# Process theory

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For process theory in writing, see [Process theory of composition](/source/Process_theory_of_composition).

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A **process theory** is a system of ideas which explains how an [entity](/source/Entity) changes and develops.[1] [Process](/source/Process) theories are often contrasted with **variance theories**, that is, systems of ideas that explain the [variance](/source/Variance) in a [dependent variable](/source/Dependent_variable) based on one or more [independent variables](/source/Independent_variable). While process theories focus on how something happens, variance theories focus on why something happens. Examples of process theories include evolution by [natural selection](/source/Natural_selection), [continental drift](/source/Continental_drift) and the [nitrogen cycle](/source/Nitrogen_cycle).

## Process theory archetypes

Process theories come in four common [archetypes](/source/Archetype).[2] Evolutionary process theories explain change in a population through variation, selection and retention—much like biological evolution. In a dialectic process theory, "stability and change are explained by reference to the balance of power between opposing entities" (p. 517). In a teleological process theory, an agent "constructs an envisioned end state, takes action to reach it and monitors the progress" (p. 518). In a lifecycle process theory, "the trajectory to the final end state is prefigured and requires a particular historical sequence of events" (p. 515); that is, change always conforms to the same series of activities, stages, phases, like a caterpillar transforming into a butterfly.

## Applications and examples

Process theories are important in management and software engineering.[3] Process theories are used to explain how people are [motivated](/source/Motivated) and how decisions are made,[4] how software is designed[5][6] and how software processes are improved.[7]

Motivation theories can be classified broadly into two different perspectives: content and process theories.

- [Content theories](/source/Content_theories) deal with *“what”* motivates people and it is concerned with individual needs and goals. Maslow, Alderfer, Herzberg and McClelland studied motivation from a “content” perspective.

- Process theories deal with the "process" of motivation and are concerned with *"how"* motivation occurs. [Vroom](/source/Victor_Vroom), [Porter](/source/Lyman_W._Porter) and Lawler (see: [Victor Vroom#Theory of Expectancy](/source/Victor_Vroom#Theory_of_Expectancy)), [John Stacey Adams](/source/John_Stacey_Adams) and [Edwin Locke](/source/Edwin_Locke) studied motivation from a "process" perspective.[8]

Process theories are also used in education, psychology, geology and many other fields; however, they are not always called "process theories".

## See also

- [Interactions of actors theory](/source/Interactions_of_actors_theory)

- [Process-oriented psychology](/source/Process-oriented_psychology)

- [Process philosophy](/source/Process_philosophy)

- [Process architecture](/source/Process_architecture)

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** Van de Ven, Andrew (2007). *Engaged scholarship: a guide for organizational and social research*. Oxford University Press.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** Van De, A. H.; Poole, M. S. (1995). "Explaining development and change in organizations". *Academy of Management Review*. **20** (3): 510–540. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.5465/AMR.1995.9508080329](https://doi.org/10.5465%2FAMR.1995.9508080329). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [14720122](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14720122).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** Ralph, Paul (1 January 2015). [*Developing and Evaluating Software Engineering Process Theories*](http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2818754.2818760). Icse '15. IEEE Press. pp. 20–31. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781479919345](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781479919345). {{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: |website= ignored ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** Poole, Marshall Scott; Roth, Jonelle (March 1989). "Decision Development in Small Groups IV A Typology of Group Decision Paths". *Human Communication Research*. **15** (3): 323–356. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1468-2958.1989.tb00188.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-2958.1989.tb00188.x).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** Ralph, Paul (April 2015). "The Sensemaking-Coevolution-Implementation Theory of software design". *Science of Computer Programming*. **101**: 21–41. [arXiv](/source/ArXiv_(identifier)):[1302.4061](https://arxiv.org/abs/1302.4061). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.scico.2014.11.007](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.scico.2014.11.007). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [6154223](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6154223).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** Ralph, Paul (February 2016). "Software engineering process theory: A multi-method comparison of Sensemaking–Coevolution–Implementation Theory and Function–Behavior–Structure Theory". *Information and Software Technology*. **70**: 232–250. [arXiv](/source/ArXiv_(identifier)):[1307.1019](https://arxiv.org/abs/1307.1019). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.infsof.2015.06.010](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.infsof.2015.06.010). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [12104046](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12104046).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** Allison, I.; Merali, Y. (1 June 2007). ["Software process improvement as emergent change: A structurational analysis"](https://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/2638/1/WRAP_THESIS_Allison_2004.pdf) (PDF). *Information and Software Technology*. **49** (6): 668–681. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.infsof.2007.02.003](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.infsof.2007.02.003). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[10059/220](https://hdl.handle.net/10059%2F220).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** Zan, Özgür (2011-02-26). ["A Brief Introduction to Motivation Theory"](https://web.archive.org/web/20140226112106/https://ozgurzan.com/management/management-theories/theories-about-motivation/). Archived from [the original](http://ozgurzan.com/management/management-theories/theories-about-motivation/) on 26 February 2014.

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