# Plastic
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{{short description|Material of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic solids}}
{{Other uses}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{Use American English|date=March 2021}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=September 2023}}
thumb|upright=1.35|Household items made of various types of plastics
'''Plastics''' are a wide range of [synthetic](/source/synthetic_polymers) or [semisynthetic](/source/Semisynthesis) materials composed primarily of [polymer](/source/polymer)s. Their defining characteristic, [plasticity](/source/Plasticity_(physics)), allows them to be [molded](/source/Injection_moulding), [extruded](/source/Extrusion), or [pressed](/source/Compression_molding) into a diverse range of solid forms. This adaptability, combined with a wide range of other properties such as low weight, durability, flexibility, chemical resistance, low toxicity, and low-cost production, has led to their widespread use around the world.[{{cite book |doi=10.1002/14356007.a20_543.pub2 |chapter=Plastics, General Survey, 1. Definition, Molecular Structure and Properties |title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry |date=2015 |last1=Elias |first1=Hans-Georg |last2=Mülhaupt |first2=Rolf |pages=1–70 |isbn=978-3-527-30673-2 }}] While most plastics are produced from [natural gas](/source/natural_gas) and [petroleum](/source/petroleum), a growing minority are produced from renewable resources like [polylactic acid](/source/polylactic_acid).[{{cite web |title=Life Cycle of a Plastic Product |url=http://www.americanchemistry.com/s_plastics/doc.asp?CID=1571&DID=5972 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100317004747/http://www.americanchemistry.com/s_plastics/doc.asp?CID=1571&DID=5972 |archive-date=March 17, 2010 |access-date=July 1, 2011 |website=Americanchemistry.com |language=en}}]
Between 1950 and 2017, 9.2 billion metric tons of plastic are estimated to have been made, with more than half of this amount being produced since 2004. In 2023 alone, preliminary figures indicate that over 400 million metric tons of plastic were produced worldwide.[{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2023-04-13 |title=Global plastic production with projections, 1950 to 2060 |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/global-plastic-production-projections?form=MG0AV3 |access-date=2025-01-06 |website=Our World In Data |language=en}}] If global trends in plastic demand continue, it is projected that annual global plastic production will exceed 1.3 billion tons by 2060.[
The success and dominance of plastics since the early 20th century have had major benefits for mankind, ranging from medical devices to lightweight construction materials. The sewage systems in many countries rely on the resiliency and adaptability of [polyvinyl chloride](/source/polyvinyl_chloride). It is also true that plastics are the basis of widespread environmental concerns,][{{cite web |date=October 2020 |title=The environmental impacts of plastics and micro-plastics use, waste and pollution: EU and national measures |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2020/658279/IPOL_STU(2020)658279_EN.pdf |website=europarl.europa.eu}}] due to their slow decomposition rate in natural ecosystems. Most plastic produced has not been reused, thus the need for [microplastic remediation](/source/microplastic_remediation). Some are unsuitable for reuse. Much ends up in [landfill](/source/landfill)s or as [plastic pollution](/source/plastic_pollution). Particular concern focuses on [microplastics](/source/microplastics). [Marine plastic pollution](/source/Marine_plastic_pollution), for example, creates [garbage patch](/source/garbage_patch)es. Of all the plastic discarded so far, some 14% has been incinerated and less than 10% has been recycled.[{{cite web |last=Environment |first=U. N. |date=October 21, 2021 |title=Drowning in Plastics – Marine Litter and Plastic Waste Vital Graphics |url=http://www.unep.org/resources/report/drowning-plastics-marine-litter-and-plastic-waste-vital-graphics |access-date=March 21, 2022 |website=UNEP - UN Environment Programme |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260130035935/https://www.unep.org/resources/report/drowning-plastics-marine-litter-and-plastic-waste-vital-graphics |archive-date=2026-01-30 |url-status=live}}]
In developed economies, about a third of plastic is used in packaging and roughly the same in buildings in applications such as [piping](/source/piping), [plumbing](/source/plumbing) or [vinyl siding](/source/vinyl_siding).[{{cite web|last1=American Chemical Society National Historic Chemical Landmarks|title=Bakelite: The World's First Synthetic Plastic|url=http://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/bakelite.html|access-date=February 23, 2015}}] who coined the term ''plastics''.[{{Cite book | vauthors = Edgar D, Edgar R |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_9WGar3yxsAC&q=Baekeland+coined&pg=PA11 |title=Fantastic Recycled Plastic: 30 Clever Creations to Spark Your Imagination|publisher=Sterling Publishing Company, Inc. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-60059-342-0 |via=Google Books}}] Dozens of different types of plastics are produced today, such as [polyethylene](/source/polyethylene), which is widely used in [product packaging](/source/product_packaging), and [polyvinyl chloride](/source/polyvinyl_chloride) (PVC), used in construction and pipes because of its strength and durability. Many chemists have contributed to the [materials science](/source/materials_science) of plastics, including [Nobel laureate](/source/Nobel_laureate) [Hermann Staudinger](/source/Hermann_Staudinger), who has been called "the father of [polymer chemistry](/source/polymer_chemistry)", and [Herman Mark](/source/Herman_Francis_Mark), known as "the father of [polymer physics](/source/polymer_physics)".[{{Cite book | vauthors = Teegarden DM |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0qFQ5OuKoy8C&q=%22father+of+polymer%22&pg=PA58 |title=Polymer Chemistry: Introduction to an Indispensable Science |publisher=NSTA Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-87355-221-9 |via=Google Books}}]
==Etymology==
The word ''plastic'' derives from the [Ancient Greek](/source/Ancient_Greek) {{lang|grc|πλαστικός}} ({{lang|grc-Latn|plastikos}}), meaning "capable of being shaped or molded," which itself comes from {{lang|grc|πλαστός}} ({{lang|grc-Latn|plastos}}), meaning "molded" or "formed."[{{cite web |title=Plastikos |script-title=grc:πλαστι^κ-ός |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2383506 |access-date=July 1, 2011 |website=Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon}}] In modern usage, the word ''plastic'' most commonly refers to the solid synthetic products of [petrochemical](/source/petrochemical)-derived manufacturing.[{{cite web |title=Plastic |url=https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=plastic |access-date=July 29, 2021 |website=Online Etymology Dictionary |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260227122746/https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=plastic |archive-date=2026-02-27 |url-status=live}}]
The word ''plasticity'', as a noun, specifically refers to the deformability of the materials used in the manufacture of plastics. Plasticity allows molding, [extrusion](/source/plastic_extrusion), or [compression](/source/compression_molding) into a variety of shapes, including films, fibers, plates, tubes, bottles, and boxes, among many others. In [materials science](/source/materials_science), plasticity also has a more technical definition, describing the nonreversible change in form of solid substances when subjected to external forces. However, this definition extends beyond the scope of this article.{{cn|date=July 2025}}
== Structure ==
{{See also|Polymer}}Most plastics contain [organic](/source/Organic_compound) polymers.[{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BnccCgAAQBAJ&q=most+plastics+contain+organic+compounds&pg=PA52|title=General Chemistry| vauthors = Ebbing D, Gammon SD |date=2016|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1-305-88729-9|language=en}}] The vast majority of these polymers are formed from chains of carbon atoms, with or without the attachment of oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur atoms. These chains comprise many [repeating units](/source/repeat_unit) formed from [monomer](/source/monomer)s. Each polymer chain consists of several thousand repeating units. The [backbone](/source/backbone_chain) is the part of the chain that is on the ''main path'', linking together a large number of repeat units. To customize the properties of a plastic, different molecular groups called [side chains](/source/side_chains) hang from this backbone; they are usually attached to the monomers before the monomers themselves are linked together to form the polymer chain. The structure of these side chains influences the properties of the polymer.{{cn|date=July 2025}}
==Classifications==
Plastics are usually classified by their chemical structure of the polymer's backbone and side chains. Important groups classified in this way include the [acrylics](/source/acrylyl_group), [polyester](/source/polyester)s, [silicones](/source/silicones), [polyurethanes](/source/polyurethanes), and [halogenated plastics](/source/halocarbon). Plastics can be classified by the chemical process used in their synthesis, such as [condensation](/source/condensation_reaction), [polyaddition](/source/polyaddition), and [cross-link](/source/cross-link)ing.[{{cite web |title=Classification of Plastics |url=http://dwb.unl.edu/Teacher/NSF/C06/C06Links/qlink.queensu.ca/~6jrt/chem210/Page3.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071215124919/http://dwb.unl.edu/Teacher/NSF/C06/C06Links/qlink.queensu.ca/~6jrt/chem210/Page3.html |archive-date=December 15, 2007 |access-date=July 1, 2011 |website=Joanne and Steffanie's Plastics Web Site |language=en}}] They can also be classified by their [physical properties](/source/physical_properties), including [hardness](/source/hardness), [density](/source/density), [tensile strength](/source/tensile_strength), [thermal resistance](/source/thermal_resistance), and [glass transition temperature](/source/glass_transition_temperature). Plastics can additionally be classified by their resistance and reactions to various substances and processes, such as exposure to organic solvents, [oxidation](/source/oxidation), and [ionizing radiation](/source/ionizing_radiation).[{{cite web | vauthors = Kent R |title=Periodic Table of Polymers |url=http://www.pcn.org/Technical%20Notes%20-%20Periodic%20Table%20of%20Polymers.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080703034726/http://www.pcn.org/Technical%20Notes%20-%20Periodic%20Table%20of%20Polymers.htm |archive-date=July 3, 2008 |website=Plastics Consultancy Network |language=en}}] Other classifications of plastics are based on qualities relevant to manufacturing or product design for a particular purpose. Examples include [thermoplastics](/source/thermoplastics), [thermosets](/source/thermosetting_polymer), [conductive polymers](/source/conductive_polymers), [biodegradable plastics](/source/biodegradable_plastics), [engineering plastic](/source/engineering_plastic)s and [elastomer](/source/elastomer)s.
===Thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers===
thumb|upright=0.75|A plastic handle from a kitchen utensil, deformed by heat and partially melted
One important classification of plastics is the degree to which the chemical processes used to make them are reversible or not.
Thermoplastics do not undergo chemical change in their composition when heated and thus can be molded repeatedly. Examples include polyethylene (PE), [polypropylene](/source/polypropylene) (PP), [polystyrene](/source/polystyrene) (PS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).[{{cite web |title=Composition and Types of Plastic |url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0860420.html |website=Infoplease |language=en |access-date=September 29, 2009 |archive-date=October 15, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015093623/http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0860420.html }}]
Thermosetting polymers, also known as thermosets, can melt and take shape only once: after they have solidified, they stay solid and retain their shape permanently.[{{Cite book | vauthors = Gilleo K |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k_2qLoLA_tgC&q=%C2%A0Thermosets,+or+thermosetting+polymers,+can+melt+and+take+shape+only+once |title=Area Array Packaging Processes: For BGA, Flip Chip, and CSP |date=2004 |publisher=McGraw Hill Professional |isbn=978-0-07-142829-3 |language=en |via=Google Books}}] If reheated, thermosets decompose rather than melt. Examples of thermosets include epoxy resin, polyimide, and Bakelite. The [vulcanization](/source/vulcanization) of [rubber](/source/Natural_rubber) is an example of this process. Before heating in the presence of sulfur, natural rubber ([polyisoprene](/source/polyisoprene)) is a sticky, slightly runny material, and after vulcanization, the product is dry and rigid.
:{| class="wikitable skin-invert-image" style="text-align:left; font-size:90%; width:70%;"
|- class="hintergrundfarbe2" style="vertical-align:top"
| center|upright=0.5 [Thermosets](/source/Thermosets) consist of closely cross-linked polymers. Cross-links are shown as red dots in the figure.
| center|upright=0.5 [Elastomers](/source/Elastomers) consist of wide-meshed cross-linked polymers. The wide mesh allows the material to stretch under tensile load.
| center|upright=0.5 [Thermoplastics](/source/Thermoplastics) consist of non-crosslinked polymers, often with a semi-crystalline structure (shown in red). They have a glass transition temperature and are fusible.
|}
=== Commodity, engineering, and high-performance plastics ===
==== Commodity plastics ====
class=skin-invert-image|right|250px|thumb|Chemical structures and uses of some common plastics
Commodity plastics or commodity polymers are plastics produced in high volumes for applications such as packaging, food containers, and household products, including both [disposable product](/source/disposable_product)s and [durable good](/source/durable_good)s. In contrast to [engineering plastic](/source/engineering_plastic)s, commodity plastics tend to be inexpensive to produce and exhibit relatively weak mechanical properties. Widely used commodity plastics include [polyethylene](/source/polyethylene) (PE), [polypropylene](/source/polypropylene) (PP), [polystyrene](/source/polystyrene) (PS), [polyvinyl chloride](/source/polyvinyl_chloride) (PVC), [poly(methyl methacrylate)](/source/poly(methyl_methacrylate)) (PMMA), and [polyethylene terephthalate](/source/polyethylene_terephthalate) (PET). Products made from commodity plastics include [disposable](/source/disposable) plates, [disposable cup](/source/disposable_cup)s, photographic and magnetic tape, clothing, reusable bags, medical trays, and seeding trays.[{{cite book|last1=Kaiser|first1=Wolfgang|title=Kunststoffchemie für Ingenieure: Von der Synthese bis zur Anwendung|year=2011|publisher=Carl Hanser|isbn=978-3-446-43047-1|page=439}}]
Approximately 80% of global plastic production includes commodity plastics, a type of plastics primarily chosen for their low cost and ease of manufacturing. These plastics are mass-produced and ubiquitous in packaging, food containers, and single-use items. Most commodity plastics are identifiable by their [Resin Identification Codes](/source/Resin_identification_code) (RICs), a standardized numbering system developed by [ASTM International](/source/ASTM_International).
:class=skin-invert-image|35px [Polyethylene terephthalate](/source/Polyethylene_terephthalate) (PET or PETE)
:class=skin-invert-image|35px [High-density polyethylene](/source/High-density_polyethylene) (HDPE or PE-HD)
:class=skin-invert-image|35px [Polyvinyl chloride](/source/Polyvinyl_chloride) (PVC or V)
:class=skin-invert-image|35px [Low-density polyethylene](/source/Low-density_polyethylene) (LDPE or PE-LD),
:class=skin-invert-image|35px [Polypropylene](/source/Polypropylene) (PP)
:class=skin-invert-image|35px [Polystyrene](/source/Polystyrene) (PS)
Beyond the six most widely recognized listed above, there are more commodity plastics that are also mass-produced and commonly used, such as [polyurethane](/source/polyurethane)s (PURs). PURs are a class of plastics also designated as commodity plastics due to their low cost, ease of manufacturing, and versatility. However, they lack RICs because they encompass many chemically diverse formulations such as foams and adhesives.
Packaging represents the largest application of commodity plastics, consuming 146 million metric tons (36% of global production) in 2015 alone. Beyond packaging, however, these plastics are critical in various other fields such as agriculture, construction, consumer goods, and healthcare.
Although many traits such as durability and resistance to [biodegradability](/source/Biodegradation) are desirable in various applications, they have led to significant environmental issues. An estimated 8 to 12 million tons of plastic enter oceans annually, primarily from mismanaged packaging waste. Commodity plastics account for the majority of this pollution, as their recycling rates remain low (e.g., only ~9% of all plastics are recycled globally). Microplastics derived from their degradation further threaten ecosystems and human health.
The roughly 20% of remaining plastics are engineering and high-performance plastics, valued for their strength, heat resistance, chemical resistance, and other exceptional qualities. These kinds of plastics are more expensive, less common, and often used in more specialized applications.
{{Clear}}
{{div flex row|align-items=center}}
{{ChartDirect
| width=600px
| type=pie
| caption=By Polymer.
| x=LDPE,HDPE,PP,PS,PVC,PET,PUR,PP&A Fibers,All Others,Additives
| y=0.157,0.128,0.167,0.061,0.093,0.081,0.066,0.145,0.039,0.061
}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Global plastic production by polymer type (2015)[The majority of polyurethanes are thermosets, however some thermoplastics are also produced, for instance [spandex](/source/spandex)]
|-
|PP&A Fibers[PP&A stand for [polyester](/source/polyester), [polyamide](/source/polyamide) and [acrylate polymers](/source/acrylate_polymers); all of which are used to make [synthetic fibers](/source/synthetic_fibers). Care should be taken not to confuse it with [polyphthalamide](/source/polyphthalamide) (PPA)] || {{right|59}} || {{right|14.5}} || Condensation || Thermoplastic
|-
| All Others || {{right|16}} || {{right|3.9}} || Various || Varies
|-
| Additives || {{right|25}} || {{right|6.1}} || - || -
|-
| '''Total''' || '''{{right|407}}''' || '''{{right|100}}''' || - || -
|}
{{div flex row end}}
==== Engineering plastics ====
[Engineering plastic](/source/Engineering_plastic)s are more robust and are used to manufacture products such as vehicle parts, building and construction materials, and some machine parts. In some cases, they are [polymer blend](/source/polymer_blend)s consisting mixtures of polymers.[ Engineering plastics can replace metals in vehicles, lowering their weight and improving fuel efficiency by 6–8%. Roughly 50% of the volume of modern cars is made of plastic, but this only accounts for 12–17% of the vehicle weight.][{{cite web |title=Plastic Recycling Factsheet |url=https://circulareconomy.europa.eu/platform/sites/default/files/euric_-_plastic_recycling_fact_sheet.pdf |publisher=EuRIC - European Recycling Industries' Confederation |access-date=November 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260216044526/https://circulareconomy.europa.eu/platform/sites/default/files/euric_-_plastic_recycling_fact_sheet.pdf |archive-date=2026-02-16 |url-status=live}}]
*[Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene](/source/Acrylonitrile_butadiene_styrene) (ABS): electronic equipment cases (e.g., computer monitors, printers, keyboards) and drainage pipes
*[High-impact polystyrene](/source/High_impact_polystyrene) (HIPS): refrigerator liners, [food packaging](/source/food_packaging), and vending cups
*[Polycarbonate](/source/Polycarbonate) (PC): compact discs, eyeglasses, [riot shield](/source/riot_shield)s, security windows, traffic lights, and lenses
*Polycarbonate + acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (PC + ABS): a blend of PC and ABS that creates a stronger plastic used in car interior and exterior parts and in mobile phone bodies
*Polyethylene + acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (PE + ABS): a slippery blend of PE and ABS used in low-duty dry bearings
*[Polymethyl methacrylate](/source/Acrylic_glass) (PMMA) ([acrylic](/source/acrylic_polymer)): contact lenses (of the original "hard" variety), glazing (best known in this form by its various trade names around the world; e.g. [Perspex](/source/Perspex), Plexiglas, and Oroglas), fluorescent-light diffusers, and rear light covers for vehicles. It also forms the basis of artistic and commercial [acrylic paints](/source/acrylic_paints), when suspended in water with the use of other agents.
*[Silicone](/source/Silicone)s (polysiloxanes): heat-resistant resins used mainly as sealants but also used for high-temperature cooking utensils and as a base resin for industrial paints
*[Urea-formaldehyde](/source/Urea-formaldehyde) (UF): one of the aminoplasts used as a multi-colorable alternative to phenolics: used as a wood adhesive (for plywood, chipboard, hardboard) and electrical switch housings
==== High-performance plastics ====
[High-performance plastics](/source/High-performance_plastics) are a category of polymers exhibiting superior properties compared to commodity and engineering plastics. These plastics can withstand high temperatures, often above 302°F (150°C), are highly resistant to chemical corrosion and degradation, have excellent mechanical and electric properties, and are lightweight and versatile.[
*[Aramid](/source/Aramid)s: best known for their use in the manufacture of [body armor](/source/body_armor), this class of heat-resistant and strong synthetic fibers also has applications in aerospace and military and includes [Kevlar](/source/Kevlar), [Nomex](/source/Nomex), and [Twaron](/source/Twaron).
*[Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene](/source/Ultra-high-molecular-weight_polyethylene)s (UHMWPE)
*[Polyetheretherketone](/source/Polyetheretherketone) (PEEK): strong, chemical- and heat-resistant thermoplastic; its [biocompatibility](/source/biocompatibility) allows for use in medical implant applications and aerospace moldings. It is one of the most expensive commercial polymers.
*[Polyetherimide](/source/Polyetherimide) (PEI): a high-temperature, chemically stable polymer that does not crystallize
*[Polyimide](/source/Polyimide): a high-temperature plastic used in materials such as [Kapton](/source/Kapton) tape
*[Polysulfone](/source/Polysulfone) (PS): high-temperature melt-processable resin used in membranes, filtration media, water heater dip tubes and other high-temperature applications
*[Polytetrafluoroethylene](/source/Polytetrafluoroethylene) (PTFE): heat-resistant, low-friction coatings used in non-stick surfaces for frying pans, plumber's tape, and water slides
*[Polyamide-imide](/source/Polyamide-imide) (PAI): high-performance engineering plastic extensively used in high-performance gears, switches, transmissions, and other automotive components and aerospace parts][{{cite web |url=https://www.euroshore.com.my/about/industries/aerospace-plastics/ |title=Polymers in aerospace applications |publisher=Euroshore |access-date=June 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260120112805/https://www.euroshore.com.my/about/industries/aerospace-plastics/ |archive-date=2026-01-20 |url-status=live}}]
*[Polyphenylene sulfide](/source/Polyphenylene_sulfide) (PPS): extreme chemical resistance, flame retardancy, and thermal stability (up to 428°F).
*[Polyethersulfone](/source/Polysulfone) (PES): best known for their clarity, high-temperature resistance (up to 392°F), and biocompatibility. Commonly used in medical devices, food-grade equipment, and aerospace lighting.
*[Polyvinylidene fluoride](/source/Polyvinylidene_fluoride) (PVDF): a nonreactive thermoplastic fluoropolymer known for extreme [chemical resistance](/source/chemical_resistance), ultraviolet stability, and [piezoelectric](/source/Piezoelectricity) properties. Commonly used in semiconductor tubing, lithium-ion battery binders, and architectural coatings.
*[Liquid-crystal polymer](/source/Liquid-crystal_polymer)s (LCPs): a class of polymers combining the properties of both liquids and crystals, known for extreme dimensional stability, low thermal expansion, and high dielectric strength. Commonly used in miniature electronics, [fiber-optic cable](/source/fiber-optic_cable)s, and surgical devices.
*[Polyimide](/source/Polyimide)s (PIs): a class of high-performance thermosets, able to operate up to 572°F and best known for their excellent dielectric properties and radiation resistance. Commonly used in flexible printed circuits, space suit layers, and jet engine components.
*[Polybenzimidazole](/source/Polybenzimidazole) (PBI): extremely high heat resistance (up to 752°F short-term), low outgassing, and flame resistance. Commonly used in [firefighting gear](/source/Bunker_gear), semiconductor tools, and aerospace [thermal shields](/source/Heat_shield).
*[Bismaleimide](/source/Bismaleimide) (BMI): known for its high glass transition temperature (around 482°F) and low moisture absorption. Commonly used in composite aircraft matrices and military radar systems.
*[Cyanate ester](/source/Cyanate_ester)s: known for their low dielectric loss and space-grade radiation resistance. Commonly used in satellite components and radar antennas.
===Amorphous and crystalline plastics===
Many plastics are [amorphous](/source/amorphous), meaning they lack a highly ordered molecular structure.[{{Cite book | vauthors = Kutz M |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gWg-rchM700C&q=many+plastics+completely+amorphous&pg=PA336 |title=Handbook of Materials Selection |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-471-35924-1 |language=en |via=Google Books}}] [Crystalline](/source/Crystalline) plastics exhibit a pattern of more regularly spaced atoms, such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE), [polybutylene terephthalate](/source/polybutylene_terephthalate) (PBT), and polyether ether ketone (PEEK). However, some plastics are partially amorphous and partially crystalline in molecular structure, giving them both a melting point and one or more glass transitions (the temperature above which the extent of localized molecular flexibility is substantially increased). These so-called [semi-crystalline](/source/Crystallization_of_polymers) plastics include polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyamides (nylons), polyesters and some polyurethanes.
===Conductive polymers===
{{Main|Conductive polymer}}
[Conductive polymers](/source/Conductive_polymers) include certain kinds of [polyacetylene](/source/polyacetylene), which attracted much academic interest.[{{Cite journal | vauthors = Heeger AJ, Kivelson S, Schrieffer JR, Su WP |date=1988 |title=Solitons in Conducting Polymers |journal=Reviews of Modern Physics |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=781–850 |bibcode=1988RvMP...60..781H |doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.60.781}}] Conductivities as high as 80 [kilosiemens](/source/kilosiemens) per centimeter (kS/cm) have been achieved in such materials, although that value is not comparable to that of copper (60 MS/cm).[{{cite book |last1=Lossin |first1=Adalbert |title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry |chapter=Copper |date=2001 |doi=10.1002/14356007.a07_471 |isbn=978-3-527-30385-4 }}] A practical conductive plastic is [poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrene sulfonate](/source/PEDOT%3APSS).[
===Biodegradable plastics and bioplastics===
====Biodegradable plastics====
{{Main|Biodegradable plastic}}
[Biodegradable](/source/Biodegradable) plastics are plastics that are designed to degrade (break down) after use. The most popular such materials are [polylactic acid](/source/polylactic_acid)s (PLAs), which have the added attraction that they are derived from non-petrochemical, renewable materials. PLAs have achieved only limited commercial success.][ upon exposure to biological factors, such as sunlight, [ultraviolet radiation](/source/ultra-violet_radiation), moisture, bacteria, insects, enzymes, or wind abrasion.
====Bioplastics====
{{Main|Bioplastic}}
While most plastics are produced from petrochemicals, [bioplastics](/source/bioplastics) are made substantially from renewable plant materials like cellulose and starch.][{{cite web|url=http://www.nnfcc.co.uk/tools/biochemicals-opportunities-in-the-uk-nnfcc-08-008 |title=Biochemical Opportunities in the UK, NNFCC 08-008 — NNFCC |access-date=March 24, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720183608/http://www.nnfcc.co.uk/tools/biochemical-opportunities-in-the-uk-nnfcc-08-008 |archive-date=July 20, 2011 }}] Due both to the finite limits of fossil fuel reserves and to [rising levels of greenhouse gases](/source/Climate_change) caused primarily by the burning of those fuels, the development of bioplastics is a growing field.[{{cite web|url=https://packagingeurope.com/bioplastics-growth-report/#:~:text=Packaging%20remains%20the%20largest%20field,total%20bioplastics%20market%20in%202019.&text=According%20to%20the%20report%2C%20global,2.4%20million%20tonnes%20in%202024.|title=Bioplastics industry shows dynamic growth|work=Packaging Europe |date=December 5, 2019}}][{{cite web|url=https://www.bioplasticsmagazine.com/en/news/meldungen/20181130-becoming-employed.php|title=Becoming Employed in a Growing Bioplastics Industry - bioplastics MAGAZINE|website=www.bioplasticsmagazine.com |date=October 30, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260226061729/https://www.bioplasticsmagazine.com/en/news/meldungen/20181130-becoming-employed.php |archive-date=2026-02-26 |url-status=live}}] Global production capacity for bio-based plastics is estimated at 327,000 tonnes per year. In contrast, global production of polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP), the world's leading petrochemical-derived polyolefins, was estimated at over 150 million tonnes in 2015.[{{cite news| vauthors = Galie F |title=Global Market Trends and Investments in Polyethylene and Polyproplyene|url=https://www.icis.com/globalassets/documents/forms/ppf-pdf/global_trends_whitepaper_pp_pe.pdf|access-date=December 16, 2017|work=ICIS Whitepaper|publisher=Reed business Information, Inc.|date=November 2016}}]
==Plastic industry==
The plastic industry includes the global production, [compounding](/source/Plastic_compounding), [conversion](/source/Converters_(industry)) and sale of plastic products. Although the [Middle East](/source/Middle_East) and [Russia](/source/Russia) produce most of the required [petrochemical](/source/petrochemical) raw materials, the production of plastic is concentrated in the global East and West. The plastic industry comprises a huge number of companies and can be divided into several sectors:
===Production===
Between 1950 and 2017, 9.2 billion tonnes of plastic are estimated to have been made, with more than half of this having been produced since 2004. Since the birth of the plastic industry in the 1950s, global production has increased enormously, reaching 400 million tonnes a year in 2021; this is up from 381 million metric tonnes in 2015 (excluding additives).[{{cite journal |last1=Geyer |first1=Roland |last2=Jambeck |first2=Jenna R. |author-link2=Jenna Jambeck |last3=Law |first3=Kara Lavender |title=Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made |journal=Science Advances |date=July 2017 |volume=3 |issue=7 |article-number=e1700782 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.1700782 |pmid=28776036 |pmc=5517107 |bibcode=2017SciA....3E0782G |doi-access=free}}] From the 1950s, rapid growth occurred in the use of plastics for packaging, in building and construction, and in other sectors.[ Vertical lines denote the [1973–1975 recession](/source/1973%E2%80%931975_recession) and the [2008 financial crisis](/source/2008_financial_crisis) which caused brief lowering of plastic production.
| content = {{ChartDirect
| width=500px
| y1Title=Million metric tonnes
| type=line
| x=1950,1951,1952,1953,1954,1955,1956,1957,1958,1959,1960,1961,1962,1963,1964,1965,1966,1967,1968,1969,1970,1971,1972,1973,1974,1975,1976,1977,1978,1979,1980,1981,1982,1983,1984,1985,1986,1987,1988,1989,1990,1991,1992,1993,1994,1995,1996,1997,1998,1999,2000,2001,2002,2003,2004,2005,2006,2007,2008,2009,2010,2011,2012,2013,2014,2015,2016,2017,2018,2019
| y1=2,2,2,3,3,4,5,5,6,7,8,9,11,13,15,17,20,23,27,32,35,38,44,51,52,46,54,59,64,71,70,72,73,80,86,90,96,104,110,114,120,124,132,137,151,156,168,180,188,202,213,218,231,241,256,263,280,295,281,288,313,325,338,352,367,381,400,420,441,459.746
|
}}
}}
{{Clear}}
Plastics are produced in chemical plants by the [polymerization](/source/polymerization) of their starting materials ([monomers](/source/monomers)); which are almost always [petrochemical](/source/petrochemical) in nature. Such facilities are normally large and are visually similar to [oil refineries](/source/Oil_refinery), with sprawling pipework running throughout. The large size of these plants allows them to exploit [economies of scale](/source/economies_of_scale). Despite this, plastic production is not particularly monopolized, with about 100 companies accounting for 90% of global production.][{{cite web |title=Top 100 Producers: The Minderoo Foundation |url=https://www.minderoo.org/plastic-waste-makers-index/data/indices/producers/ |website=minderoo.org |access-date=October 14, 2021}}] This includes a mixture of private and state-owned enterprises. Roughly half of all production takes place in East Asia, with China being the largest single producer. Major international producers include:
{| class="wikitable sortable floatright"
|+ Global plastic production (2020)[{{cite web |title=Plastics – the Facts 2020 |url=https://www.plasticseurope.org/application/files/5716/0752/4286/AF_Plastics_the_facts-WEB-2020-ING_FINAL.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007065614/https://www.plasticseurope.org/application/files/5716/0752/4286/AF_Plastics_the_facts-WEB-2020-ING_FINAL.pdf |archive-date=October 7, 2021}}]
|-
! Region !! Global production
|-
| China || 31%
|-
| Japan || 3%
|-
| Rest of Asia || 17%
|-
| [NAFTA](/source/NAFTA) || 19%
|-
| Latin America || 4%
|-
| Europe || 16%
|-
| [CIS](/source/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States) || 3%
|-
| Middle East & Africa || 7%
|}
*[BASF](/source/BASF)
*[Braskem](/source/Braskem)
*[Dow Chemical](/source/Dow_Chemical)
*[ExxonMobil](/source/ExxonMobil)
*[Indorama Ventures](/source/Indorama_Ventures)
*[LyondellBasell](/source/LyondellBasell)
*[SABIC](/source/SABIC)
*[Shin-Etsu Chemical](/source/Shin-Etsu_Chemical)
*[Sibur](/source/Sibur)
*[Sinopec](/source/Sinopec)
Historically, [Europe](/source/Europe) and [North America](/source/North_America) have dominated global plastics production. However, since 2010 Asia has emerged as a significant producer, with [China](/source/China) accounting for 31% of total plastic resin production in 2020.[ Regional differences in the volume of plastics production are driven by user demand, the price of fossil fuel feedstocks, and investments made in the petrochemical industry. For example, since 2010 over US$200 billion has been invested in the United States in new plastic and chemical plants, stimulated by the low cost of raw materials. In the [European Union](/source/European_Union) (EU), too, heavy investments have been made in the plastics industry, which employs over 1.6-million people with a turnover of more than 360 billion euros per year. In China in 2016 there were over 15,000 plastic manufacturing companies, generating more than US$366 billion in revenue.][{{Cite web |date=October 28, 2021 |title=Sustainable packaging materials for snacks |url=https://www.bakeryandsnacks.com/Article/2013/06/06/Sustainable-packaging-materials-for-snacks |access-date=September 10, 2022 |website= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028142046/https://www.bakeryandsnacks.com/Article/2013/06/06/Sustainable-packaging-materials-for-snacks |archive-date=October 28, 2021 }}]
Kinder Joy 01.jpg|[Kinder Joy](/source/Kinder_Joy) shell made of polypropylene
Red Polypropylene Chair with Stainless Steel Structure.JPG|A polypropylene chair
Hanoi Vietnam The-omnipresent-plastic-chairs-01.jpg|Stools made of HDPE
Polistirolo.JPG|Expanded [polystyrene](/source/polystyrene) foam ("Thermocol")
Styrofoam-grey-board.jpg|Extruded polystyrene foam ("Styrofoam")
Have a Nice Day! styrofoam food container.JPG|Thermocol take-away food container
Plastic egg carton.jpg|Egg tray made of [PETE](/source/Polyethylene_terephthalate)
LDPE Foam.jpg|A piece of [packaging foam](/source/Package_cushioning) made of LDPE
Urethane sponge1.jpg|A kitchen sponge made of [polyurethane foam](/source/polyurethane_foam)
Frying pan.jpeg|[Non-stick](/source/Non-stick_surface) cookware with [Teflon](/source/Teflon) coating
IPhone 5c blue back.jpg|[iPhone 5c](/source/IPhone_5C), a smartphone with a [polycarbonate](/source/polycarbonate) "unibody" shell
KelpAquarium.jpg|To withstand the extreme [water pressure](/source/Hydrostatic_pressure), this {{nowrap|10-meter}} deep [Monterey Bay Aquarium](/source/Monterey_Bay_Aquarium) tank has windows made of [acrylic glass](/source/acrylic_glass) up to 33 cm thick.
Plastic tubing.jpg|alt=|[PVC](/source/PVC) pipes
Pills in blister pack.jpg|PVC blister pack
==Applications==
The largest application for plastics is as packaging materials, but they are used in a wide range of other sectors, including: construction (pipes, gutters, door and windows), textiles ([stretchable fabrics](/source/stretch_fabric), [fleece](/source/Polar_fleece)), consumer goods (toys, tableware, toothbrushes), transportation (headlights, bumpers, [body panel](/source/body_panel)s, [wing mirror](/source/wing_mirror)s), electronics (phones, computers, televisions) and as machine parts.[{{Cite journal |last=Paschotta |first=Dr Rüdiger |title=plastic optics |url=https://www.rp-photonics.com/plastic_optics.html |access-date=2024-10-07 |website=www.rp-photonics.com |date=March 15, 2019 |doi=10.61835/i75 |language=en|url-access=subscription }}]
{| class="wikitable"
|{{ChartDirect
| width=600px
| type=bar
| x=Packaging,Construction,Other sectors,Textiles,Consumer products,Transportation,Electronics,Industrial Machinery
| xTitle=Industrial sector
| caption=Primary plastic production by industrial sector 2015 (Million metric tonnes).
| y=146,65,59,47,42,27,18,3
}}
|{{ChartDirect
| width=900px
| type=pie
| x=Packaging,Construction,Other sectors,Textiles,Consumer products,Transportation,Electronics,Industrial Machinery
| y=0.358722359,0.15970516,0.144963145,0.115479115,0.103194103,0.066339066,0.044226044,0.007371007
| caption =Share by industrial sector.
}}
|}
==Additives==
Additives are chemicals blended into plastics to improved their performance or appearance.[{{cite journal | vauthors = Hahladakis JN, Velis CA, Weber R, Iacovidou E, Purnell P | title = An overview of chemical additives present in plastics: Migration, release, fate and environmental impact during their use, disposal and recycling | journal = Journal of Hazardous Materials | volume = 344 | pages = 179–199 | date = February 2018 | pmid = 29035713 | doi = 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2017.10.014 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2018JHzM..344..179H }}][{{cite journal |last1=Marturano |first1=Valentina |last2=Cerruti |first2=Pierfrancesco |last3=Ambrogi |first3=Veronica |title=Polymer additives |journal=Physical Sciences Reviews |date=June 27, 2017 |volume=2 |issue=6 |page=130 |doi=10.1515/psr-2016-0130|bibcode=2017PhSRv...2..130M |s2cid=199059895 |doi-access=free }}] Additives are therefore one of the reasons why plastic is used so widely.[{{cite journal |last1=Pfaendner |first1=Rudolf |title=How will additives shape the future of plastics? |journal=Polymer Degradation and Stability |date=September 2006 |volume=91 |issue=9 |pages=2249–2256 |doi=10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2005.10.017}}] Plastics are composed of chains of polymers. Many different chemicals are used as plastic additives. A randomly chosen plastic product generally contains around 20 additives. The identities and concentrations of additives are generally not listed on products.[{{cite web |title=Mapping exercise – Plastic additives initiative - ECHA |url=https://echa.europa.eu/mapping-exercise-plastic-additives-initiative |website=echa.europa.eu |access-date=May 3, 2022}}][{{Cite journal |last1=Wiesinger |first1=Helene |last2=Wang |first2=Zhanyun |last3=Hellweg |first3=Stefanie |date=July 6, 2021 |title=Deep Dive into Plastic Monomers, Additives, and Processing Aids |journal=[Environmental Science & Technology](/source/Environmental_Science_%26_Technology) |volume=55 |issue=13 |pages=9339–9351 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.1c00976|pmid=34154322 |bibcode=2021EnST...55.9339W |hdl=20.500.11850/495854 |s2cid=235597312 |hdl-access=free }}] At a minimum, all plastic contains some [polymer stabilizers](/source/polymer_stabilizers) which permit them to be melt-processed (molded) without suffering [polymer degradation](/source/polymer_degradation).Additives in [polyvinyl chloride](/source/polyvinyl_chloride) (PVC), used widely for sanitary plumbing, can constitute up to 80% of the total volume.[{{cite web |title=Emission Scenario Documents: N°3 Plastic Additives (2004, revised in 2009) |url=https://www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote=env/jm/mono(2004)8/rev1&doclanguage=en |publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |access-date=May 19, 2022}}] Additives may also degrade to form other compounds that could be more benign or more toxic. Plastic fragmentation into microplastics and nanoplastics can allow chemical additives to move in the environment far from the point of use. Once released, some additives and derivatives may persist in the environment and bioaccumulate in organisms. They can have adverse effects on human health and biota. A recent review by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) revealed that out of 3,377 chemicals potentially associated with plastic packaging and 906 likely associated with it, 68 were ranked by ECHA as "highest for human health hazards" and 68 as "highest for environmental hazards".[{{cite journal |last1=Elias |first1=Hans-Georg |last2=Mülhaupt |first2=Rolf |title=Plastics, General Survey, 1. Definition, Molecular Structure and Properties |journal=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry |date=April 14, 2015 |pages=1–70 |doi=10.1002/14356007.a20_543.pub2|isbn=978-3-527-30673-2 }}][{{cite journal | vauthors = Teuten EL, Saquing JM, Knappe DR, Barlaz MA, Jonsson S, Björn A, Rowland SJ, Thompson RC, Galloway TS, Yamashita R, Ochi D, Watanuki Y, Moore C, Viet PH, Tana TS, Prudente M, Boonyatumanond R, Zakaria MP, Akkhavong K, Ogata Y, Hirai H, Iwasa S, Mizukawa K, Hagino Y, Imamura A, Saha M, Takada H | display-authors = 6 | title = Transport and release of chemicals from plastics to the environment and to wildlife | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences | volume = 364 | issue = 1526 | pages = 2027–45 | date = July 2009 | pmid = 19528054 | pmc = 2873017 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2008.0284 }}][{{Cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/mar/03/plasticosis-new-disease-caused-by-plastics-discovered-in-seabirds|title=New disease caused by plastics discovered in seabirds |date=March 3, 2023 |work=The Guardian |access-date=March 4, 2023}}] "When birds ingest small pieces of plastic, they found, it inflames the digestive tract. Over time, the persistent inflammation causes tissues to become scarred and disfigured, affecting digestion, growth and survival."[{{Cite web |url=https://www.nhm.ac.uk/press-office/press-releases/new-disease-caused-solely-by-plastics-discovered-in-seabirds-.html|title=New disease caused solely by plastics discovered in seabirds |date=March 3, 2023 |publisher=Natural History Museum |access-date=March 4, 2023}}]
=== Types of additive ===
{| class="wikitable"
! Additive type !! Typical concentration when present (%)[{{cite journal |title=Impact modifiers: how to make your compound tougher |journal=Plastics, Additives and Compounding |date=May 2004 |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=46–49 |doi=10.1016/S1464-391X(04)00203-X}}] || Typically some other [elastomeric](/source/elastomeric) polymer, e.g. rubbers, styrene copolymers || [Chlorinated polyethylene](/source/Chlorinated_polyethylene) is used for PVC || 5%
|-
| [Antioxidant](/source/Antioxidant)s || 0.05–3 || Protects against degradation during processing || [Phenols](/source/Phenols), [phosphite ester](/source/phosphite_ester)s, certain [thioethers](/source/thioethers) || The most widely used type of additives, all plastics will contain [polymer stabilizers](/source/polymer_stabilizers) of some sort || 6%
|-
| [Colorant](/source/Colorant)s || 0.001-10 || Imparts color || Numerous dyes or pigments || || 2%
|-
| [Lubricant](/source/Lubricant)s || 0.1-3 || Assist in forming/molding the plastic, includes processing aids (or flow aids), [release agent](/source/release_agent)s, slip additives || Hazardous [PFASs](/source/PFASs). [Paraffin wax](/source/Paraffin_wax), [wax ester](/source/wax_ester)s, metal stearates (i.e. [zinc stearate](/source/zinc_stearate)), long-chain [fatty acid amide](/source/fatty_acid_amide)s ([oleamide](/source/oleamide), [erucamide](/source/erucamide)) || Very common. All examples form a coating between the plastic and machine parts during production. Reduces pressure and power usage in the extruder. Reduces imperfections. || 2%
|-
| [Light stabilizer](/source/Light_stabilizer)s || 0.05–3 || Protects against UV damage || [HALS](/source/Hindered_amine_light_stabilizers), [UV blocker](/source/UV_blocker)s and quenchers || Normally only used for items intended for outdoor use || 1%
|-
| Other || || Various || Antimicrobials, [antistatics](/source/antistatics), [blowing agent](/source/blowing_agent)s, [nucleating agent](/source/nucleating_agent)s, clarifying agents || || 4%
|}
==Health effects==
Plastics per se have low toxicity due to their insolubility in water and because they have a large molecular weight. They are biochemically inert. Additives in plastic products can be more problematic.[{{cite journal | vauthors = Hahladakis JN, Velis CA, Weber R, Iacovidou E, Purnell P | title = An overview of chemical additives present in plastics: Migration, release, fate and environmental impact during their use, disposal and recycling | journal = Journal of Hazardous Materials | volume = 344 | pages = 179–199 | date = February 2018 | pmid = 29035713 | doi = 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2017.10.014 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2018JHzM..344..179H }}{{open access}}] For example, plasticizers like [adipates](/source/adipates) and [phthalate](/source/phthalate)s are often added to brittle plastics like PVC to make them pliable. Traces of these compounds can leach out of the product. Owing to concerns over the effects of such [leachate](/source/leachate)s, the EU has restricted the use of [DEHP](/source/Bis(2-ethylhexyl)_phthalate) (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate) and other phthalates in some applications, and the US has limited the use of DEHP, [DPB](/source/Dibutyl_phthalate), [BBP](/source/Benzyl_butyl_phthalate), [DINP](/source/Diisononyl_phthalate), [DIDP](/source/Diisodecyl_phthalate), and [DnOP](/source/Di(n-octyl)_phthalate) in children's toys and child-care articles through the [Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act](/source/Consumer_Product_Safety_Improvement_Act).[{{cite web | title=Do plastic bottles cause cancer? | website=Cancer Research UK | date=19 December 2024 | url=https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/cancer-myths-questions/does-using-plastic-bottles-and-containers-cause-cancer | access-date=25 May 2026}}]
[Alkylphenol](/source/Alkylphenol)s may cause environmental contamination.[
While a finished plastic may be non-toxic, the monomers used in the manufacture of its parent polymers may be toxic. In some cases, small amounts of those chemicals can remain trapped in the product unless suitable processing is employed. For example, the [World Health Organization](/source/World_Health_Organization)'s [International Agency for Research on Cancer](/source/International_Agency_for_Research_on_Cancer) (IARC) has recognized [vinyl chloride](/source/vinyl_chloride), the precursor to PVC, as a human carcinogen.][{{cite web| vauthors = McRandle PW |title = Plastic Water Bottles|publisher = [National Geographic](/source/National_Geographic_Society)|date = March–April 2004|url = http://www.thegreenguide.com/doc/101/plastic|access-date = November 13, 2007}}]
===Bisphenol A (BPA)===
{{See also|Health effects of Bisphenol A}}
Some plastic products degrade to chemicals with [estrogen](/source/estrogen)ic activity.[{{cite journal | vauthors = Yang CZ, Yaniger SI, Jordan VC, Klein DJ, Bittner GD | title = Most plastic products release estrogenic chemicals: a potential health problem that can be solved | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 119 | issue = 7 | pages = 989–96 | date = July 2011 | pmid = 21367689 | pmc = 3222987 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.1003220 | doi-broken-date = January 29, 2026 | bibcode = 2011EnvHP.119..989Y }}] The primary building block of polycarbonates, [bisphenol A](/source/bisphenol_A) (BPA), is an estrogen-like [endocrine disruptor](/source/endocrine_disruptor) that may leach into food.[{{cite journal | vauthors = Rubin BS, Murray MK, Damassa DA, King JC, Soto AM | title = Perinatal exposure to low doses of bisphenol A affects body weight, patterns of estrous cyclicity, and plasma LH levels | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 109 | issue = 7 | pages = 675–80 | date = July 2001 | pmid = 11485865 | pmc = 1240370 | jstor = 3454783 }}] A more recent animal study suggests that even low-level exposure to BPA results in insulin resistance, which can lead to inflammation and heart disease.[{{cite journal | vauthors = Alonso-Magdalena P, Morimoto S, Ripoll C, Fuentes E, Nadal A | title = The estrogenic effect of bisphenol A disrupts pancreatic beta-cell function in vivo and induces insulin resistance | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 114 | issue = 1 | pages = 106–12 | date = January 2006 | pmid = 16393666 | pmc = 1332664 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.8451 | doi-broken-date = January 29, 2026 | bibcode = 2006EnvHP.114..106A | url = http://www.ehponline.org/docs/2005/8451/abstract.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090119022220/http://www.ehponline.org/docs/2005/8451/abstract.html | archive-date = January 19, 2009 }}] As of January 2010, the ''Los Angeles Times'' reported that the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is spending $30 million to investigate indications of BPA's link to cancer.[{{Cite news | vauthors = Zajac A |date=January 16, 2010 |title=FDA Issues BPA Guidelines |language=en |work=Los Angeles Times |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2010-jan-16-la-na-fda-bpa16-2010jan16-story.html |access-date=July 29, 2021}}] [Bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate](/source/Bis(2-ethylhexyl)_adipate), present in plastic wrap based on PVC, is also of concern, as are the [volatile organic compounds](/source/volatile_organic_compounds) present in [new car smell](/source/new_car_smell). The EU has a permanent ban on the use of phthalates in toys. In 2009, the US government banned certain types of phthalates commonly used in plastic.[{{cite web | vauthors = McCormick LW | url = http://www.consumeraffairs.com/news04/2009/10/pirg_lead_tests.html | title = More Kids' Products Found Containing Unsafe Chemicals | work = ConsumerAffairs.com | date = October 30, 2009 }}]
==Environmental effects==
{{See also|Plastic pollution|Marine debris|Great Pacific Garbage Patch}}
Estimates differ as to the amount of [plastic waste](/source/plastic_waste) produced in the last century. By one estimate, one billion tons of plastic waste have been discarded since the 1950s.[{{cite book| vauthors = Weisman A |title=The world without us|date=2007|publisher=Thomas Dunne Books/St. Martin's Press|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4434-0008-4}}] Others estimate a cumulative human production of 8.3-billion tons of plastic, of which 6.3-billion tons is waste, with only 9% getting recycled.[{{cite journal | vauthors = Geyer R, Jambeck JR, Law KL | title = Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made | journal = Science Advances | volume = 3 | issue = 7 | article-number = e1700782 | date = July 2017 | pmid = 28776036 | pmc = 5517107 | doi = 10.1126/sciadv.1700782 | bibcode = 2017SciA....3E0782G }}]
It is estimated that this waste is made up of 81% polymer resin, 13% polymer fibers and 32% additives. In 2018 more than 343 million tons of plastic waste were generated, 90% of which was composed of post-consumer plastic waste (industrial, agricultural, commercial and municipal plastic waste). The rest was pre-consumer waste from resin production and manufacturing of plastic products (e.g. materials rejected due to unsuitable color, hardness, or processing characteristics).[{{cite news | vauthors = Leung H |title=Five Asian Countries Dump More Plastic Into Oceans Than Anyone Else Combined: How You Can Help |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/hannahleung/2018/04/21/five-asian-countries-dump-more-plastic-than-anyone-else-combined-how-you-can-help/#1d663de71234 |access-date=June 23, 2019 |work=[Forbes](/source/Forbes) |date=April 21, 2018 |language=en |quote=China, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam are dumping more plastic into oceans than the rest of the world combined, according to a 2017 report by Ocean Conservancy}}] The rivers Yangtze, Indus, Yellow, Hai, Nile, Ganges, Pearl, Amur, Niger, and Mekong "transport 88% to 95% of the global [plastics] load into the sea."[{{cite journal | vauthors = Schmidt C, Krauth T, Wagner S | title = Export of Plastic Debris by Rivers into the Sea | journal = Environmental Science & Technology | volume = 51 | issue = 21 | pages = 12246–12253 | date = November 2017 | pmid = 29019247 | doi = 10.1021/acs.est.7b02368 | bibcode = 2017EnST...5112246S | url = http://oceanrep.geomar.de/43169/4/es7b02368_si_001.pdf | quote = The 10 top-ranked rivers transport 88–95% of the global load into the sea }}][{{cite news | vauthors = Franzen H |title=Almost all plastic in the ocean comes from just 10 rivers |url=https://p.dw.com/p/2oTF6 |access-date=December 18, 2018 |work=[Deutsche Welle](/source/Deutsche_Welle) |date=November 30, 2017 |quote=It turns out that about 90 percent of all the plastic that reaches the world's oceans gets flushed through just 10 rivers: The Yangtze, the Indus, Yellow River, Hai River, the Nile, the Ganges, Pearl River, Amur River, the Niger, and the Mekong (in that order).}}]{{Verify quote|date=February 2021|type=quote punctuation|text=Should the full stop in this quote be placed outside of it instead? See Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style#Punctuation for more information.}}
The presence of plastics, particularly [microplastics](/source/microplastics), within the food chain is increasing. In the 1960s microplastics were observed in the guts of seabirds, and since then have been found in increasing concentrations.[ The long-term effects of plastics in the food chain are poorly understood. In 2009 it was estimated that 10% of modern waste was plastic,][ although estimates vary according to region.][{{cite journal | vauthors = Barnes DK, Galgani F, Thompson RC, Barlaz M | title = Accumulation and fragmentation of plastic debris in global environments | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences | volume = 364 | issue = 1526 | pages = 1985–98 | date = July 2009 | pmid = 19528051 | pmc = 2873009 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2008.0205 }}] Meanwhile, 50% to 80% of debris in marine areas is plastic.[ Plastic is often used in agriculture. There is more plastic in the soil than in the oceans. The presence of plastic in the environment hurts ecosystems and human health.][{{cite news |last1=Carrington |first1=Damian |title='Disastrous' plastic use in farming threatens food safety – UN |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/dec/07/disastrous-plastic-use-in-farming-threatens-food-safety-un |access-date=December 8, 2021 |agency=The Guardian |date=December 7, 2021}}]
Research on the environmental impacts has typically focused on the disposal phase. However, the production of plastics is also responsible for substantial environmental, health and socioeconomic impacts.[{{Cite journal|last1=Cabernard|first1=Livia|last2=Pfister|first2=Stephan|last3=Oberschelp|first3=Christopher|last4=Hellweg|first4=Stefanie|date=December 2, 2021|title=Growing environmental footprint of plastics driven by coal combustion|journal=Nature Sustainability|volume=5 |issue=2 |language=en|pages=139–148|doi=10.1038/s41893-021-00807-2|bibcode=2021NatSu...5..139C |s2cid=244803448|issn=2398-9629|doi-access=free|hdl=20.500.11850/518642|hdl-access=free}}]
Prior to the [Montreal Protocol](/source/Montreal_Protocol), [CFCs](/source/Chlorofluorocarbon) had been commonly used in the manufacture of the plastic polystyrene, the production of which had contributed to depletion of the [ozone layer](/source/ozone_layer).
Efforts to minimize environmental impact of plastics may include lowering of plastics production and use, waste- and recycling-policies, and the proactive development and deployment of [alternatives to plastics](/source/List_of_alternatives_to_plastics) such as for [sustainable packaging](/source/sustainable_packaging).{{cn|date=July 2025}}
=== Microplastics ===
{{Excerpt|Microplastics}}
===Decomposition of plastics===
{{main|Polymer degradation}}
Plastics [degrade](/source/polymer_degradation) by a variety of processes, the most significant of which are [hydrolysis](/source/hydrolysis) and [photo-oxidation](/source/Photo-oxidation_of_polymers). Chemical structure determines the fate of a polymers. Hence, decomposition pathways can be evaluated according to polymer types of major polymers. They are by volume: polyolefins (polyethyene, polypropylene, polystyrene), polyvinyl chloride, [polyethylene terephthalate](/source/polyethylene_terephthalate) (PET).[{{cite journal |last1=Yu |first1=Jie |last2=Sun |first2=Lushi |last3=Ma |first3=Chuan |last4=Qiao |first4=Yu |last5=Yao |first5=Hong |title=Thermal degradation of PVC: A review |journal=Waste Management |date=2016 |volume=48 |pages=300–314 |doi=10.1016/j.wasman.2015.11.041 |pmid=26687228 |bibcode=2016WaMan..48..300Y }}] In general the degradability of a polymer correlates with the presence of [functional group](/source/functional_group)s (esters, amides). Polyolefins, which lack functional groups, degrade very slowly, especially polyethylene. In the case of polyethylene, degradation is attributed to reactions of defects within the polymer chain, such as alkene groups.[{{Cite journal |doi=10.1021/acssuschemeng.9b06635 |title=Degradation Rates of Plastics in the Environment |year=2020 |last1=Chamas |first1=Ali |last2=Moon |first2=Hyunjin |last3=Zheng |first3=Jiajia |last4=Qiu |first4=Yang |last5=Tabassum |first5=Tarnuma |last6=Jang |first6=Jun Hee |last7=Abu-Omar |first7=Mahdi |last8=Scott |first8=Susannah L. |last9=Suh |first9=Sangwon |author-link9=Sangwon Suh |journal=ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=3494–3511 |bibcode=2020ASCE....8.3494C |doi-access=free}}] PET, a polyester, degrades relatively quickly by multiple pathways, including ester hydrolysis and photooxidation. Whereas the other main polymers are stable to > 400 °C, PVC degrades at <300 °C. The process entails loss of [hydrogen chloride](/source/hydrogen_chloride) (HCl). The evolved HCl catalyzes degradation of the PVC, thus much effort is devoted to capturing the HCl by mixing the PVC with additives.
Microbial species capable of degrading plastics are known, but remain curiosities.[{{cite journal | vauthors = Tokiwa Y, Calabia BP, Ugwu CU, Aiba S | title = Biodegradability of plastics | journal = International Journal of Molecular Sciences | volume = 10 | issue = 9 | pages = 3722–42 | date = August 2009 | pmid = 19865515 | pmc = 2769161 | doi = 10.3390/ijms10093722 | doi-access = free | author-link = Yutaka Tokiwa | bibcode = 2009IJMSc..10.3722T }}][{{cite journal | vauthors = Russell JR, Huang J, Anand P, Kucera K, Sandoval AG, Dantzler KW, Hickman D, Jee J, Kimovec FM, Koppstein D, Marks DH, Mittermiller PA, Núñez SJ, Santiago M, Townes MA, Vishnevetsky M, Williams NE, Vargas MP, Boulanger LA, Bascom-Slack C, Strobel SA | display-authors = 6 | title = Biodegradation of polyester polyurethane by endophytic fungi | journal = Applied and Environmental Microbiology | volume = 77 | issue = 17 | pages = 6076–84 | date = September 2011 | pmid = 21764951 | pmc = 3165411 | doi = 10.1128/aem.00521-11 | bibcode = 2011ApEnM..77.6076R }}][{{cite journal | vauthors = Russell JR, Huang J, Anand P, Kucera K, Sandoval AG, Dantzler KW, Hickman D, Jee J, Kimovec FM, Koppstein D, Marks DH, Mittermiller PA, Núñez SJ, Santiago M, Townes MA, Vishnevetsky M, Williams NE, Vargas MP, Boulanger LA, Bascom-Slack C, Strobel SA | display-authors = 6 | title = Biodegradation of polyester polyurethane by endophytic fungi | journal = Applied and Environmental Microbiology | volume = 77 | issue = 17 | pages = 6076–84 | date = September 2011 | pmid = 21764951 | pmc = 3165411 | doi = 10.1128/AEM.00521-11 | bibcode = 2011ApEnM..77.6076R }}][{{cite web| vauthors = Roy R |url=http://www.livescience.com/technology/060307_styrofoam_cup.html |title=Immortal Polystyrene Foam Meets its Enemy |website=Livescience.com |date=March 7, 2006 |access-date=April 18, 2017}}][{{cite journal | vauthors = Ward PG, Goff M, Donner M, Kaminsky W, O'Connor KE | title = A two step chemo-biotechnological conversion of polystyrene to a biodegradable thermoplastic | journal = Environmental Science & Technology | volume = 40 | issue = 7 | pages = 2433–7 | date = April 2006 | pmid = 16649270 | doi = 10.1021/es0517668 | bibcode = 2006EnST...40.2433W }}][{{Cite journal | vauthors = Bosch X |date=2001 |title=Fungus Eats CD |url=http://www.nature.com/news/1998/010628/full/news010628-11.html |journal=Nature |doi=10.1038/news010628-11|url-access=subscription }}][{{Cite news |date=June 22, 2001 |title=Fungus 'Eats' CDs |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/1402533.stm}}]
[Phenol-formaldehyde](/source/Phenol-formaldehyde), commonly known as Bakelite, is degraded by the [white rot fungus](/source/white_rot_fungus) ''P. chrysosporium''.[{{cite journal | vauthors = Gusse AC, Miller PD, Volk TJ | title = White-rot fungi demonstrate first biodegradation of phenolic resin | journal = Environmental Science & Technology | volume = 40 | issue = 13 | pages = 4196–9 | date = July 2006 | pmid = 16856735 | doi = 10.1021/es060408h | bibcode = 2006EnST...40.4196G }}]
thumb|Manual material triage for recycling
===Recycling===
{{Excerpt|Plastic recycling}}
==== Pyrolysis ====
By heating to above 500 °C (932 °F) in the absence of oxygen ([pyrolysis](/source/pyrolysis)), plastics can be broken down into simpler [hydrocarbon](/source/hydrocarbon)s, which can be used as feedstocks for the fabrication of new plastics.[{{Cite web |last=Tullo |first=Alexander |date=October 10, 2022 |title=Amid controversy, industry goes all in on plastics pyrolysis |url=https://cen.acs.org/environment/recycling/Amid-controversy-industry-goes-plastics-pyrolysis/100/i36 |access-date=January 17, 2023 |website=[Chemical & Engineering News](/source/Chemical_%26_Engineering_News)}}] These hydrocarbons can also be used as fuels.[{{cite web | vauthors = Narayanan S | url = http://www.hindu.com/mp/2005/12/19/stories/2005121900140300.htm | title = The Zadgaonkars turn carry-bags into petrol! | work = The Hindu | date = December 12, 2005 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121109220245/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2005/12/19/stories/2005121900140300.htm | access-date = July 1, 2011 | archive-date = November 9, 2012 }}]
=== Greenhouse gas emissions ===
{{See also|Ethylene#Greenhouse gas emissions|Plastic pollution#Plastic pollution as a cause of climate change}}
According to the [Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development](/source/OECD), plastic contributed [greenhouse gas](/source/greenhouse_gas)es in the equivalent of 1.8 billion tons of [carbon dioxide](/source/carbon_dioxide) ({{CO2}}) to the atmosphere in 2019, 3.4% of global emissions.[{{cite web |url=https://www.oecd.org/environment/plastics/increased-plastic-leakage-and-greenhouse-gas-emissions.htm |title=Plastic leakage and greenhouse gas emissions are increasing |publisher=OECD |date= |access-date=August 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240626061006/https://www.oecd.org/environment/plastics/increased-plastic-leakage-and-greenhouse-gas-emissions.htm |archive-date=2024-06-26 |url-status=live}}] They say that by 2060, plastic could emit 4.3 billion tons of greenhouse gas a year. The effect of plastics on global warming is mixed. Plastics are generally made from fossil gas or petroleum; thus, the production of plastics creates further [fugitive emission](/source/fugitive_emission)s of methane when the fossil gas or petroleum is produced. Additionally, much of the energy used in plastic production is not [sustainable energy](/source/sustainable_energy); for example, high temperature from burning fossil gas. However, plastics can also limit methane emissions; for example, packaging to reduce food waste.[{{Cite web |title=How is plastic made? Climate change is a key ingredient {{!}} Friends of the Earth |url=https://friendsoftheearth.uk/plastics/how-is-plastic-made |access-date=2024-02-16 |website=friendsoftheearth.uk |language=en}}]
A study from 2024 found that compared to glass and aluminum, plastic may actually have less of a negative effect on the environment and therefore might be the best option for must food packaging and other common uses.[{{Cite journal |last1=Meng |first1=Fanran |last2=Brandão |first2=Miguel |last3=Cullen |first3=Jonathan M |date=2024-02-13 |title=Replacing Plastics with Alternatives Is Worse for Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Most Cases |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |language=en |volume=58 |issue=6 |pages=2716–2727 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.3c05191 |issn=0013-936X |pmc=10867844 |pmid=38291786|bibcode=2024EnST...58.2716M }}] The study found that, "replacing plastics with alternatives is worse for greenhouse gas emissions in most cases." and that the study involving European researchers found, "15 of the 16 applications a plastic product incurs fewer greenhouse gas emissions than their alternatives."[{{cite web |last1=Meech |first1=Caroline |last2=Singh |first2=Sakshee |title=Why solving plastic pollution is one of the biggest climate wins hiding in plain sight |url=https://www.weforum.org/stories/2025/09/why-solving-plastic-pollution-is-one-of-the-biggest-climate-wins-hiding-in-plain-sight/ |website=World Economic Forum |access-date=21 September 2025}}]
===Production of plastics===
Production of plastics from crude oil requires 7.9 to 13.7 kWh/lb (taking into account the average efficiency of US utility stations of 35%). Producing silicon and semiconductors for modern electronic equipment is even more energy consuming: 29.2 to 29.8 kWh/lb for silicon, and about 381 kWh/lb for semiconductors.[{{cite web | vauthors = De Decker K | veditors = Grosjean V | date = June 2009 |title=The monster footprint of digital technology|url=http://www.lowtechmagazine.com/2009/06/embodied-energy-of-digital-technology.html|access-date=April 18, 2017|publisher=Low-Tech Magazine}}] This is much higher than the energy needed to produce many other materials. For example, to produce iron (from iron ore) requires 2.5-3.2 kWh/lb of energy; glass (from sand, etc.) 2.3–4.4 kWh/lb; steel (from iron) 2.5–6.4 kWh/lb; and paper (from timber) 3.2–6.4 kWh/lb.[{{cite web|date=December 26, 2014|title=How much energy does it take (on average) to produce 1 kilogram of the following materials?|url=http://www.lowtechmagazine.com/what-is-the-embodied-energy-of-materials.html|access-date=April 18, 2017|publisher=Low-Tech Magazine}}]
===Incineration of plastics===
Quickly burning plastics at very high temperatures breaks down many toxic components, such as [dioxins](/source/Dioxins_and_dioxin-like_compounds) and [furan](/source/furan)s. This approach is widely used in municipal solid [waste incineration](/source/Incineration). Municipal solid waste incinerators also normally treat the [flue gas](/source/flue_gas) to decrease pollutants further, which is needed because uncontrolled incineration of plastic produces [carcinogen](/source/carcinogen)ic [polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins](/source/Polychlorinated_dibenzodioxins).[{{cite journal | vauthors = Halden RU | title = Plastics and health risks | journal = Annual Review of Public Health | volume = 31 | pages = 179–94 | date = 2010 | issue = 1 | pmid = 20070188 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.012809.103714 | doi-access = free }}] Open-air burning of plastic occurs at lower temperatures and normally releases such [toxic](/source/toxicity) fumes.
In the [European Union](/source/European_Union), municipal waste incineration is regulated by the [Industrial Emissions Directive](/source/Industrial_Emissions_Directive),[{{Cite journal |last1=Romero |first1=Lina M. |last2=Lyczko |first2=Nathalie |last3=Nzihou |first3=Ange |last4=Antonini |first4=Gérard |last5=Moreau |first5=Eric |last6=Richardeau |first6=Hubert |last7=Coste |first7=Christophe |last8=Madoui |first8=Saïd |last9=Durécu |first9=Sylvain |date=July 2020 |title=New insights on mercury abatement and modeling in a full-scale municipal solid waste incineration flue gas treatment unit |journal=Waste Management |language=en |volume=113 |pages=270–279 |doi=10.1016/j.wasman.2020.06.003|pmid=32559697 |bibcode=2020WaMan.113..270R |s2cid=219948357 |doi-access=free }}] which stipulates a minimum temperature of 850 °C for at least two seconds.[{{Cite journal |last1=Janhäll |first1=Sara |last2=Petersson |first2=Mikaela |last3=Davidsson |first3=Kent |last4=Öman |first4=Tommy |last5=Sommertune |first5=Jens |last6=Kåredal |first6=Monica |last7=Messing |first7=Maria E. |last8=Rissler |first8=Jenny |date=October 2021 |title=Release of carbon nanotubes during combustion of polymer nanocomposites in a pilot-scale facility for waste incineration |journal=NanoImpact |language=en |volume=24 |article-number=100357 |doi=10.1016/j.impact.2021.100357|pmid=35559816 |s2cid=239252029 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2021NanoI..2400357J }}]
===Facilitation of natural degradation===
The bacterium ''Blaptica dubia'' is claimed to help degradation of commercial polysterene. This biodegradation seems to occur in some plastic degrading bacteria inhabiting the gut of cockroaches. The biodegradation products have been found in their feces too.[{{cite journal | vauthors = Li MX, Yang SS, Ding J, Ding MQ, He L, Xing DF, Criddle CS, Benbow ME, Ren NQ, Wu WM |title= Cockroach Blaptica dubia biodegrades polystyrene plastics: Insights for superior ability, microbiome and host genes |journal= J Hazard Mater |date=November 5, 2024 | volume = 479| issue = |article-number=135756|doi=10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.135756
|pmid=39255668|bibcode= 2024JHzM..47935756L | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304389424023355|url-access=subscription}}]
==History==
{{For timeline|Timeline of plastic development}}
The development of plastics has evolved from the use of naturally plastic materials (e.g., [gums](/source/Natural_gum) and [shellac](/source/shellac)) to the use of the chemical modification of those materials (e.g., natural rubber, [cellulose](/source/cellulose), [collagen](/source/collagen), and [milk proteins](/source/Casein)), and finally to completely synthetic plastics (e.g., Bakelite, epoxy, and PVC). Early plastics were bio-derived materials such as egg and blood proteins, which are [organic polymers](/source/organic_polymers). In around 1600 BC, [Mesoamerican](/source/Mesoamerican)s used natural rubber for balls, bands, and figurines.[{{cite journal | vauthors = Andrady AL, Neal MA | title = Applications and societal benefits of plastics | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences | volume = 364 | issue = 1526 | pages = 1977–84 | date = July 2009 | pmid = 19528050 | pmc = 2873019 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2008.0304 }}] Treated cattle horns were used as windows for lanterns in the [Middle Ages](/source/Middle_Ages).{{fact|date=February 2025}} Materials that mimicked the properties of horns were developed by treating milk proteins with lye. In the nineteenth century, as chemistry developed during the [Industrial Revolution](/source/Industrial_Revolution), many materials were reported. The development of plastics accelerated with [Charles Goodyear](/source/Charles_Goodyear)'s 1839 discovery of [vulcanization](/source/vulcanization) to harden natural rubber.
thumb|left|Plaque commemorating Parkes at the Birmingham Science Museum
[Parkesine](/source/Parkesine), invented by [Alexander Parkes](/source/Alexander_Parkes) in 1855 and patented the following year,[{{cite book|last=UK Patent office|title=Patents for inventions|year=1857|publisher=UK Patent office|page=255|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0nCoU-2tAx8C&pg=PA255}}] is considered the first man-made plastic. It was manufactured from cellulose (the major component of plant cell walls) treated with [nitric acid](/source/nitric_acid) as a solvent. The output of the process (commonly known as cellulose nitrate or pyroxilin) could be dissolved in alcohol and hardened into a transparent and elastic material that could be molded when heated.[{{cite web |url=http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/ce/celluloid.html |title=Dictionary – Definition of celluloid |publisher=Websters-online-dictionary.org |access-date=October 26, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091211220823/http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/ce/celluloid.html |archive-date=December 11, 2009 }}] By incorporating pigments into the product, it could be made to resemble ivory. Parkesine was unveiled at the [1862 International Exhibition](/source/1862_International_Exhibition) in London and garnered for Parkes the bronze medal.[{{cite book| vauthors = Fenichell S |title=Plastic: the making of a synthetic century|date=1996|publisher=HarperBusiness|location=New York|isbn=978-0-88730-732-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/plasticmakingofs00feni/page/17 17]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/plasticmakingofs00feni}}]
In 1893, French chemist Auguste Trillat discovered the means to insolubilize [casein](/source/casein) (milk proteins) by immersion in [formaldehyde](/source/formaldehyde), producing material marketed as [galalith](/source/galalith).[{{cite web|url=http://www.ganoksin.com/borisat/nenam/milk-stone.htm|title=Jewelry Stone Make of Milk| vauthors = Trimborn C |publisher=GZ Art+Design|date=August 2004|access-date=May 17, 2010}}] The resultant horn-like plastic made from casein was developed in cooperation with the Austrian chemist (Friedrich) Adolph Spitteler (1846–1940). Although unsuitable for the intended purpose, other uses would be discovered.[{{cite journal | vauthors = Thompson RC, Swan SH, Moore CJ, vom Saal FS | title = Our plastic age | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences | volume = 364 | issue = 1526 | pages = 1973–6 | date = July 2009 | pmid = 19528049 | pmc = 2874019 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2009.0054 }}] Among the earliest examples in the wave of new polymers were polystyrene (first produced by [BASF](/source/BASF) in the 1930s)[{{cite web|url=http://www.furan.com/furfural_historical_overview.html|title=Historical Overview and Industrial Development|website=International Furan Chemicals, Inc.|access-date=May 4, 2014}}] In 1933, [polyethylene](/source/polyethylene) was discovered by [Imperial Chemical Industries](/source/Imperial_Chemical_Industries) (ICI) researchers Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett.[{{Cite journal |last1=Tratzi |first1=Patrizio |last2=Giuliani |first2=Chiara |last3=Torre |first3=Marco |last4=Tomassetti |first4=Laura |last5=Petrucci |first5=Roberto |last6=Iannoni |first6=Antonio |last7=Torre |first7=Luigi |last8=Genova |first8=Salvatore |last9=Paolini |first9=Valerio |last10=Petracchini |first10=Francesco |last11=Di Carlo |first11=Gabriella |date=2021-09-01 |title=Effect of Hard Plastic Waste on the Quality of Recycled Polypropylene Blends |journal=Recycling |language=en |volume=6 |issue=3 |page=58 |doi=10.3390/recycling6030058 |doi-access=free |issn=2313-4321|hdl=11573/1672407 |hdl-access=free }}] In the 1980s and 1990s, plastic recycling and the development of biodegradable plastics began to flourish to mitigate environmental impacts.[{{Cite journal |last1=Keith |first1=Matthew |last2=Koller |first2=Martin |last3=Lackner |first3=Maximilian |date=2024-01-01 |title=Carbon Recycling of High Value Bioplastics: A Route to a Zero-Waste Future |journal=Polymers |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |page=1621 |doi=10.3390/polym16121621 |doi-access=free |pmid=38931972 |issn=2073-4360|pmc=11207349 }}][{{Cite web |title=Bao bì vinpack |url=https://baobivinpack.com |access-date=2025-01-06 |language=en}}] From 2000 to the present, bioplastics from renewable sources and awareness of microplastics have spurred extensive research and policies to control plastic pollution.[{{Cite web |last=Jensen |first=Heidi |date=2019-04-01 |title=Now and Then: A Look Back at 30 Years of Recycling |url=https://wasteadvantagemag.com/now-and-then-a-look-back-at-30-years-of-recycling/?form=MG0AV3 |access-date=2025-01-06 |website=Waste Advantage Magazine |language=en-US}}]
== Policy ==
{{See also|Global plastic pollution treaty}}
Work is currently underway to develop a [global treaty on plastic pollution](/source/Global_plastic_pollution_treaty). On March 2, 2022, [UN Member States](/source/Member_states_of_the_United_Nations) voted at the resumed fifth [UN Environment Assembly](/source/United_Nations_Assembly) (UNEA-5.2) to establish an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC) with the [mandate](/source/UN_Mandate) of advancing a legally-binding international agreement on plastics.[{{Cite news |last1=Geddie |first1=John |last2=Brock |first2=Joe |date=March 2, 2022 |title='Biggest green deal since Paris': UN agrees plastic treaty roadmap |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/environment/biggest-green-deal-since-paris-un-agrees-plastic-treaty-roadmap-2022-03-02/ |access-date=August 3, 2022}}] The resolution is entitled "End plastic pollution: Towards an international legally binding instrument." The mandate specifies that the INC must begin its work by the end of 2022 with the goal of "completing a draft global legally binding agreement by the end of 2024."[{{cite web |date=March 2, 2022 |title=Historic day in the campaign to beat plastic pollution: Nations commit to develop a legally binding agreement |url=http://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/press-release/historic-day-campaign-beat-plastic-pollution-nations-commit-develop |access-date=August 3, 2022 |website=UN Environment |language=en}}]
== See also ==
{{colbegin |colwidth=25em}}
* {{Annotated link |American Recyclable Plastic Bag Alliance}}
* {{Annotated link |Corn construction}}
* {{Annotated link |Light activated resin}}
* {{Annotated link |Organic light emitting diode}}
* {{Annotated link |Plastic film}}
* {{Annotated link |Plastic pollution}}
* {{Annotated link |Plastics engineering}}
* {{Annotated link |Plasticulture}}
* {{Annotated link |Plastisphere}}
* {{Annotated link |Refill (scheme)}}
* {{Annotated link |Roll-to-roll processing}}
* {{Annotated link |Self-healing plastic}}
* {{Annotated link |Thermal cleaning}}
* {{Annotated link |Thermoforming}}
* {{Annotated link |Timeline of materials technology}}
'''Plastic in the sense of malleable'''
* {{Annotated link |Plastic arts}}
* {{Annotated link |Plastic ratio}}
{{colend}}
== References ==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
* ''Substantial parts of this text originated from'' {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070810225820/http://www.vectorsite.net/ttplast.html An Introduction to Plastics v1.0]}} ''by Greg Goebel (March 1, 2001), which is in the public domain''.
== Sources ==
* {{Free-content attribution
| title = Drowning in Plastics – Marine Litter and Plastic Waste Vital Graphics
| publisher = United Nations Environment Programme
| documentURL = https://www.unep.org/resources/report/drowning-plastics-marine-litter-and-plastic-waste-vital-graphics
| license statement URL = https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_Nations_Environment_Programme_Drowning_in_Plastics_%E2%80%93_Marine_Litter_and_Plastic_Waste_Vital_Graphics.pdf
| license = Cc BY-SA 3.0 IGO
}}
==Further reading==
*{{cite book |isbn=978-1-56990-935-5 |title=Training in Plastics Technology |last1=Hopmann |first1=Christian |last2=Greif |first2=Helmut |last3=Wolters |first3=Leo |date=8 December 2023 |publisher=Carl Hanser Verlag GmbH & Company KG }}
*{{cite book |title=Future Trends in Modern Plastics|author=Fink, Johannes Karl|isbn= 978-1-394-23757-9|year = 2024|publisher=Wiley}}
*Gardiner, Beth (2026). ''Plastic Inc.: The Secret History and Shocking Future of Big Oil's Biggest Bet.'' Avery.
*: ISBN 978-0593717103.
*: {{cite book |isbn=978-0-323-91435-2 |title=Circularity of Plastics: Sustainability, Emerging Materials, and Valorization of Waste Plastic |last1=Li |first1=Zibiao |last2=Lim |first2=Jason Y. C. |last3=Wang |first3=Chen-Gang |date=21 February 2023 |publisher=Elsevier }}
== External links ==
{{Commons category|Plastics}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* {{cite web | url = http://americanhistory.si.edu/archives/d8008.htm | title = J. Harry Dubois Collection on the History of Plastics, ca. 1900–1975 | work = Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution. | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060212130150/http://americanhistory.si.edu/archives/d8008.htm | archive-date = February 12, 2006 }}
* {{cite web | url = http://www.plasticsintl.com/sortable_materials.php?display=mechanical | title = Material Properties of Plastics – Mechanical, Thermal & Electrical Properties | work = Plastics International | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170324052637/http://www.plasticsintl.com/sortable_materials.php?display=mechanical | archive-date = March 24, 2017 }}
* {{cite web | url = http://www.plastiquarian.com/ | title = Plastics Historical Society }}
* {{cite web | url = http://www.plasticsindustry.org/AboutPlastics/content.cfm?ItemNumber=670&navItemNumber=1117 | title = History of plastics, Society of the Plastics Industry | work = plasticsindustry.org | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090706054409/http://www.plasticsindustry.org/AboutPlastics/content.cfm?ItemNumber=670&navItemNumber=1117 | archive-date = July 6, 2009 }}
* {{cite web | vauthors = Knight L | date = May 17, 2014| url = https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-27442625 | title = A brief history of plastics, natural and synthetic | work = BBC Magazine }}
* {{cite web | url = http://www.tangram.co.uk/TI-Polymer-Timeline.html | title = Timeline of important milestone of plastic injection moulding and plastics | date = June 27, 2014
| work = Tangram Technology Ltd }}
{{Plastics}}
{{Labeling}}
{{Rubber}}
{{Sculptures}}
{{Human impact on the environment}}
{{Technology topics}}
{{HealthIssuesOfPlastics}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Plastics
Category:Dielectrics
Category:Articles containing video clips
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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Plastic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.