php/BLS/article/download/1362/1146). *Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society*. **22** (2): 117–128. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3765/bls.v22i2.1362](https://doi.org/10.3765%2Fbls.v22i2.1362). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2377-1666](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2377-1666).

- [Rankin, Robert L.](/source/Robert_L._Rankin); Carter, Richard T.; Jones, A. Wesley (1998). ["Proto-Siouan Phonology and Grammar"](https://csd.clld.org/static/Rankin_Carter_Jones_Proto-Siouan_Phonology.pdf) (PDF). In Li, Xingzhong; Lopez, Luis; Stroik, Tom (eds.). *Papers from the 1997 Mid-America Linguistics Conference*. Mid-America Linguistics Conference. [Columbia, Missouri](/source/Columbia%2C_Missouri): [University of Missouri](/source/University_of_Missouri). pp. 366–375.

- [Rankin, Robert L.](/source/Robert_L._Rankin) (2004). ["The history and development of Siouan positional with special attention to polygrammaticalization in Dhegiha"](https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1524/stuf.2004.57.23.202/html). *Sprachtypologie und Universalienforschung*. **57** (2–3). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1524/stuf.2004.57.23.202](https://doi.org/10.1524%2Fstuf.2004.57.23.202). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2196-7148](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2196-7148).

- Rood, David; Koontz, John E. (2002). ["Chapter Eleven: The Comparative Siouan Dictionary Project"](https://csd.clld.org/static/Rood_Koontz_2002_CSD.pdf) (PDF). In Frawley, William; Hill, Kenneth C.; Munro, Pamela (eds.). [*Making Dictionaries: Preserving Indigenous Languages of the Americas*](https://www.ucpress.edu/books/making-dictionaries/paper). Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 259–281. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-520-22996-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22996-9).

- Rood, David; Boyle, John, eds. (2020). [*Siouan Languages and Linguistics: Selected Papers by Robert L. Rankin*](https://brill.com/view/title/54832). Brill. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1163/9789004406285](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004406285). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-40628-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-40628-5). - [Rankin, Robert L.](/source/Robert_L._Rankin) (1998). *Siouan–Catawban–Yuchi Genetic Relationship: With a Note on Caddoan*. 18th Annual Siouan and Caddoan Languages Conference. [Bloomington, Indiana](/source/Bloomington%2C_Indiana). pp. 146–165. - [Rankin, Robert L.](/source/Robert_L._Rankin) (2002). *A Diachronic Perspective on Active/Stative Alignment in Siouan*. [Lawrence, Kansas](/source/Lawrence%2C_Kansas): University of Kansas and Research Center for Linguistic Typology. pp. 181–216. - [Rankin, Robert L.](/source/Robert_L._Rankin) (2003). *On Siouan Chronology*. Research Center for Linguistic Typology. [Melbourne](/source/Melbourne). pp. 262–291.

- Rudin, Catherine; Gordon, Bryan J., eds. (2016). [*Advances in the Study of Siouan Languages and Linguistics*](http://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/94). Studies in Diversity Linguistics. Vol. 10. Berlin: [Language Science Press](/source/Language_Science_Press). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.17169/LANGSCI.B94.118](https://doi.org/10.17169%2FLANGSCI.B94.118). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-946234-37-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-946234-37-1). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2363-5568](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2363-5568). - Kasak, Ryan M. "Chapter 1: A distant genetic relationship between Siouan–Catawban and Yuchi". In [Rudin & Gordon (2016)](#CITEREFRudinGordon2016), pp. 5–38. - Kaufman, David. "Chapter 2: Two Siouan languages walk into a sprachbund". In [Rudin & Gordon (2016)](#CITEREFRudinGordon2016), pp. 39–62. - Larson, Rory. "Chapter 3: Regular sound shifts in the history of Siouan". In [Rudin & Gordon (2016)](#CITEREFRudinGordon2016), pp. 63–82.

- Schillaci, Michael A.; Kopris, Craig; [Wichmann, Søren](/source/S%C3%B8ren_Wichmann); Dewar, Genevieve (2017). ["Linguistic Clues to Iroquoian Prehistory"](https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/693055). *[Journal of Anthropological Research](/source/Journal_of_Anthropological_Research)*. **73** (3): 448–485. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/693055](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F693055). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0091-7710](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0091-7710).

- Sutton, Logan (2024). "Linguistic Evidence of Contact between Northern Caddoan and Siouan Languages: Arikara-Pawnee Verbal Classifiers". In Andersson, Rani-Henrik; Veyrié, Thierry; Sutton, Logan (eds.). [*Great Plains Ethnohistory: New Interdisciplinary Approaches*](https://muse.jhu.edu/book/123847). [Lincoln, Nebraska](/source/Lincoln%2C_Nebraska): University of Nebraska Press. pp. 315–344. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4962-4211-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4962-4211-2).

## Further reading

- [Griffin, James B.](/source/James_Bennett_Griffin) (1942). ["On the Historic Location of the Tutelo and the Mohetan in the Ohio Valley"](http://www.jstor.org/stable/663025). *American Anthropologist*. **44** (2). American Anthropological Association: 275–280. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1525/aa.1942.44.2.02a00080](https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1942.44.2.02a00080). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0002-7294](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7294). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [663025](https://www.jstor.org/stable/663025).

- [Hale, Horatio](/source/Horatio_Hale) (1883). ["The Tutelo Tribe and Language"](http://www.jstor.org/stable/982359). *Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society*. **21** (114). American Philosophical Society: 1–47. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0003-049X](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-049X). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [982359](https://www.jstor.org/stable/982359).

- Kasak, Ryan M., ed. (2018). [*Proceedings of the 38th Siouan and Caddoan Languages Conference*](https://neiudc.neiu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1001&context=sclc). Siouan and Caddoan Languages Conference. [Chicago](/source/Chicago): Northeastern Illinois University Linguistics Department. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2641-9904](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2641-9904).

- Kasak, Ryan M. (2020). [*Clause Structure in Proto-Siouan*](https://kasak.oucreate.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/SCLC-40-Presentation.pdf) (PDF). Siouan and Caddoan Languages Conference. [Crow Agency, Montana](/source/Crow_Agency%2C_Montana): [Elmhurst College](/source/Elmhurst_College).

- Kasak, Ryan M. (2021). "Topic and Focus in Mandan". In Kasak, Ryan M.; Rudin, Catherine; Mirzayan, Armik; Dutta, Samiron (eds.). [*Proceedings of the 41st Siouan and Caddoan Languages Conference*](http://www.siouan.org/proceedings/sclc41). Siouan and Caddoan Languages Conference. [Norman, Oklahoma](/source/Norman%2C_Oklahoma). pp. 59–89. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2641-9904](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2641-9904).

- Ko, Edwin (2021). [*A Bayesian phylogenetic study of the Siouan language family using typological data*](https://eddersko.com/assets/KoSCLC41Slides.pdf) (PDF). 41st Siouan and Caddoan Languages Conference. [Norman, Oklahoma](/source/Norman%2C_Oklahoma): University of Oklahoma Department of Languages, Literatures, and Linguistics.

- Linnamae, Urve; Ervin, A. M.; Walker, E. G., eds. (1983). ["Siouan Syncopating **r*-Stems"](https://lx.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/koontz_-_siouan_syncopating_r-stems.pdf) (PDF). *Proceedings of the Second Siouan Languages Conference*. Siouan Languages Conference. Vol. 13. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2641-9904](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2641-9904).

- Matthews, G. H. (1959). ["Proto-Siouan Kinship Terminology"](http://www.jstor.org/stable/665096). *American Anthropologist*. **61** (2). American Anthropological Association: 252–278. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1525/aa.1959.61.2.02a00050](https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1959.61.2.02a00050). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0002-7294](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7294). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [665096](https://www.jstor.org/stable/665096).

- Matthews, G. H. (1970). ["Some Notes on the Proto-Siouan Continuants"](http://www.jstor.org/stable/1264668). *International Journal of American Linguistics*. **36** (2). University of Chicago Press: 98–109. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/465102](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F465102). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0020-7071](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-7071). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [1264668](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1264668).

- [Rankin, Robert L.](/source/Robert_L._Rankin) (1995). [*On Mississippi Valley Siouan "Ablaut"*](https://listserv.linguistlist.org/pipermail/siouan/attachments/20130916/79e92911/attachment.pdf) (PDF). Siouan and Caddoan Linguistics Conference. [Albuquerque](/source/Albuquerque).

- [Rankin, Robert L.](/source/Robert_L._Rankin); Carter, Richard T.; Jones, A. Wesley; Koontz, John E.; Rood, David S.; Hartmann, Iren, eds. (2015). [*Comparative Siouan Dictionary*](https://csd.clld.org/). Leipzig: [Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology](/source/Max_Planck_Institute_for_Evolutionary_Anthropology).

- Silver, Shirley; Miller, Wick R. (1997). *American Indian Languages: Cultural and Social Contexts*. [Tucson](/source/Tucson): University of Arizona Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8165-1802-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8165-1802-9).

- [Speck, Frank G.](/source/Frank_Speck) (1938). ["The Question of Matrilineal Descent in the Southeastern Siouan Area"](http://www.jstor.org/stable/661786). *American Anthropologist*. **40** (1). [American Anthropological Association, Wiley]: 1–12. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1525/aa.1938.40.1.02a00020](https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1938.40.1.02a00020). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0002-7294](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7294). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [661786](https://www.jstor.org/stable/661786).

- [Sturtevant, William C.](/source/William_C._Sturtevant) (1958). ["Siouan Languages in the East"](http://www.jstor.org/stable/665680). *American Anthropologist*. **60** (4). [American Anthropological Association, Wiley]: 738–743. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1525/aa.1958.60.4.02a00120](https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1958.60.4.02a00120). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0002-7294](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7294). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [665680](https://www.jstor.org/stable/665680).

- [Swanton, John R.](/source/John_R._Swanton) (1923). ["New light on the early history of the Siouan peoples"](http://www.jstor.org/stable/24532662). *Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences*. **13** (3). Washington Academy of Sciences: 33–43. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0043-0439](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0043-0439). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [24532662](https://www.jstor.org/stable/24532662).

- [Swanton, John R.](/source/John_R._Swanton) (1943). ["Siouan Tribes and the Ohio Valley"](http://www.jstor.org/stable/662865). *American Anthropologist*. **45** (1). American Anthropological Association: 49–66. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1525/aa.1943.45.1.02a00050](https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1943.45.1.02a00050). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0002-7294](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7294). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [662865](https://www.jstor.org/stable/662865).

- Taylor, Allan R. (1976). ["On Verbs of Motion in Siouan Languages"](http://www.jstor.org/stable/1264261). *International Journal of American Linguistics*. **42** (4). University of Chicago Press: 287–296. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/465433](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F465433). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0020-7071](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-7071). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [1264261](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1264261).

- [Voegelin, C. F.](/source/Charles_F._Voegelin) (1941). ["Internal Relationships of Siouan Languages"](http://www.jstor.org/stable/662955). *American Anthropologist*. **43** (2). [American Anthropological Association, Wiley]: 246–249. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1525/aa.1941.43.2.02a00080](https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1941.43.2.02a00080). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0002-7294](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7294). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [662955](https://www.jstor.org/stable/662955).

- Hans Wolff's four-part series on Siouan comparanda: - Wolff, Hans (1950). ["Comparative Siouan I"](http://www.jstor.org/stable/1262849). *International Journal of American Linguistics*. **16** (2). University of Chicago Press: 61–66. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/464065](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F464065). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0020-7071](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-7071). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [1262849](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1262849). - —— (1950). ["Comparative Siouan II"](http://www.jstor.org/stable/1263051). *International Journal of American Linguistics*. **16** (3). University of Chicago Press: 113–121. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/464075](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F464075). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0020-7071](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-7071). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [1263051](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1263051). - —— (1950). ["Comparative Siouan III"](http://www.jstor.org/stable/1262899). *International Journal of American Linguistics*. **16** (4). University of Chicago Press: 168–178. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/464085](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F464085). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0020-7071](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-7071). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [1262899](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1262899). - —— (1951). ["Comparative Siouan IV"](http://www.jstor.org/stable/1263103). *International Journal of American Linguistics*. **17** (4). University of Chicago Press: 197–204. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/464129](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F464129). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0020-7071](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-7071). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [1263103](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1263103).

---
Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Proto-Siouan language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Siouan_language) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Siouan_language?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.