# Politics of outer space

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Political considerations of space policy

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The first page of the 1963 treaty that banned [nuclear tests in the atmosphere](/source/Nuclear_weapons_testing), [outer space](/source/Outer_space) and under water

The politics of outer space refers to the political implications and effects of efforts to expand our human awareness and presence beyond the Earth’s atmosphere.[1]

This field of politics includes:

- [space policies](/source/Space_policy), which refer to legislation or guidelines that govern how decisions made by states and international organizations should be put into operation.[2]

- international relations, which refer to the patterns of competition, cooperation, and governance through which states and other actors organize the use of space for security, economic, and political purposes.[3]

- geopolitics which refers to the organization and contestation of power through the material infrastructures, spatial arrangements, and governing regimes that structure access to, use of, and control over outer space and its connections to Earth.[4]

## Global security and space policies

[US Air Force](/source/United_States_Air_Force) judge advocate Matthew King, writing in a personal capacity, has looked at the major powers' cooperation in space matters in the light of international geo-political relationships on earth. He holds that joint engagement in space matters, especially for the United States, China and Russia, can be viewed via two alternative lenses: it can facilitate peace and understanding (a lens he refers to as an olive branch) or it can hide true relationships (the lens of a fig leaf).[5]

## Politics of the ISS

This section is an excerpt from [Politics of the International Space Station](/source/Politics_of_the_International_Space_Station).[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Politics_of_the_International_Space_Station&action=edit)]

This article needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (July 2022)

  Primary contributing nations

  Formerly contracted nations

The politics of the [International Space Station](/source/International_Space_Station) have been affected by superpower rivalries, international treaties, and funding arrangements. The [space station](/source/Space_station) has an international crew, with the use of their time, and that of equipment on the station, being governed by treaties between participant nations. The station is divided into the [Russian Orbital Segment](/source/Russian_Orbital_Segment), and the [US Orbital Segment](/source/US_Orbital_Segment). Crews are launched to the station via Russian [Soyuz missions](/source/List_of_Soyuz_missions) and US launch vehicles, although the US operated none between the 2011 [Space Shuttle retirement](/source/Space_Shuttle_retirement) and 2018 [first crewed launch](/source/Crew_Dragon_Demo-2) of [SpaceX Dragon 2](/source/SpaceX_Dragon_2). The station has been [resupplied by cargo spacecraft](/source/Uncrewed_spaceflights_to_the_International_Space_Station) operated by the US, Russia, [European Space Agency](/source/European_Space_Agency), and Japan.

The [ISS program](/source/International_Space_Station_programme) concept was formulated in 1993 by the United States and Russia, when their [*Freedom*](/source/Space_Station_Freedom) and *[Mir-2](/source/Mir-2)* station concepts failed for budgetary reasons.[6] The countries also collaborated on the 1993–1998 [Shuttle–*Mir* program](/source/Shuttle%E2%80%93Mir_program). In 1998, the Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement was signed by fifteen countries, representing [NASA](/source/NASA), Russia's [Roscosmos](/source/Roscosmos), [Canadian Space Agency](/source/Canadian_Space_Agency), Japan's [JAXA](/source/JAXA), and eleven member states of the European Space Agency.[7] [ISS assembly](/source/Assembly_of_the_International_Space_Station) began the same year. China expressed interest in the ISS program, but the 2011 [Wolf Amendment](/source/Wolf_Amendment) prohibited most cooperation between NASA and [China National Space Administration](/source/China_National_Space_Administration). In 2014, in response to the [Russian annexation of Crimea](/source/2014_Russian_annexation_of_Crimea), NASA ended most relations with [Roscosmos](/source/Roscosmos), with the major exception of ISS operations.[8] In 2022, the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](/source/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine) threatened to terminate Russian involvement in the ISS, but as of 2025[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Politics_of_outer_space&action=edit) there has been no disruption, and all crewed launches continue to have American and Russian members, as well as other nationalities. Russia has committed to ISS operations until at least 2028,[9] and plans to construct the [Russian Orbital Service Station](/source/Russian_Orbital_Service_Station) from 2027. The US, ESA, Canada, and Japan have committed to ISS operations until 2030,[9] and NASA [plans to deorbit the station](/source/International_Space_Station#NASA's_disposal_plans) in 2031, if the replacement [Commercial LEO Destinations program](/source/Commercial_LEO_Destinations_program) has met NASA's needs.[9]

Since the last mission to *[Mir](/source/Mir)* in 1999, only China has operated [other crewed stations](/source/List_of_space_stations). It has crewed the [Tiangong space station](/source/Tiangong_space_station) since 2021, as well the prototypes [Tiangong-2](/source/Tiangong-2) and [Tiangong-1](/source/Tiangong-1).

In 1972, a milestone was reached in co-operation between the United States and the Soviet Union in space with the [Apollo-Soyuz Test Project](/source/Apollo-Soyuz_Test_Project). The project occurred during a period of [détente](/source/D%C3%A9tente) between the two superpowers, and led in July 1975 to [Soyuz 19](/source/Soyuz_19) docking with an [Apollo](/source/Apollo_Command%2FService_Module) spacecraft.

From 1978 to 1987, the USSR's [Interkosmos](/source/Interkosmos) program included allied Warsaw Pact countries and countries which were not Soviet allies, such as India, Syria, and France, in crewed and uncrewed missions to Space stations Salyut 6 and 7. In 1986, the USSR extended its co-operation to a dozen countries in the [Mir](/source/Mir) program. From 1994 to 1998, NASA [Space Shuttles](/source/Space_Shuttle) and [crew](/source/List_of_Space_Shuttle_crews) visited Mir in the [Shuttle–Mir program](/source/Shuttle%E2%80%93Mir_program).

In 1998, assembly of the space station began.[10] On 28 January 1998, the Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement (IGA) was signed. This governs ownership of modules, station usage by participant nations, and responsibilities for station resupply. The signatories were the United States of America, Russia, Japan, Canada, and eleven member states of the European Space Agency (Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, The Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom).[11][12] With the exception of the United Kingdom, all of the signatories went on to contribute to the Space Station project. A second layer of agreements was then achieved, four memoranda of understanding between NASA and ESA, CSA, RKA and JAXA. These agreements are then further split, such as for the contractual obligations between nations, and trading of partners' rights and obligations.[12] Use of the [Russian Orbital Segment](/source/Russian_Orbital_Segment) is also negotiated at this level.[13]

In 2010, the ESA announced that European countries which were not already part of the program would be allowed access to the station in a three-year trial period.[14]

In March 2012, a meeting in Quebec City between the leaders of the space agencies of Canada, Japan, Russia, the United States, and involved European nations resulted in a renewed pledge to maintain the space station until at least 2020. NASA reports to be still committed to the principles of the mission but also to use the station in new ways, which were not elaborated. CSA President [Steve MacLean](/source/Steve_MacLean_(astronaut)) stated his belief that the station's [Canadarm](/source/Canadarm2) will continue to function properly until 2028, alluding to Canada's likely extension of its involvement beyond 2020.[15]

On 28 March 2015, Russian sources announced that Roscosmos and NASA had agreed to collaborate on the development of a replacement for the current ISS.[16] [Igor Komarov](/source/Igor_Komarov), the head of Russia's Roscosmos, made the announcement with NASA administrator Charles Bolden at his side.[17] In a statement provided to SpaceNews on 28 March, NASA spokesman David Weaver said the agency appreciated the Russian commitment to extending the ISS, but did not confirm any plans for a future space station.[18]

On 30 September 2015, Boeing's contract with NASA as prime contractor for the ISS was extended to 30 September 2020. Part of Boeing's services under the contract related to extending the station's primary structural hardware past 2020 to the end of 2028.[19]

There have also been suggestions in the commercial space industry that the station could be converted to commercial operations after it is retired by government entities.[20]

In July 2018, the Space Frontier Act of 2018 was intended to extend operations of the ISS to 2030. This bill was unanimously approved in the Senate, but failed to pass in the U.S. House.[21][22] In September 2018, the Leading Human Spaceflight Act was introduced with the intent to extend operations of the ISS to 2030, and was confirmed in December 2018.[23][24][25]

On 12 April 2021, at a meeting with Russian President [Vladimir Putin](/source/Vladimir_Putin), then-Deputy Prime Minister [Yury Borisov](/source/Yury_Borisov) announced he had decided that Russia might withdraw from the ISS programme in 2025.[26][27] According to Russian authorities, the timeframe of the station’s operations has expired and its condition leaves much to be desired.[26]

In January 2022, NASA announced a planned date of January 2031 to de-orbit the ISS and direct any remnants into a remote area of the South Pacific Ocean.[28]

On 24 February 2022, NASA said that American and Russian astronauts currently aboard the ISS would continue normal operations despite the [2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine](/source/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine).[29] British Prime Minister [Boris Johnson](/source/Boris_Johnson) commented on the current status of cooperation, saying "I have been broadly in favour of continuing artistic and scientific collaboration, but in the current circumstances it's hard to see how even those can continue as normal."[30] On the same day, Roscosmos Director General [Dmitry Rogozin](/source/Dmitry_Rogozin) insinuated that Russian withdrawal could cause the International Space Station to de-orbit due to lack of reboost capabilities, writing in a series of tweets, "If you block cooperation with us, who will save the ISS from an unguided de-orbit to impact on the territory of the US or Europe? There's also the chance of impact of the 500-ton construction in India or China. Do you want to threaten them with such a prospect? The ISS doesn't fly over Russia, so all the risk is yours. Are you ready for it?"[31] (The last claim is not true, as the ISS' orbital inclination of 51.66° allows it to overfly the latitude of [Saratov](/source/Saratov).) Rogozin later tweeted that normal relations between ISS partners could only be restored once sanctions have been lifted, and indicated that Roscosmos would submit proposals to the Russian government on ending cooperation.[32] NASA stated that, if necessary, US corporation [Northrop Grumman](/source/Northrop_Grumman) has offered a reboost capability that would keep the ISS in orbit.[33]

On 26 July 2022, Borisov, who had become head of Roscosmos, submitted to Putin his plans for withdrawal from the programme after 2024.[34] However, Robyn Gatens, the NASA official in charge of space station operations, responded that NASA had not received any formal notices from Roscosmos concerning withdrawal plans.[35] The United States Congress, in its [CHIPS and Science Act](/source/CHIPS_and_Science_Act) signed by President [Joe Biden](/source/Joe_Biden) on 9 August, approved extending NASA's funding for the ISS through 2030.[36][37]

On 21 September 2022, Borisov stated that Russia was "highly likely" to continue to participate in the ISS programme until 2028, stating that it would be challenging to start up crewed space missions after such a long pause.[38][39]

On 28 May 2025, former US astronaut and commander of the ISS [Terry W. Virts](/source/Terry_W._Virts) alleged that Russian cosmonauts used the ISS for [satellite reconnaissance](/source/Satellite_reconnaissance) photography of the Italian [Aviano Air Base](/source/Aviano_Air_Base), where a [US Air Force](/source/US_Air_Force) unit and US [nuclear gravity bombs](/source/B61_nuclear_bomb) are stationed.[40]

## Politics of asteroid mining

In recent years, the advancement in technology and engineering have made [mining asteroid](/source/Asteroid_mining) more plausible. The global space mining market is estimated to be worth $14.71 billion by 2025, as indicated by market research.[41] Although the industry could be years away from successfully mining asteroids, this renewed interest in asteroid mining for metal extraction has the potential to influence the global market of rare metal and create a new [geopolitical](/source/Geopolitics) order.[42][43][44][45]

[Outer space](/source/Outer_space) has been a ground for geopolitical competition since [the Cold War](/source/Cold_War), and the expected growth in asteroid mining could bring about a new geopolitical order organized around resources extraction.[46][44][47] Access to rare metals from asteroids could position nation-states and their private sectors competitively.[43] Countries with technological capacity to explore space and finance a new and costly asteroid mining endeavour are better positioned to dominate the global supply chain for such metals, while a handful of countries will lag behind. This threatens to drive a resource race in outer space and could create similar patterns of conflict around resources extraction to what has been experienced on earth.[43][44]

The expansion of resource extraction in outer space will require the development of a legal regulatory framework that adequately governs asteroid mining activities. The two current treaties that govern activities in outer space are the [Outer Space Treaty](/source/Outer_Space_Treaty) and the [Moon Treaty](/source/Moon_Treaty). Ratified by 98 countries in 1976, the Outer Space Treaty prevents sovereign or private ownership of outer space and its resources, asserting it belongs to all mankind but does not prevent exploitation of its resources. Ratified in 1979, the Moon Treaty clears some of the vague language surrounding the heritage for humankind outline in the Outer Space Treaty. Similar to the Outer Space Treaty, its provisions outline the Moon and other celestial bodies are “*not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means”*[48] It also introduces a number of provisions that limit activities in outer space. While those provisions have implications for the development of space mining industry, Article 11.7 of the treaty has serious implications for countries that wish to assert monopoly over the emerging asteroid mining industry.

*Article 11.7: The main purposes of the international regime to be established shall include*[49]*:*

*1. The orderly and safe development of the natural resources of the moon;*

*2. The rational management of those resources;*

*3. The expansion of opportunities in the use of those resources;*

*4. An equitable sharing by all States Parties in the benefits derived from those resources, whereby the interests and needs of the developing countries, as well as the efforts of those countries which have contributed either directly or indirectly to the exploration of the moon, shall be given special consideration.*

Given the limitation the Moon treaty place on states, it has not been ratified by key players in the space frontier, such as the [US](/source/United_States), [China](/source/China), and [Russia](/source/Russia).[50]

Both the Outer Space Treaty and the Moon Treaty lack a robust enforcement mechanism that holds states and private entities accountable for their violation of the agreements.[44] The lack of clarity over claims for ownership could result in conflicts among countries and private companies.[51][43] While International efforts to reconsolidate a regulatory framework to govern future mining activities are much needed, they have been slow. Establishing rules on transparency, resource sharing, and mechanisms to guide conflict resolutions are needed to support the growing economy of asteroid mining.[51]

Several countries have conducted research [missions to asteroids](/source/Asteroid_mining). While the US, [EU](/source/European_Union), [Japan](/source/Japan), Russia, and China have all had successful asteroid missions, only the US and Japan were able to bring samples from an asteroid. With geological surveys for metals often preceding the militarization of territories and the expansion of nation-states in terrestrial context, research missions to asteroids allude to the expansion of state ambition to dominate a large-scale [extraterrestrial](/source/In_situ_resource_utilization) extractive regime.[44]

While asteroid mining remains in its infancy, countries are competing to dominate it. However, the difficulty of reaching consensus on global treaties has led countries to branch out to legitimatize the economic exploration and exploitation of asteroids, through passing national law, and relying on loopholes in the international law.[51][52]

In 2015, the US passed the [U.S Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act](/source/Commercial_Space_Launch_Competitiveness_Act_of_2015). While the act does not position the US as a state to have authority or ownership in outer space, it positions its citizens to have ownership over resources acquired from space.[53][54] This allows the U.S. to adhere to Outer Space Treaty but also allow to its private entities to carry out mining activities on Asteroids, once feasible.[53] [AstroForge](/source/AstroForge), a US start-up with a mission focused on developing technology for asteroid mining, announced two commercial missions to asteroids that were launched in 2023.[55][56]

In 2016, the government of [Luxembourg](/source/Luxembourg) introduced a legal framework that support and guide the private activities of mining asteroids.[57] To grant certainty investors, it passed a law that explicitly permits private entities to own and sell resources extracted from asteroids. The government also pledged to support research and start-ups focused on space exploration and extraterrestrial resource extraction with a funding of approximately US$225 million.[58] Relative to the US, the Luxembourg Space Act provides more clarity and position the country more competitively to engage in asteroid mining. Given its strategic location in Europe, Luxembourg intends to establish itself as a [Silicon Valley](/source/Silicon_Valley) for space activities.[58]

Despite the differences in passed legislation, the goal remains the same: to emerge as a leader in the new asteroid mining frontier and obtain the economic benefits associated with it. Current and future developments in asteroid mining do not indicate whether competition in this frontier will lead to positive changes in international law or allow for the harmonization of national laws among states. Nevertheless, the steady growth in asteroid mining will have implications for the geopolitics of terrestrial and extraterrestrial resource extraction.

## Representation, participation and regulation

This section is an excerpt from [Human presence in space § Representation, participation and regulation](/source/Human_presence_in_space#Representation,_participation_and_regulation).[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_presence_in_space&action=edit)]

Participation and representation of humanity in space is an issue of human access to and presence in space ever since the beginning of spaceflight.[59] Different [space agencies](/source/Space_agency), [space programs](/source/Space_program) and interest groups such as the [International Astronomical Union](/source/International_Astronomical_Union) have been formed supporting or producing humanity's or a particular human presence in space. Representation has been shaped by the inclusiveness, scope and [varying capabilities of these](/source/Spaceflight#Spacefaring) organizations and programs.

Some rights of non-spacefaring countries to partake in spaceflight have been secured through international [space law](/source/Space_law), declaring space the "[province of all mankind](/source/Common_heritage_of_mankind)", understanding spaceflight as its resource, though sharing of space for all humanity is still criticized as [imperialist](/source/Imperialism) and lacking,[59][60] particularly regarding regulation of private spceflight.[61]

Additionally to international inclusion the [inclusion of women](/source/Women_in_space),[62] [people of colour](/source/People_of_colour) and with [disability](/source/Disability_studies) has also been lacking.[63][64][65] To reach a more inclusive spaceflight some organizations like the *Justspace Alliance*[59] and [IAU](/source/IAU) featured *Inclusive Astronomy*[66] have been formed in recent years.

## Colonialism, imperialism and capitalism

Further information: [Transport divide](/source/Transport_divide)

This section is an excerpt from [Space colonization § Colonialism](/source/Space_colonization#Colonialism).[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Space_colonization&action=edit)]

[Gemini 5](/source/Gemini_5) mission badge (1965) connecting spaceflight to colonial endeavours[67]

The logo and name of the in the past pursued [Lunar Gateway](/source/Lunar_Gateway) references the [St. Louis](/source/St._Louis) [Gateway Arch](/source/Gateway_Arch),[68] which some see as associating Mars with the [American frontier](/source/American_frontier) and like the whole [Artemis program](/source/Artemis_program)[69] with the *[manifest destiny](/source/Manifest_destiny)* mentality of [American settler colonialism](/source/Settler_colonialism#Settler_colonialism_in_the_United_States).[70]

Space colonization has been discussed as a [postcolonial](/source/Postcolonialism)[71] continuation of [imperialism](/source/Imperialism) and [colonialism](/source/Colonialism),[72][73][74][75] with some calling for [decolonization](/source/Decolonization) instead of colonization.[76][74] Critics argue that the present politico-legal regimes and their philosophic grounding, advantage imperialist development of space,[75] that key decisionmakers in space colonization are often wealthy elites affiliated with private corporations, and that space colonization would primarily appeal to their peers rather than ordinary citizens.[77][78] Furthermore, it is argued that there is a need for inclusive[79] and democratic participation and implementation of any space exploration, infrastructure or habitation.[80][81] According to space law expert Michael Dodge, existing [space law](/source/Space_law), such as the [Outer Space Treaty](/source/Outer_Space_Treaty), guarantees access to space, but does not enforce social inclusiveness or regulate non-state actors.[76]

Particularly the narrative of the "[New Frontier](/source/New_Frontier)" has been criticized as unreflected continuation of [settler colonialism](/source/Settler_colonialism) and [manifest destiny](/source/Manifest_destiny), continuing the narrative of exploration as fundamental to the assumed [human nature](/source/Human_nature).[82][83][73][77][74] Joon Yun considers [space colonization as a solution to human survival](/source/Space_and_survival) and global problems like pollution to be imperialist;[84] others have identified space as a new [sacrifice zone](/source/Sacrifice_zone) of colonialism.[85]

Furthermore, the understanding of space as empty and separate is considered a continuation of [terra nullius](/source/Terra_nullius).[86][87]

Natalie B. Trevino argues that not colonialism but [coloniality](/source/Decoloniality) will be carried into space if not reflected on.[88]

More specifically the advocacy for territorial colonization [of Mars](/source/Mars_colonization) has been called *surfacism*, in contrast to [habitation in the atmospheric space of Venus](/source/Venus_colonization),[89][90] a concept similar to [Thomas Golds](/source/Thomas_Gold) *[surface chauvinism](/source/Surface_chauvinism)*.

More generally space infrastructure such as the [Maunakea Observatories](/source/Maunakea_Observatories) have also been [criticized and protested against](/source/Opposition_to_the_Mauna_Kea_Observatories) as being colonialist.[91] [Guiana Space Centre](/source/Guiana_Space_Centre) has also been the site of anti-colonial protests, connecting colonization as an issue on Earth and in space.[71]

In regard to the scenario of [extraterrestrial](/source/First_contact_(science_fiction)) [first contact](/source/First_contact_(anthropology)), it has been argued that the employment of colonial language would endanger such first impressions and encounters.[76]

Furthermore, spaceflight as a whole and space law more particularly has been criticized as a postcolonial project by being built on a colonial legacy and by not facilitating the sharing of access to space and its benefits, too often allowing spaceflight to be used to sustain colonialism and imperialism, most of all on Earth instead.[71]

Space activities entail an environmental costs, which also affect countries that don't participate, prompting questions of [environmental justice](/source/Environmental_justice).[92]

The historical dominance of nations in space activities has progressively been challenged by private companies, such as [SpaceX](/source/SpaceX) and [Blue Origin](/source/Blue_Origin), which have established profitable businesses primarily by providing [satellite launching](/source/Satellite_insurance) services. This fast-paced new market led to the expression "NewSpace", to contrast it with the "OldSpace" of the [cold war](/source/Cold_War) era.[93]

Since the mid-20th century, it has become possible for different actors, such as national armies and government agencies, scientists and private companies, to carry out a variety of space activities, such as the regulation of outer space through international law, the deployment of missile and [anti-satellite weapons](/source/Anti-satellite_weapon), the establishment of exploration, communication and [navigation satellites](/source/Satellite_navigation), and [space travel for tourism](/source/Space_tourism) and habitat expansion.[94]

## See also

- [Astrosociology](/source/Astrosociology) – Field of study

- [Extraterrestrial real estate](/source/Extraterrestrial_real_estate) – Ownership claims of property on other planets, moons, or parts of outer space

- [Human presence in space](/source/Human_presence_in_space) – Physical presence of human activity in outer space

- [International Space Station](/source/International_Space_Station) – Modular space station in low Earth orbit

- [Politics of the International Space Station](/source/Politics_of_the_International_Space_Station) – How nations operate the orbital research complex

- [Space advocacy](/source/Space_advocacy) – Advocacy for exploration and/or colonization of space

- [Space policy](/source/Space_policy) – Public policy concerning the exploration of outer space

- [Space Race](/source/Space_Race) – US–USSR spaceflight capability rivalry

- [Space warfare](/source/Space_warfare) – Combat that takes place in outer space

- [United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs](/source/United_Nations_Office_for_Outer_Space_Affairs) – Space agency

- [Whitey on the Moon](/source/Whitey_on_the_Moon) – 1970 spoken word poem by Gil Scott-Heron

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-79)** Zevallos, Zuleyka (26 March 2015). ["Rethinking the Narrative of Mars Colonisation"](https://othersociologist.com/2015/03/26/rethinking-the-narrative-of-mars-colonisation/). *Other Sociologist*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191211122431/https://othersociologist.com/2015/03/26/rethinking-the-narrative-of-mars-colonisation/) from the original on 11 December 2019. Retrieved 20 September 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Space_colonization_Tavares_Buckner_Burton_McKaig_2020_80-0)** Tavares, Frank; Buckner, Denise; Burton, Dana; McKaig, Jordan; Prem, Parvathy; Ravanis, Eleni; Trevino, Natalie; Venkatesan, Aparna; Vance, Steven D.; Vidaurri, Monica; Walkowicz, Lucianne; Wilhelm, Mary Beth (15 October 2020). "Ethical Exploration and the Role of Planetary Protection in Disrupting Colonial Practices". [arXiv](/source/ArXiv_(identifier)):[2010.08344v2](https://arxiv.org/abs/2010.08344v2) [[astro-ph.IM](https://arxiv.org/archive/astro-ph.IM)].

1. **[^](#cite_ref-81)** Spencer, Keith A. (2 May 2017). ["Keep the Red Planet Red"](https://www.jacobinmag.com/2017/02/mars-elon-musk-space-exploration-nasa-colonization). *[Jacobin](/source/Jacobin_(magazine))*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191103165331/https://jacobinmag.com/2017/02/mars-elon-musk-space-exploration-nasa-colonization) from the original on 3 November 2019. Retrieved 20 September 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Space_colonization_Schaberg_2021_82-0)** Schaberg, Christopher (30 March 2021). ["We're Already Colonizing Mars"](https://slate.com/technology/2021/03/mars-colonization-is-already-happening.html). *Slate Magazine*. Retrieved 8 September 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Space_colonization_Renstrom_2021_83-0)** Renstrom, Joelle (18 March 2021). ["The Troubling Rhetoric of Space Exploration"](https://undark.org/2021/03/18/rhetoric-of-space-exploration/). *Undark Magazine*. Retrieved 15 August 2021.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-Space_colonization_Calma_2021_85-0)** Calma, Justine (21 July 2021). ["Jeff Bezos eyes space as a new 'sacrifice zone'"](https://www.theverge.com/2021/7/21/22587249/jeff-bezos-space-pollution-industry-sacrifice-zone-amazon-environmental-justice). *The Verge*. Retrieved 9 November 2021.

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## Further reading

- Dolman, Everett C. Ed. Colin S. Gray and Geoffrey Sloan. "Geostrategy in the Space Age." *Geopolitics, Geography and Strategy.* Frank Cass: Portland, Oregon, 2003. pp. 83–106. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-7146-8053-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7146-8053-2)

## External links

Look up ***[Astropolitics](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Astropolitics)*** in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

- [Astropolitics.The International Journal of Space Politics & Policy](http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/fast20/current)

v t e Politics of outer space Spacefaring nations Space policy Space traffic management Space debris management Space Debris Working Group Space Debris Committee Planetary protection principle Post-detection policy Asteroid impact Prediction Avoidance Spaceguard The Spaceguard Foundation Space races Cold War Space Race Sputnik crisis Timeline Billionaire space race Mars race Records Space propaganda Space competition Chinese space program Two Bombs, One Satellite doctrine (1966–1976) Shuguang program (1966–1972) Chinese ASAT program (1964–) 2007 test Project 921 (1992–) Shenzhou program Tiangong program Space station Chinese Lunar Exploration Program (2003–) Mars and beyond Planetary Exploration of China (2016–) MARS-500 study ESA Science Programme European Launcher Development Organisation (1960–1975) Europa launcher programme (1962–1973) European Space Research Organisation (1964–1975) European Space Agency (1975–) EU/ESA Space Council European Cooperation for Space Standardization European Space Research and Technology Centre Concurrent Design Facility European Astronaut Centre ESA Centre for Earth Observation Living Planet Programme European Centre for Space Applications and Telecommunications European Data Relay System Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (1983–2010) European Space Astronomy Centre (2005–) European Space Security and Education Centre European Space Operations Centre ESTRACK network Guiana Space Centre Ariane launcher programme (1973–) Vega launcher programme (1998–) European Space Policy Institute Space Situational Awareness Programme Future Launchers Preparatory Programme Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle PRIDE Space Rider ESA Television Mars and beyond Mars Exploration Joint Initiative MARS-500 study Aurora programme ExoMars Horizon 2000 (1985–1995) SOHO Cassini–Huygens Huygens Cluster Cluster II XMM-Newton Rosetta INTEGRAL Herschel Planck Horizon 2000 Plus (1995–2015) ISS programme Politics Gaia LISA Pathfinder BepiColombo Cosmic Vision (2015–2025) Solar Orbiter Euclid ARIEL EnVision CHEOPS JUICE ATHENA LISA Comet Interceptor SMILE EU Space Programme Western European Union Satellite Centre (1992–2002) EU Satellite Centre (2002–) EU/ESA Space Council EU Commission DG Defence Industry and Space European GNSS Supervisory Authority (2004–2010) European GNSS Agency (2010–2021) EU Agency for the Space Programme (2021–) Galileo programme Copernicus programme EGNOS programme EUSST programme Body of European Regulators for Electronic Communications European Union Aviation Safety Agency European Network of Civil Aviation Safety Investigation Authorities European Defence Agency Europe by Satellite Other European initiatives and bodies AeroSpace and Defence Industries Association of Europe Eurospace Eurocontrol Council of Europe Council of European Aerospace Societies European Broadcasting Union European Civil Aviation Conference European Committee for Standardization/European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations European Telecommunications Standards Institute European Organisation for Civil Aviation Equipment European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites European Patent Organisation European Patent Office European Telecommunications Satellite Organization European Southern Observatory Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe Indian space policy Department of Space Space Activities Bill Chandrayaan programme Mangalyaan programme Indian Human Spaceflight Programme Indian ASAT programme Mission Shakti British space programme Creation of the British National Committee for Space Research (1958) Start of the Ariel programme (1962) Black Arrow launcher (1964–1971) Creation of the British National Space Centre (1985) Outer Space Act 1986 Project Juno (1991) Space Innovation and Growth Team (2009–2010) Creation of the UK Space Agency (2010) Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015 Space Industry Act 2018 UK Global Navigation Satellite System (2018–2020) 2021 Integrated Review Defence in a Competitive Age US space policy Truman space policy Operation Paperclip list of scientists Aerobee rocket program RAND Establishment of Cape Canaveral Eisenhower space policy WS-117L Project Vanguard Sputnik crisis Introduction to Outer Space 1958 NASA Act Space Act Agreement Cancellation of Man in Space Soonest Launch of Project Mercury Missile gap Launch of X-15 program Kennedy space policy Launch of the Mariner program Launch of the Gemini project Launch of the Apollo program "We choose to go to the Moon" Johnson space policy 1967 Outer Space Treaty Nixon space policy Moon landing Extra-Terrestrial Exposure Law Launch of the Space Shuttle Program Skylab Ford space policy Apollo–Soyuz Launch of the Viking program Carter space policy Reagan space policy Citizens' Advisory Council Strategy of Technology doctrine Strategic Defense Initiative Space Station Freedom proposal 1984 Space Act 1985 anti-satellite missile test Space Shuttle Challenger disaster Rogers Report Ride Report George H. W. Bush space policy Space Exploration Initiative 1990 Augustine Committee Hubble Space Telescope National Space Council Clinton space policy Faster, better, cheaper Gore–Chernomyrdin Commission ISS Shuttle–Mir program ISS programme Politics Launch of the Mars Exploration Program 1998 Space Act Decadal Planning Team Launch of the X-37 program George W. Bush space policy Aerospace Industry Commission 2002 National missile defense directive Space Shuttle Columbia disaster Vision for Space Exploration Aldridge Commission ESAS 2005 NASA Act Launch of the Constellation program Operation Burnt Frost Obama space policy 2009 Augustine Committee Kennedy Space Center speech Cancellation of the Constellation program Launch of the Space Launch System program Redesign of the Orion program Flexible path Mars Exploration Joint Initiative 2010 NASA Act Title 51 Space Shuttle retirement Development of the Commercial Crew Program 2014 NASA Act 2015 Space Act First Trump space policy Re-establishment of the National Space Council Creation of the Space Force Launch of the Artemis program Launch of the Lunar Gateway project Executive Order 13959 Biden space policy Return to lunar exploration Second Trump space policy Golden Dome missile defense system Expanding the commercial spaceflight industry First lunar flyby since Apollo Returning humans to the Moon China exclusion policy of NASA International Traffic in Arms Regulations Full-spectrum dominance doctrine Budget of NASA House Committee on Space NESDIS Office of Space Commerce FCC FAA/AST NRO IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Society Antennas & Propagation Society Broadcast Technology Society Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society Vehicular Technology Society USSR and Russia Soviet space program Stalin Operation Osoaviakhim (1946) list of scientists Khrushchev Sputnik program Sputnik crisis (1957) Vostok program (1960–1963) Fractional Orbital Bombardment System (1960–1982) Soviet crewed lunar programs (1961–1976) Voskhod program (1964–1966) Brezhnev Soyuz program (1967–) Interkosmos (1967–1991) Salyut program (1971–1986) Almaz (1973–1977) Buran program (1974–1993) Apollo–Soyuz (1975) Gorbachev Mir (1986–2001) Roscosmos Yeltsin Gore–Chernomyrdin Commission ISS (1993–) Shuttle–Mir program ISS programme Politics Medvedev Medvedev modernisation programme 2010 Military doctrine Putin United Rocket and Space Corporation (2013–2015) 2014 Military doctrine 2015 Creation of Roscosmos Mars MARS-500 study ExoMars Other policies Australian space program Brazilian space program Emirati space program Japanese space program Kazakh space program Kenyan space program Lebanese space program North Korean space program Pakistani space program Space programme 2040 Philippine space program South Korean space program Ugandan space initiatives International Space Station programme Politics of the International Space Station United Nations International Civil Aviation Organization ITU-R Office for Outer Space Affairs UN-SPIDER Space Generation Advisory Council Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space General Assembly Fourth Committee Other intergovernmental or inter-agency bodies African Space Agency Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems Committee on Earth Observation Satellites Committee on Space Research International Planetary Data Alliance International Cospas-Sarsat Programme Group on Earth Observations Global Standards Collaboration Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee International Charter 'Space and Major Disasters' International Mobile Satellite Organization International Space Exploration Coordination Group International Space Station Multilateral Coordination Board International Telecommunications Satellite Organization Intersputnik Orbital Debris Co-ordination Working Group Regional African Satellite Communication Organization Arab Satellite Communications Organization Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization Space law Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963) Outer Space Treaty (1967) Rescue Agreement (1968) Space Liability Convention (1972) US-USSR Cooperation Agreement (1972) Satellite Convention (1974) Registration Convention (1975) Bogota Declaration (1976) Moon Treaty (1979) Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space (1981) International Cospas-Sarsat Programme Agreement (1988) International Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement (1998) International Docking System Standard International Charter 'Space and Major Disasters' (1999) Cape Town Treaty, Space Assets protocol (2012) Artemis Accords (2020) Space jurisdiction Common heritage of mankind Extraterrestrial real estate Astronomical naming conventions ITU Radio Regulations CCSDS standards ODCWG standards CEOS standards COSPAR standards International Designator IPDA standards GSC standards GEO standards ISECG standards Various conventions, treaties, agreements, memorandums, charters or declarations establishing and governing intergovernmental organisations or inter-agency bodies dealing with space affairs Commercial use Space industry India Russia United Kingdom United States Private spaceflight Launch market competition Space tourism Space advertising Space technology Space-based economy Space trade Space manufacturing Lunar resources Project Harvest Moon Asteroid mining Militarisation Space forces, units and formations Space forces Australia Brazil Canada China Colombia France Germany Iran AJA IRGC Israel Japan Netherlands New Zealand North Korea Pakistan Russia South Africa South Korea Spain Thailand Turkey United Kingdom United States History Structure Vietnam Ranks and insignia Space commands Australia France India Italy Mexico NATO NORAD Peru South Korea Spain United Kingdom United States Space warfare Space domain awareness Space weapon Anti-satellite weapon China India Russia United States Kinetic bombardment Kill vehicle Missile defense Military satellite Reconnaissance satellite Spaceplane Satellite jamming Space advocacy Air & Space Forces Association Alliance for Space Development National Space Society Space Frontier Foundation Mars Society Moon Society Students for the Exploration and Development of Space Arthur C. Clarke Institute for Modern Technologies British Interplanetary Society Coalition for Deep Space Exploration International Academy of Astronautics International Astronautical Federation International Astronomical Union Lunar Explorers Society Space Exploration Alliance Space Fellowship Space Force Association Space Foundation The Planetary Society

v t e Public-sector space agencies Africa Pan-African and pan-Arab RASCOM Arabsat National ASAL EgSA NARSS ESSTI GSSTC KSA CRTS NASRDA SANSA Americas North America CSA NASA NESDIS OSC FAA/AST FCC USSF USSPACECOM NRO Latin America and the Caribbean ALCE AEM CONAE ABE AEB DCTA INPE ITA CCE ABAE IVIC Asia Pan-Asian APSCO Central Asia KazCosmos1 Roscosmos1 SRI VK TNSA1 East Asia CNSA SASTIND CASC CALT CAST CCF CGWIC PLAASF CASIC JAXA ISAS JSS NICT NATA KASA KARI KASI SaTReC TASA South Asia BSPARRSO ISRO2 Antrix Corp DoS NRSC NSIL DSA SUPARCO Southeast Asia BRIN ORPA INASA MYSA PhilSA NSAS GISTDA VNSC MSA West Asia ArmCosmos1 MAKA1 NSSA NEHSA ISA ISRC ISA NCSR SSA KACST-SRI SSA2 GORS TUA TÜBİTAK UZAY UAESA (MBRSC) Europe Pan-European CEN/CENELEC CEPT ETSI Eurocontrol ECAC ESA ECSS ESTEC EAC ESRIN ECSAT ESAC ESOC ESTRACK Guiana Space Centre EUMETSAT EUTELSAT IGO ESO EU and EEA DG DEFIS EUSPA EU SatCen EASA BEREC ALR2 BELSPO BIRA-IASB SRTI2 CSO2 DTU Space ESO1 CNES2 AAE CdE DLR2 HSA HSO2 ASI LSA LSO1 SRON NLSA NOSA POLSA2 CBK PAN UKE KRRiT ORO ULC PTSPACE ROSA2 INTA AEC EAE AEE SNSA Other ArmCosmos1 MAKA1 BSA1 KazCosmos1 Roscosmos1 SRI VVKO SSO TUA TÜBİTAK UZAY SSAU1 UKSA2 Oceania ASA CSIRO NZSA World CCSDS CEOS COSPAR IPDA Cospas-Sarsat GEO GSC IADC ICSMD IMSO ISECG ISS MCB ITSO Intersputnik ODCWG ITU-R UNCOPUOS UNOOSA UNOSAT Former BNSC KCST INCOSPAR LAPAN NAL NASDA SSP MOM Interkosmos See also: Timeline of first orbital launches by country 1 Preceded by the Soviet space program 2 Preceded by Interkosmos participation

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Politics of outer space](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_outer_space) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_outer_space?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.