# Political system

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System of politics and government

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In [political science](/source/Political_science), a **political system** means the form of [political organization](/source/Political_organisation) that can be observed, recognised or otherwise declared by a [society](/source/Society) or [state](/source/State_(polity)).[1]

It define the process for making official [government](/source/Government) decisions. It usually comprizes the governmental [legal](/source/Legal_system) and [economic system](/source/Economic_system), [social](/source/Social_system) and [cultural system](/source/Cultural_system), and other state and government specific systems. However, this is a very simplified view of a much more complex system of categories involving the questions of who should have authority and what the government influence on its people and economy should be.

Along with a basic sociological and socio-anthropological classification, political systems can be classified on a social-cultural axis relative to the [liberal values](/source/Liberal_values) prevalent in the [Western world](/source/Western_world), where the spectrum is represented as a continuum between political systems recognized as [democracies](/source/Democracies), [totalitarian regimes](/source/Totalitarian_regimes) and, sitting between these two, [authoritarian regimes](/source/Authoritarian_regimes), with a variety of [hybrid regimes](/source/Hybrid_regimes);[2][3] and [monarchies](/source/Monarchies) may be also included as a standalone entity or as a hybrid system of the main three.[4][5]

## Definition

According to [David Easton](/source/David_Easton), "A political system can be designated as the interactions through which values are authoritatively allocated for a society".[6] Political system refers broadly to the process by which laws are made and public resources allocated in society, and to the relationships among those involved in making these decisions.[7]

## Basic classification

Social anthropologists generally recognize several kinds of political systems, often differentiating between ones that they consider uncentralized and ones they consider centralized.[8]

- Uncentralized systems - [Band society](/source/Band_society) - Small family group, no larger than an extended family or clan; it has been defined as consisting of no more than 30 to 50 individuals. - A band can cease to exist if only a small group walks out. - [Tribe](/source/Tribe) - Generally larger, consisting of many families. Tribes have more social institutions, such as a chief or elders. - More permanent than bands. Many tribes are subdivided into bands.

- [Centralized governments](/source/Centralized_government) - [Chiefdom](/source/Chiefdom) - More complex than a tribe or a band society, and less complex than a state or a civilization - Characterized by pervasive inequality and centralization of authority. - A single lineage/family of the elite class becomes the ruling elite of the chiefdom - Complex chiefdoms have two or even three tiers of political hierarchy. - "An autonomous political unit comprising a number of villages or communities under the permanent control of a paramount chief"[9] - [Sovereign state](/source/Sovereign_state) - A sovereign state is a state with a permanent population, a defined territory, a government and the capacity to enter into relations with other sovereign states.

- [Supranational political systems](/source/Supranational_union) - Supranational political systems are created by independent nations to reach a common goal or gain strength from forming an alliance.

- [Empires](/source/Empire) - Empires are widespread states consisting of people of different ethnicities under a single rule. Empires - such as the Romans, or British - often made considerable progress in ways of political structures, creating and building city infrastructures, and maintaining civility within the diverse communities. Because of the intricate organization of the empires, they were often able to hold a large majority of power on a universal level.

- Leagues - Leagues are international organizations composed of states coming together for a single common purpose. In this way, leagues are different from empires, as they only seek to fulfil a single goal. Often leagues are formed on the brink of a military or economic downfall. Meetings and hearings are conducted in a neutral location with representatives of all involved nations present.

## Social political science

Further information: [List of forms of government](/source/List_of_forms_of_government)

The sociological interest in political systems is figuring out who holds power within the relationship between the government and its people and how the government’s power is used. According to [Yale](/source/Yale) professor [Juan José Linz](/source/Juan_Jos%C3%A9_Linz), there are three main types of political systems today: [democracies](/source/Democracies), [totalitarian regimes](/source/Totalitarian_regimes) and, sitting between these two, [authoritarian regimes](/source/Authoritarian_regimes) (with [hybrid regimes](/source/Hybrid_regimes)).[3][10] Another modern classification system includes [monarchies](/source/Monarchies) as a standalone entity or as a hybrid system of the main three.[4] Scholars generally refer to a [dictatorship](/source/Dictatorship) as either a form of authoritarianism or totalitarianism.[11][12][3][13]

### Democracy

Further information: [Types of democracy](/source/Types_of_democracy)

[Democracy](/source/Democracy)[nb 1] is a [form of government](/source/Form_of_government) in which [political power](/source/Political_power) is vested in the [people](/source/People) or the [population](/source/Population_(human_biology)) of a state.[15][16][17] Under a minimalist definition of democracy, rulers are elected through competitive [elections](/source/Election) while more expansive or maximalist definitions link democracy to guarantees of [civil liberties](/source/Civil_liberties) and [human rights](/source/Human_rights) in addition to competitive elections.[18][19][17]

### Authoritarianism

[Authoritarianism](/source/Authoritarianism) is a political system characterized by the rejection of [political plurality](/source/Political_plurality), the use of strong central power to preserve the political *[status quo](/source/Status_quo)*, and reductions in [democracy](/source/Democracy), [separation of powers](/source/Separation_of_powers), [civil liberties](/source/Civil_liberties), and the [rule of law](/source/Rule_of_law).[20][21] Authoritarian [regimes](/source/Regime) may be either [autocratic](/source/Autocratic) or [oligarchic](/source/Oligarchic) and may be based upon the rule of a [party](/source/Dominant-party_system), the [military](/source/Military_dictatorship), or the concentration of power in a single person.[22][23] States that have a blurred boundary between democracy and authoritarianism have sometimes been characterized as "hybrid democracies", "[hybrid regimes](/source/Hybrid_regimes)" or "competitive authoritarian" states.[24][25][26]

### Totalitarian

[Totalitarianism](/source/Totalitarianism) is a political system and a [form of government](/source/Government#Forms) that prohibits opposition from [political parties](/source/Political_party) as well as outlaws the political claims of individual and group opposition to the state. This system completely controls the [public sphere](/source/Public_sphere) and the [private sphere](/source/Private_sphere) of society. In the field of [political science](/source/Political_science), totalitarianism is the extreme form of [authoritarianism](/source/Authoritarianism), wherein all [political power](/source/Political_authority) is held by a [dictator](/source/Dictator). This figure controls the national politics and peoples of the nation with continual [propaganda](/source/Propaganda) campaigns that are broadcast by state-controlled and state-aligned private [mass communications media](/source/Mass_media).[27]

### Monarchy

A [monarchy](/source/Monarchy) is a hereditary [form of government](/source/Form_of_government) in which political power is legally passed on to the family members of the [monarch](/source/Monarch), a head of state who rules for life.[28][29] While monarchs gain their power depending on specific succession laws, they can also gain their authority via [election](/source/Elective_monarchy).[30]

Monarchies have historically been a common form of government. Nearly half of all independent states at the start of the 19th century were monarchies.[31] After reaching a peak in the middle of the 19th century, the proportion of monarchies in the world has steadily declined.[31] Republics [replaced many monarchies](/source/Abolition_of_monarchy), notably at the end of [World War I](/source/World_War_I) and World War II.[31][32][33]

### Hybrid

Further information: [Democratization](/source/Democratization) and [Democratic backsliding](/source/Democratic_backsliding)

A [hybrid regime](/source/Hybrid_regime)[a] is a type of political system often created as a result of an incomplete [democratic transition](/source/Democratic_transition) from an [authoritarian](/source/Authoritarian) regime to a [democratic](/source/Democracy) one (or vice versa).[b] Hybrid regimes are categorized as having a combination of [autocratic](/source/Autocratic) features with democratic ones and can simultaneously hold [political repressions](/source/Political_repression) and regular [elections](/source/Election). According to some definitions and measures, hybrid regimes are commonly found in [developing countries](/source/Developing_countries) with abundant natural resources such as [petro-states](/source/Petro-state).[43][41][44] Although these regimes experience [civil unrest](/source/Civil_unrest), they may be relatively stable and tenacious for decades at a time. There has been a rise in hybrid regimes since the end of the [Cold War](/source/Cold_War).[45][46]

The term *hybrid regime* arises from a polymorphic view of political regimes that oppose the dichotomy of [autocracy](/source/Autocracy) or [democracy](/source/Democracy).[47] Modern scholarly analysis of hybrid regimes focuses attention on the decorative nature of [democratic institutions](/source/Democratic_institution) (elections do not lead to a change of power, different media broadcast the government point of view and the opposition in [parliament](/source/Parliament) votes the same way as the ruling party, among others).[48] While most maintain a veneer of democracy to appease international standards, some scholars contend these regimes deliberately imitate a full dictatorship to project strength and suppress internal dissent.[49][50]

## See also

- [Political structure](/source/Political_structure)

- [Polity](/source/Polity)

- [Systems theory in political science](/source/Systems_theory_in_political_science)

- *[Tractatus Politicus](/source/Tractatus_Politicus)*

- [Voting system](/source/Voting_system)

## Notes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-terms_44-0)** Scholars use a variety of terms to encompass the "grey zones" between full [autocracies](/source/Autocracies) and full [democracies](/source/Democracies).[34] Such terms include: competitive authoritarianism, semi-authoritarianism, hybrid authoritarianism, electoral authoritarianism, [liberal autocracy](/source/Liberal_autocracy), [delegative democracy](/source/Delegative_democracy), [illiberal democracy](/source/Illiberal_democracy), [guided democracy](/source/Guided_democracy), [semi-democracy](/source/Semi-democracy), deficient democracy, [defective democracy](/source/Defective_democracy), and hybrid democracy.[35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-transition_45-0)** Debates over what can be called "hybrid" still exist, see [Hybrid regime § Definition](#Definition).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** from [Ancient Greek](/source/Ancient_Greek_language): δημοκρατία, [romanized](/source/Romanization_of_Ancient_Greek): *dēmokratía*, from *dēmos* 'people' and *krátos* 'rule'[14]

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** ["Political system | Types, Components, Functions, & Facts | Britannica"](https://www.britannica.com/topic/political-system).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Dobratz_2015_p._47_2-0)** Dobratz, B.A. (2015). [*Power, Politics, and Society: An Introduction to Political Sociology*](https://books.google.com/books?id=RoK9CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47). Taylor & Francis. p. 47. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-317-34529-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-34529-9). Retrieved Apr 30, 2023.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-LinzLinz2000_3-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-LinzLinz2000_3-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-LinzLinz2000_3-2) [Juan José Linz](/source/Juan_Jos%C3%A9_Linz) (2000). [*Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes*](https://books.google.com/books?id=8cYk_ABfMJIC&pg=PA143). Lynne Rienner Publisher. p. 143. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-55587-890-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55587-890-0). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [1172052725](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1172052725).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Garcia-AlexanderWooCarlson2017_4-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Garcia-AlexanderWooCarlson2017_4-1) Ginny Garcia-Alexander; Hyeyoung Woo; Matthew J. Carlson (3 November 2017). [*Social Foundations of Behavior for the Health Sciences*](https://books.google.com/books?id=y-M8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA137). Springer. pp. 137–. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-319-64950-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-64950-4). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [1013825392](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1013825392).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** ["14.2 Types of Political Systems"](https://web.archive.org/web/20221022061920/https://opentextbooks.uregina.ca/sociology/chapter/14-2-types-of-political-systems/#:~:text=The%20major%20types%20of%20political,and%20instead%20rule%20through%20fear). 8 April 2016. Archived from [the original](https://opentextbooks.uregina.ca/sociology/chapter/14-2-types-of-political-systems/#:~:text=The%20major%20types%20of%20political,and%20instead%20rule%20through%20fear) on 22 October 2022. Retrieved 19 October 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** Easton, David. (1971). *The political system: an inquiry into the state of political science*. Knopf. [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [470276419](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/470276419).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** ["Political System | Encyclopedia.com"](https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/sociology-and-social-reform/sociology-general-terms-and-concepts/political-system). *www.encyclopedia.com*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** Haviland, W.A. (2003). *Anthropology: Tenth Edition*. Wadsworth:Belmont, CA.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** Carneiro, Robert L. (2011). ["The Chiefdom: Precursor of the State"](https://books.google.com/books?id=vOHS-UVTy2oC&pg=PA45). In Jones, Grant D.; Kautz, Robert R. (eds.). *The Transition to Statehood in the New World*. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 37–79. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-17269-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-17269-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Michie2014_10-0)** Jonathan Michie, ed. (3 February 2014). [*Reader's Guide to the Social Sciences*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ip_IAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA95). Routledge. p. 95. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-135-93226-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-93226-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-ToddWaller2015_11-0)** Allan Todd; Sally Waller (10 September 2015). Allan Todd; Sally Waller (eds.). [*History for the IB Diploma Paper 2 Authoritarian States (20th Century)*](https://books.google.com/books?id=y_pfCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA10). Cambridge University Press. pp. 10–. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-107-55889-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-55889-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEzrowFrantz201114–17_12-0)** [Ezrow & Frantz 2011](#CITEREFEzrowFrantz2011), pp. 14–17. sfn error: no target: CITEREFEzrowFrantz2011 ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Sondrol_13-0)** Sondrol, P. C. (2009). ["Totalitarian and Authoritarian Dictators: A Comparison of Fidel Castro and Alfredo Stroessner"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/157386). *Journal of Latin American Studies*. **23** (3): 599–620. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/S0022216X00015868](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022216X00015868). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [157386](https://www.jstor.org/stable/157386). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [144333167](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144333167).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Democracy_Oxford_14-0)** Smith, Bonnie G., ed. (2008). ["Democracy"](https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195148909.001.0001/acref-9780195148909-e-241). *The Oxford Encyclopedia Women in World History*. [Oxford University Press](/source/Oxford_University_Press). Retrieved 24 February 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** Schwartzberg, Melissa (2014). "Democracy". *The Encyclopedia of Political Thought*. pp. 851–862. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/9781118474396.wbept0248](https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118474396.wbept0248). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4051-9129-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9129-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** ["Democracy | Definition, History, Meaning, Types, Examples, & Facts"](https://www.britannica.com/topic/democracy). *Encyclopædia Britannica*. 16 August 2023. Retrieved 17 August 2023.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Democracy_Przeworski2024_18-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Democracy_Przeworski2024_18-1) Przeworski, Adam (2024). ["Who Decides What Is Democratic?"](https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/1/article/930423). *Journal of Democracy*. **35** (3): 5–16. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1353/jod.2024.a930423](https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjod.2024.a930423). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1086-3214](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1086-3214).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** Dahl, Robert A.; Shapiro, Ian; Cheibub, Jose Antonio (2003). [*The Democracy Sourcebook*](https://books.google.com/books?id=B8THIuSkiqgC). MIT Press. p. 31. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-262-54147-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-54147-3).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** Møller, Jørgen; Skaaning, Svend-Erik (Jan 2013). ["Regime Types and Democratic Sequencing"](https://www.journalofdemocracy.org/articles/regime-types-and-democratic-sequencing/). *Journal of Democracy*. **24** (1): 142–155. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1353/jod.2013.0010](https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjod.2013.0010). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1045-5736](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1045-5736). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20240222213426/https://www.journalofdemocracy.org/articles/regime-types-and-democratic-sequencing/) from the original on 22 February 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Authoritarianism_Kalu2019_21-0)** Kalu, Kalu N. (2019). [*A Functional Theory of Government, Law, and Institutions*](https://books.google.com/books?id=BhaeDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA161). Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 161–. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4985-8703-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4985-8703-7). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [1105988740](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1105988740).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Authoritarianism_Cerutti_22-0)** Cerutti, Furio (2017). *Conceptualizing Politics: An Introduction to Political Philosophy*. Routledge. p. 17. Political scientists have outlined elaborated typologies of authoritarianism, from which it is not easy to draw a generally accepted definition; it seems that its main features are the non-acceptance of conflict and plurality as normal elements of politics, the will to preserve the *status quo* and prevent change by keeping all political dynamics under close control by a strong central power, and lastly, the erosion of the rule of law, the division of powers, and democratic voting procedures.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Authoritarianism_EscrowFrantz_23-0)** Ezrow, Natasha M.; Frantz, Erica (2011). *Dictators and Dictatorships: Understanding Authoritarian Regimes and Their Leaders*. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 17. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4411-7396-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-7396-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Authoritarianism_LaiSlater_24-0)** Lai, Brian; Slater, Dan (2006). "Institutions of the Offensive: Domestic Sources of Dispute Initiation in Authoritarian Regimes, 1950–1992". *American Journal of Political Science*. **50** (1): 113–126. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1540-5907.2006.00173.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1540-5907.2006.00173.x). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [3694260](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3694260).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevitskyWay2010[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_June_2026]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(June_2026)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_25-0)** [Levitsky & Way 2010](#CITEREFLevitskyWay2010), p. [*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]. sfn error: no target: CITEREFLevitskyWay2010 ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** Diamond, Larry (April 2002). "Elections Without Democracy: Thinking About Hybrid Regimes". *Journal of Democracy*. **13** (2): 21–35. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1353/jod.2002.0025](https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjod.2002.0025). [Project MUSE](/source/Project_Muse) [17195](https://muse.jhu.edu/article/17195).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** Gunitsky, Seva (2015). "Lost in the gray zone". *Ranking the World*. pp. 112–150. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/CBO9781316161555.006](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781316161555.006). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-316-16155-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-316-16155-5). [SSRN](/source/SSRN_(identifier)) [2506195](https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2506195).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Totalitarianism_reflections2_28-0)** [Conquest, Robert](/source/Robert_Conquest) (1999). *Reflections on a Ravaged Century*. Norton. pp. 73–74. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0393048187](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0393048187).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** Bogdanor, Vernon (1995). [*The Monarchy and the Constitution*](https://books.google.com/books?id=mN6SzMefot4C&dq=monarchy&pg=PA1). Clarendon Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-829334-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-829334-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** Spellman, W. M. (2001). [*Monarchies 1000-2000*](https://books.google.com/books?id=MRbExiEuYPsC&q=hereditary&pg=PA15). Reaktion Books. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-86189-087-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86189-087-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** ["The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/m0010f8z). [*In Our Time*](/source/In_Our_Time_(radio_series)). 14 October 2021. [BBC Radio 4](/source/BBC_Radio_4). Retrieved 29 March 2023.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Monarchy_:4_32-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Monarchy_:4_32-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Monarchy_:4_32-2) Inata, Kana (2025). "2. What Do We Know about Monarchies?". [*Monarchies in the Contemporary World: Born to Rule or Bound to Fade?*](https://academic.oup.com/book/61528/chapter/536674476). Oxford University Press.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** [*Political Systems, Structures, and Functions*](https://books.google.com/books?id=3fScAAAAQBAJ&dq=%22decline%20of%20monarchies%22%20%2219th%20and%2020th%22&pg=PP1). Britannica Educational. June 2012. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-61530-747-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61530-747-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Monarchy_Kimizuka_34-0)** Kimizuka, Naotaka (July 2024). [*Constitutional Monarchy of the Twenty-First Century*](https://books.google.com/books?id=3JUREQAAQBAJ&dq=constitutional+monarchies&pg=PA8). Springer. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-981-97-4327-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-97-4327-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hybrid_regime_Gagné_2015_p._35-0)** Gagné, Jean-François (Mar 10, 2015), "Hybrid Regimes", *Oxford Bibliographies in Political Science*, Oxford University Press (OUP), [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/obo/9780199756223-0167](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fobo%2F9780199756223-0167), [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-785914-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-785914-8)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hybrid_regime_Plattner_1969_36-0)** Plattner, Marc F. (1969-12-31). ["Is Democracy in Decline?"](https://kipdf.com/is-democracy-in-decline_5ac6f5411723ddcc8fb724a7.html). *kipdf.com*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230406072325/https://kipdf.com/is-democracy-in-decline_5ac6f5411723ddcc8fb724a7.html) from the original on 2023-04-06. Retrieved 2022-12-27.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hybrid_regime_European_Consortium_for_Political_Research_2019_37-0)** ["Hybrid Concepts and the Concept of Hybridity"](https://ecpr.eu/Events/Event/SectionDetails/833). *European Consortium for Political Research*. 2019-09-07. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230406033502/https://ecpr.eu/Events/Event/SectionDetails/833) from the original on 2023-04-06. Retrieved 2022-11-18.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hybrid_regime_Urribarri_2011_pp._854–884_38-0)** Urribarri, Raul A. Sanchez (2011). ["Courts between Democracy and Hybrid Authoritarianism: Evidence from the Venezuelan Supreme Court"](http://www.jstor.org/stable/41349660). *Law & Social Inquiry*. **36** (4). Wiley: 854–884. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1747-4469.2011.01253.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1747-4469.2011.01253.x). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0897-6546](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0897-6546). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [41349660](https://www.jstor.org/stable/41349660). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [232400805](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:232400805). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20221116180345/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41349660) from the original on 2022-11-16. Retrieved 2022-11-16.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hybrid_regime_Göbel_2011_pp._258–266_39-0)** Göbel, Christian (2011). "Semiauthoritarianism". *21st Century Political Science: A Reference Handbook*. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks California 91320 United States: SAGE Publications, Inc. pp. 258–266. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4135/9781412979351.n31](https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781412979351.n31). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781412969017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781412969017).{{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: CS1 maint: location ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hybrid_regime_Tlemcani_2007_40-0)** Tlemcani, Rachid (2007-05-29). ["Electoral Authoritarianism"](https://carnegieendowment.org/posts/2007/05/electoral-authoritarianism?lang=en). *Carnegie Endowment for International Peace*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230406060958/https://carnegieendowment.org/2007/05/29/electoral-authoritarianism-pub-19176) from the original on 2023-04-06. Retrieved 2022-11-16.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hybrid_regime_Digital_Society_School_2022_41-0)** ["What is Hybrid Democracy?"](https://digitalsocietyschool.org/insight/what-is-hybrid-democracy/). *Digital Society School*. 2022-05-19. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230405140705/https://digitalsocietyschool.org/insight/what-is-hybrid-democracy/) from the original on 2023-04-05. Retrieved 2022-11-16.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Hybrid_regime_Zinecker_2009_pp._302–331_42-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Hybrid_regime_Zinecker_2009_pp._302–331_42-1) Zinecker, Heidrun (2009). ["Regime-Hybridity in Developing Countries: Achievements and Limitations of New Research on Transitions"](http://www.jstor.org/stable/40389063). *International Studies Review*. **11** (2). [Oxford University Press, Wiley, The International Studies Association]: 302–331. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1468-2486.2009.00850.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-2486.2009.00850.x). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1521-9488](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1521-9488). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [40389063](https://www.jstor.org/stable/40389063). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20221116230253/https://www.jstor.org/stable/40389063) from the original on 2022-11-16. Retrieved 2022-11-18.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hybrid_regime_Dem-Dec_2017_43-0)** ["Index"](https://www.democratic-decay.org/index). *Dem-Dec*. 2017-09-23. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20221121150914/https://www.democratic-decay.org/index) from the original on 2022-11-21. Retrieved 2022-11-21.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hybrid_regime_Croissant_Kailitz_Koellner_Wurster_2015_p._212_46-0)** Croissant, A.; Kailitz, S.; Koellner, P.; Wurster, S. (2015). [*Comparing autocracies in the early Twenty-first Century: Volume 1: Unpacking Autocracies - Explaining Similarity and Difference*](https://books.google.com/books?id=3rNACwAAQBAJ&pg=PA212). Taylor & Francis. p. 212. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-317-70018-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-70018-0). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20221209013939/https://books.google.com/books?id=3rNACwAAQBAJ&pg=PA212) from the original on December 9, 2022. Retrieved Nov 27, 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-47)** Carothers, Christopher (2018). ["The Surprising Instability of Competitive Authoritarianism"](https://muse.jhu.edu/article/705723/summary). *Journal of Democracy*. **29** (4): 129–135. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1353/jod.2018.0068](https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjod.2018.0068). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1086-3214](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1086-3214). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [158234306](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158234306).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hybrid_regime_Levitsky_Way_2002_pp._51–65_48-0)** Levitsky, Steven; Way, Lucan (2002). "The Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism". *Journal of Democracy*. **13** (2). Project Muse: 51–65. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1353/jod.2002.0026](https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjod.2002.0026). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1086-3214](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1086-3214). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [6711009](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6711009).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hybrid_regime_Department_of_Political_Science_49-0)** ["Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes After the Cold War"](https://politics.utoronto.ca/publication/competitive-authoritarianism-hybrid-regimes-after-the-cold-war/). *Department of Political Science*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230406112609/https://politics.utoronto.ca/publication/competitive-authoritarianism-hybrid-regimes-after-the-cold-war/) from the original on 2023-04-06. Retrieved 2022-11-16.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hybrid_regime_gagne_50-0)** ["Hybrid Regimes"](https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199756223/obo-9780199756223-0167.xml). *obo*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190729153059/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199756223/obo-9780199756223-0167.xml) from the original on 2019-07-29. Retrieved 2019-08-13.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hybrid_regime_Mufti_2018_pp._112–121_51-0)** Mufti, Mariam (Jun 22, 2018). ["What Do We Know about Hybrid Regimes after Two Decades of Scholarship?"](https://doi.org/10.17645%2Fpag.v6i2.1400). *Politics and Governance*. **6** (2). Cogitatio: 112–119. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.17645/pag.v6i2.1400](https://doi.org/10.17645%2Fpag.v6i2.1400). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2183-2463](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2183-2463). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [158943827](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158943827).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hybrid_regime_Schedler_2013_pp._54–75_52-0)** Schedler, Andreas (Aug 1, 2013). "Shaping the Authoritarian Arena". *The Politics of Uncertainty*. Oxford University Press. pp. 54–75. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199680320.003.0003](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780199680320.003.0003). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-968032-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-968032-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hybrid_regime_Brooker_2013_p._222_53-0)** Brooker, P. (2013). [*Non-Democratic Regimes*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xo9KEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA222). Comparative Government and Politics. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 222. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-137-38253-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-38253-5). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20221209013941/https://books.google.com/books?id=Xo9KEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA222) from the original on December 9, 2022. Retrieved Nov 27, 2022.

## Further reading

- Douglas V. Verney (15 April 2013). [*The Analysis of Political Systems*](https://books.google.com/books?id=h7SLA2W6PdEC&pg=PP1). Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-135-03477-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-03477-1).

- Almond, Gabriel A., et al. *Comparative Politics Today: A World View* (Seventh Edition). 2000. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-316-03497-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-316-03497-5).

- Ferris, Kerry, and Jill Stein. *The Real World An Introduction to Sociology*. 3rd ed. New York City: W W Norton & Co, 2012. Print.

- "[political system](http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/467746/political-system/36699/Confederations-and-federations)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 02 Dec. 2012.

## External links

- [Topic guide on political systems](http://www.gsdrc.org/go/topic-guides/political-systems) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20130304010630/http://www.gsdrc.org/go/topic-guides/political-systems) 2013-03-04 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) at Governance and Social Development Resource Centre

**Political system** at Wikipedia's [sister projects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects):

- [**Definitions**](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/political_system) from Wiktionary
- [**Media**](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Political_systems) from Commons

Authority control databases International GND National Czech Republic 2 Spain

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