# Pistachio
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{{Short description|Member of the cashew family}}
{{About|the culinary nut and the tree that bears it}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2026}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Pistachio_vera.jpg
| image_alt = A tan, roasted pistacho shell with the seed visible through a gap in the shell
| status = NT
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = [Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11–13 July 2006) (2007). ''Pistacia vera. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2007: e.T63497A12670823. {{doi|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2007.RLTS.T63497A12670823.en }}]
| genus = Pistacia
| species = vera
| authority = [L.](/source/Carl_Linnaeus)
| range_map =
| range_map_caption =
}}
The '''pistachio''' ({{IPAc-en|p|ɪ|ˈ|s|t|ɑː|ʃ|i|oʊ|,_|-|ˈ|s|t|æ|ʃ|-}}, {{IPAc-en|UKalso|p|ɪ|ˈ|s|t|æ|tʃ|(|i|)|oʊ}};{{refn|{{Cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/Pistachio |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200322182120/https://www.lexico.com/definition/pistachio |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 March 2020 |title=Pistachio |dictionary=[Lexico](/source/Lexico) UK English Dictionary |publisher=[Oxford University Press](/source/Oxford_University_Press)}}}} '''''Pistacia vera''''') is a small to medium-sized tree of the [cashew family](/source/Anacardiaceae). The tree produces [seeds](/source/nut_(fruit)) that are widely consumed as food.[{{cite web |title=pistachio |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/pistachio |website=Cambridge Dictionary |publisher=Cambridge University Press |access-date=17 February 2024 }}] Pistachios can be used as an ingredient in desserts, chocolate, candy, ice cream, and as a paste or butter. As a tree nut, pistachios are considered a priority [allergen](/source/allergen) that may induce [allergic reaction](/source/allergic_reaction)s in susceptible people.
In 2024, world production of pistachios was 1.4 million [tonne](/source/tonne)s, with the United States, Iran, and Turkey combined accounting for 87% of the total.
== Description ==
The tree grows up to {{convert|10|m|abbr=off|frac=2}} tall. It has [deciduous](/source/deciduous), [pinnate](/source/pinnate) leaves {{convert|10–20|cm|abbr=off|frac=2}} long. The plants are [dioecious](/source/dioecious), with separate male and female trees. The flowers are [apetalous](/source/apetalous) and [unisexual](/source/unisexual) and borne in [panicle](/source/panicle)s.[{{Cite book |last1=Considine |first1=Douglas M. |title=Van Nostrand's Scientific Encyclopedia |last2=Considine |first2=Glenn D. |date=1995 |publisher=Springer US |isbn=978-1-4757-6918-0 |edition=8th |location=Boston, MA s.l |pages=556 }}]
[[File:860631-Pistachio-IMG 6862-2.jpg|alt=Pistachio, [Torbat-e Heydarieh](/source/Torbat-e_Heydarieh), Razavi Khorasan, Iran|thumb|Pistachios growing in Iran in 2007. The fruits have not yet begun to open.]]
The fruit is a [drupe](/source/drupe), containing an elongated [seed](/source/seed), which is the edible portion. The seed, commonly thought of as a nut, is a [culinary nut](/source/nut_(food)), not a [botanical nut](/source/nut_(fruit)). The fruit has a hard, cream-colored exterior shell. The seed has a mauve-colored skin and light green flesh, with a distinctive flavor. When the fruit ripens, the shell changes from green to an autumnal yellow/red and abruptly splits partly open. This is known as [dehiscence](/source/dehiscence_(botany)) and happens with an audible pop. Humans selected the trait of splitting open.[[http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.111.5856&rep=rep1&type=pdf#page=35 Towards a comprehensive documentation and use of Pistacia genetic diversity in Central and West Asia, North Africa and Europe], Report of the IPGRI Workshop, 14–17 December 1998, Irbid, Jordan – S.Padulosi and A. Hadj-Hassan, editors] Commercial [cultivars](/source/cultivars) vary in how consistently they split open.
Each mature pistachio tree averages around {{convert|50|kg|abbr=off}} of seeds, or around 50,000 seeds, every two years.[{{cite book |last=Nugent |first=Jeff |title=Permaculture Plants: A Selection |author2=Julia Boniface |date=30 March 2005 |publisher=Permanent Publications |isbn=978-1856230292 |page=41 |chapter=Pistachio Nuts |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=40n-Z_8ihZMC&pg=PA41 }}]
== Etymology ==
''Pistachio'' is from late [Middle English](/source/Middle_English) ''pistace'', from [Old French](/source/Old_French), superseded in the 16th century by forms from Italian ''pistacchio'', via [Latin](/source/Latin) from [Greek](/source/Ancient_Greek) {{lang|grc|πιστάκιον}} ''pistákion'', ultimately deriving from [Middle Persian](/source/Middle_Persian) ''pistakē'', meaning "[pestle](/source/pestle)" (cf. [pesto](/source/pesto)).[{{Citation |title=pistachio, n. & adj. |date=2 March 2023 |work=Oxford English Dictionary |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oed/7304444088 |access-date=29 September 2024 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/oed/7304444088 |url-access=subscription }}]
==Distribution and habitat==
thumb|Leaves of the pistachio tree|alt=Leaves of a pistachio tree in SyriaPistachio is a desert plant and is highly tolerant of [saline soil](/source/soil_salinity). It has been reported to grow well when irrigated with water having 3,000–4,000 ppm of soluble salts.[Esteban Herrera (1997) ''Growing pistachios in New Mexico,'' New Mexico State University, Cooperative Extension Service, Circular 532 [http://aces.nmsu.edu/pubs/_circulars/circ532.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720013543/http://aces.nmsu.edu/pubs/_circulars/circ532.pdf |date=20 July 2011 }}] Pistachio trees are fairly hardy in the right conditions and can survive temperatures ranging between {{convert|-10|C|F}} in winter and {{convert|118|F|C|order=flip}} in summer. They need a sunny position and well-drained soil. Pistachio trees do poorly in high humidity conditions and are susceptible to [root rot](/source/root_rot) in winter if they get too much water and the soil is not sufficiently free-draining.[{{Cite web |last=Michailides |first=T.J. |date=October 2014 |title=Phytophthora Root and Crown Rot |url=https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/pistachio/phytophthora-root-and-crown-rot/#gsc.tab=0 |access-date=27 September 2024 |website=UCIPM }}] Long, hot summers are required for proper ripening of the fruit.[{{cite web |title=How to Plant and Grow Pistachio Tree |url=https://www.gardenersworld.com/how-to/grow-plants/pistachio-tree/ |website=www.gardenersworld.com |publisher=BBC Gardeners World Magazine |access-date=11 November 2025 }}]
[[File:Dormant Pistachios in California.jpg|alt=Dormant ['Kerman' Variety](/source/Kerman_pistachio) growing in California|thumb|Dormant pistachio trees, California]]
==Cultivation==
The pistachio tree may live up to 300 years.[{{Cite web |url=http://www.infoagro.com/frutas/frutos_secos/pistacho.htm |title=Pistachio cultivation (translated) |website=www.infoagro.com |date=18 March 2019 }}] The trees are planted in [orchard](/source/orchard)s, and take around 7 to 10 years to reach significant production. Production is alternate-bearing or [biennial](/source/Biennial_plant)-bearing, meaning the harvest is heavier in alternate years. Peak production is reached around 20 years. Trees are usually pruned to size to make the harvest easier. One male tree produces enough pollen for 8 to 12 drupe-bearing females. Harvesting in the United States and Greece is often accomplished using equipment to shake the drupes off the tree. After hulling and drying, pistachios are sorted according to open-mouth and closed-mouth shells, then roasted or processed by special machines to produce pistachio kernels.{{citation needed|date=June 2023}}
=== Diseases and environment ===
{{See also|List of pistachio diseases}}
Pistachio trees are vulnerable to numerous diseases and infestation by insects such as ''[Leptoglossus clypealis](/source/Leptoglossus_clypealis)'' in North America.[{{Cite journal |last=Bolkan |first=Hasan |date=1 March 1984 |title=Leaf-footed bug implicated in pistachio epicarp lesion |url=http://calag.ucanr.edu/archive/?article=ca.v038n03p16 |journal=California Agriculture |volume=38 |pages=16–17 |access-date=2 August 2018 |archive-date=19 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220419102950/https://calag.ucanr.edu/archive/?article=ca.v038n03p16 |url-status=dead }}] Among these is infection by the fungus ''[Botryosphaeria](/source/Botryosphaeria)'', which causes panicle and shoot [blight](/source/blight) (symptoms include death of the flowers and young [shoots](/source/Shoot_(botany))), and can damage entire pistachio orchards.[{{cite journal |last1=Parfitt |first1=D.E. |last2=Arjmand |first2=N. |last3=Michailides |first3=T.J. |date=July 2003 |title=Resistance to Botryosphaeria dothidea in pistachio |journal=HortScience |volume=38 |issue=4 |page=529 |doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.38.4.529 |doi-access=free }}] In 2004, the rapidly growing pistachio industry in California was threatened by panicle and shoot blight first discovered in 1984.[{{cite web |date=12 January 2004 |title=California Pistachio Industry Threatened By Potentially Devastating Disease |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/01/040112071931.htm |access-date=9 March 2017 |website=ScienceDaily }}] In 2011, [anthracnose](/source/anthracnose) fungus caused a sudden 50% loss in the Australian pistachio harvest.[{{cite web |author=Keim, Brandon |date=26 April 2011 |title=Australia Pistachio Disaster Hints at Agricultural Breakdown |url=https://www.wired.com/2011/04/pistachio-disease/ |access-date=9 March 2017 |publisher=Wired Magazine-Science }}] Several years of severe drought in Iran around 2008 to 2015 caused significant declines in production.[{{cite news |author=Erdbrink, Thomas |date=18 December 2015 |title=Scarred Riverbeds and Dead Pistachio Trees in a Parched Iran |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/19/world/middleeast/scarred-riverbeds-and-dead-pistachio-trees-in-a-parched-iran.html |access-date=9 March 2017 }}]
==Commercial production==
{{table alignment}}
{| class="wikitable floatright col2right"
|+ Pistachio production
(2024, tonnes)[{{cite web |url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL |title=Pistachio production (in shell) in 2024, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists) |date=2026 |publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT) |access-date=12 March 2026 }}]
|-
| {{Flagu|United States}} || 498,950
|-
| {{Flagu|Turkey}} || 383,000
|-
| {{Flagu|Iran}} || 316,142
|-
| {{Flagu|Syria}} || 83,796
|-
| {{Flagu|China}} || 78,986
|-
| '''World''' || '''1,380,321'''
|}
In 2024, world production of pistachios was 1.4 million [tonne](/source/tonne)s (3.1 billion [pounds](/source/Pound_(mass))), with the United States, Turkey, and Iran together accounting for 87% of the total (see the table).
In 2023, the state of California produced 99% of the pistachios grown in the United States, with more than {{cvt|428000|acre}} devoted to the crop in 2022.[{{cite web |url=https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/nuts/pistachios |title=Pistachios |publisher=Agricultural Marketing Resource Center, US Department of Agriculture |date=December 2023 |access-date=12 March 2026 }}]
===Water needs===
In a typical California orchard of {{cvt|1|acre|ha}}, pistachios require over {{cvt|1000000|USgal|litre}} of water per year, an amount adding stress to the state's [water problem](/source/Water_scarcity_in_the_United_States).[{{cite news |vauthors=Creswell J, Gu J |title=How a Sapling and a Viral Candy Made California the World’s Pistachio King |access-date=6 April 2026 |work=The New York Times |date=2 April 2026 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2026/04/02/business/california-pistachios-iran-war-dubai-chocolate.html }}] Nearly all California pistachios grow in state regions classified as having extremely high water stress.[
==Toxicity==
As with other tree seeds, [aflatoxin](/source/aflatoxin) is found in poorly harvested or processed pistachios. Aflatoxins are potent [carcinogen](/source/carcinogen)ic chemicals produced by molds such as ''[Aspergillus flavus](/source/Aspergillus_flavus)'' and ''[A. parasiticus](/source/Aspergillus_parasiticus)''. The mold contamination may occur from soil or poor storage and be spread by pests. High levels of mold growth typically appear as gray to black filament-like growth. Eating mold-infected and aflatoxin-contaminated pistachios is unsafe.][{{cite web |author=E. Boutrif |year=1998 |title=Prevention of aflatoxin in pistachios |url=https://nootropicsfrontline.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/wiki_Prevention-of-aflatoxin-in-pistachios.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://nootropicsfrontline.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/wiki_Prevention-of-aflatoxin-in-pistachios.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |publisher=FAO, United Nations }}] Aflatoxin contamination is a frequent risk, particularly in warmer and humid environments. Food contaminated with aflatoxins has caused frequent outbreaks of acute illnesses in parts of the world. In some cases, such as in Kenya, this has led to several deaths.[{{cite web |year=2008 |title=Aflatoxins in pistachios |url=http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/jrc/downloads/jrc_irmm_aflatoxins_leaflet.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/jrc/downloads/jrc_irmm_aflatoxins_leaflet.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |publisher=European Union }}]
Pistachio shells typically split naturally before harvest, with a hull covering the intact seeds. The hull protects the kernel from invasion by molds and insects, but this hull protection can be damaged in the orchard by poor orchard management practices, by birds, or after harvest, which makes exposure to contamination much easier. Some pistachios undergo a so-called "early split", wherein both the hull and the shell split. Damage or early splits can lead to aflatoxin contamination.[{{cite journal |author=Doster and Michailides |year=1994 |title=Aspergillus Moulds and Aflatoxins in Pistachio Nuts in California |journal=Phytopathology |volume=84 |issue=6 |pages=583–590 |doi=10.1094/phyto-84-583 |bibcode=1994PhPat..84..583D }}] In some cases, a harvest may be treated to keep contamination below strict food safety thresholds; in other cases, an entire batch of pistachios must be destroyed because of aflatoxin contamination.
Like other members of the family [Anacardiaceae](/source/Anacardiaceae) (which includes [poison ivy](/source/poison_ivy), [sumac](/source/sumac), [mango](/source/Mangifera_indica), and [cashew](/source/cashew)), pistachios contain [urushiol](/source/urushiol), an irritant that can cause [allergic skin reactions](/source/allergy).[{{cite book |last=Mabberley |first=D. J. |url=https://archive.org/details/plantbookportabl0000mabb/page/27 |title=The Plant Book |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1993 |isbn=0521340608 |location=Cambridge |page=[https://archive.org/details/plantbookportabl0000mabb/page/27 27] |url-access=registration }}]
Large quantities of pistachios are self-heating in the presence of moisture due to their high oil content in addition to naturally occurring [lipase](/source/lipase)s, and can [spontaneously combust](/source/spontaneously_combust) if stored with a combustible fabric such as [jute](/source/jute).[{{cite web |title=Pistachio Nuts – RF Self-heating / Spontaneous combustion |url=https://www.tis-gdv.de/tis_e/ware/nuesse/pistazie/pistazie.htm/#selbsterhitzung |access-date=5 November 2007 |website=tis-gdv.de |publisher=The German Insurance Association }}]
===Priority allergen===
Pistachios are included among other tree nuts as a priority allergen that may cause severe allergic reactions in susceptible people.[{{cite web |title=Tree nuts |url=https://foodallergycanada.ca/allergies/tree-nuts/ |publisher=Food Allergy Canada |access-date=20 March 2026 |date=2026 }}] An allergic reaction to pistachio consumption may lead to [anaphylaxis](/source/anaphylaxis), having symptoms such as hives or swelling of the face, lips, or tongue, coughing or shortness of breath, and upset stomach, among other effects.[
{{multiple image|perrow=1|image1=Turkish delight large.jpg|caption1=Turkish delight|width1=150
|image2=Dubai-Schokolade-Riegel-Angeschnitten.jpg|caption2=[Dubai chocolate](/source/Dubai_chocolate) showing pistachio filling|width2=150}}
==Uses==
The kernels are often eaten whole, either fresh or roasted and [salted](/source/Salting_(food)), and are also used in [Turkish delight](/source/Turkish_delight) candy, [pistachio ice cream](/source/pistachio_ice_cream), [traditional Persian ice cream](/source/bastani), [kulfi](/source/kulfi), [spumoni](/source/spumoni), pistachio butter,][{{cite journal |last1=Ardekani |first1=A. S. H. |last2=Shahedi |first2=M. |last3=Kabir |first3=G. |year=2009 |title=Optimizing Formulation of Pistachio Butter Production |journal=Journal of Science and Technology of Agriculture and Natural Resources |volume=13 |issue=47 |pages=49–59 |url=http://journals.iut.ac.ir/emag/jstnar/eabsv13n47y2009p60.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110819040318/http://journals.iut.ac.ir/emag/jstnar/eabsv13n47y2009p60.pdf |archive-date=19 August 2011 }}][{{cite book |last1=Ardakani |last2=Shahedi |first2=M. |last3=Kabir |first3=G. |year=2006 |title=Optimizing of the process of pistachio butter production |series=Acta Horticulturae |volume=726 |pages=565–568 |url=http://www.pubhort.org/actahort/books/726/726_94.htm |access-date=4 May 2011 |archive-date=3 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403192040/http://www.pubhort.org/actahort/books/726/726_94.htm |url-status=dead }}] pistachio paste,[{{cite journal |last1=Shakerardekani |first1=A. |last2=Karim |first2=R. |last3=Mohd Ghazali |first3=H. |last4=Chin |first4=N. L. |year=2011 |title=Effect of roasting conditions on hardness, moisture content and colour of pistachio kernels |journal=International Food Research Journal |volume=18 |pages=704–710 |url=http://www.ifrj.upm.edu.my/18%20(02)%202011/(35)%20IFRJ-2010-286.pdf }}] and confections such as [baklava](/source/baklava), pistachio chocolate,[{{cite book |last=Ardakani |year=2006 |title=The vital role of pistachio processing industries in development of Iran non-oil exports |series=Acta Horticulturae |volume=726 |pages=579–581 |url=http://www.pubhort.org/actahort/books/726/726_97.htm |access-date=4 May 2011 |archive-date=3 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403140403/http://www.pubhort.org/actahort/books/726/726_97.htm |url-status=dead }}] pistachio [halva](/source/halva),[{{cite journal |last1=Shaker Ardakai |first1=A. |last2=Mir Damadiha |first2=F. |last3=Salehi |first3=F. |last4=Shahedi |first4=M. |last5=Kabir |first5=G. H. |last6=Javan Shah |first6=A. |year=2007 |title=Pistachio Halva Production |publisher=Iran Pistachio Research Institute |journal=Document Number: 29328 |url=http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search/display.do?f=2009%2FIR%2FIR0901.xml%3BIR2008001687 |display-authors=etal |access-date=4 May 2011 |archive-date=31 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181231143649/http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search/display.do?f=2009%2FIR%2FIR0901.xml%3BIR2008001687 |url-status=dead }}] pistachio [lokum](/source/lokum) or [biscotti](/source/biscotti), and [cold cut](/source/cold_cut)s, such as [mortadella](/source/mortadella). Americans make [pistachio salad](/source/pistachio_salad), which includes fresh pistachios or pistachio pudding, whipped cream, and canned fruit.[{{cite web |url=http://www.recipesource.com/fgv/salads/18/rec1881.html |title=Pistachio Salad |publisher=RecipeSource |access-date=17 January 2011 }}] Indian cooking uses pounded pistachios with grilled meats, and in pulao rice dishes.
The shell of the pistachio is naturally a beige color, but it may be dyed red or green in commercial pistachios. Originally, dye was applied to hide stains on the shells caused when the nuts were picked by hand.[{{cite news |author=Spiegel, Alison |date=2 February 2015 |title=Remember Red Pistachios? Here's What Happened To Them |work=The Huffington Post |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/what-are-red-pistachios_n_6570944 |url-status=live |access-date=9 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190916012043/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/what-are-red-pistachios_n_6570944 |archive-date=16 September 2019 }}] In the 21st century, most pistachios are harvested by machine and the shells remain unstained.[
== Nutrition ==
{{nutritional value
| name = Pistachio nuts, raw
| kJ = 2351
| protein = 20.27 g
| fat = 45.39 g
| satfat = 5.556 g
| monofat = 23.820 g
| polyfat = 13.744 g
| carbs = 27.51 g
| fiber = 10.3 g
| sugars = 7.66 g
| iron_mg = 3.92
| manganese_mg = 1.2
| calcium_mg = 105
| magnesium_mg = 121
| phosphorus_mg = 490
| potassium_mg = 1025
| zinc_mg = 2.2
| thiamin_mg = 0.87
| riboflavin_mg = 0.160
| niacin_mg = 1.300
| pantothenic_mg = 0.52
| vitB6_mg = 1.700
| folate_ug = 51
| vitC_mg = 5.6
| vitD_ug = 0
| vitE_mg = 2.3
| vitK_ug =13.2
| lutein_ug = 1205
| water= 4 g
| note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/170184/nutrients Link to USDA database entry]
}}
Raw pistachios are 4% water, 45% fat, 28% [carbohydrate](/source/carbohydrate)s, and 20% [protein](/source/Protein_(nutrient)) (table). In a 100-gram reference amount, pistachios provide {{convert|2351|kJ|kcal}} of [food energy](/source/food_energy). They are a rich source (20% or more of the [Daily Value](/source/Daily_Value) or DV) of protein, [dietary fiber](/source/dietary_fiber), several [dietary minerals](/source/mineral_(nutrient)), and the B vitamins [thiamin](/source/thiamin) (73% DV) and [vitamin B6](/source/vitamin_B6) (100% DV) (table). Pistachios are a moderate source (10–19% DV) of [riboflavin](/source/riboflavin), [vitamin B5](/source/pantothenic_acid), [folate](/source/folate), [vitamin E](/source/vitamin_E), and [vitamin K](/source/vitamin_K) (table).
The fat profile of raw pistachios consists mainly of [monounsaturated fat](/source/monounsaturated_fat)s and [polyunsaturated fats](/source/polyunsaturated_fats), with a small amount of [saturated fat](/source/saturated_fat)s (table). Saturated fatty acids include [palmitic acid](/source/palmitic_acid) (10% of total) and [stearic acid](/source/stearic_acid) (2%) (table). [Oleic acid](/source/Oleic_acid) is the most common monounsaturated fatty acid (52% of total fat), and [linoleic acid](/source/linoleic_acid), a polyunsaturated fatty acid, is 30% of total fat. Relative to other tree nuts, pistachios have a lower amount of fat and food energy, but higher amounts of [potassium](/source/potassium), vitamin K, [γ-tocopherol](/source/Tocopherol), and certain [phytochemical](/source/phytochemical)s such as [carotenoid](/source/carotenoid)s, and [phytosterol](/source/phytosterol)s.][{{cite journal |last1=Bulló |first1=M |last2=Juanola-Falgarona |first2=M |last3=Hernández-Alonso |first3=P |last4=Salas-Salvadó |first4=J |title=Nutrition attributes and health effects of pistachio nuts |journal=The British Journal of Nutrition |date=April 2015 |volume=113 |issue=Supplement 2 |pages=S79–93 |doi=10.1017/S0007114514003250 |pmid=26148925 |type=Review |doi-access=free }}][{{cite journal |last1=Dreher |first1=ML |title=Pistachio nuts: composition and potential health benefits |journal=Nutrition Reviews |date=April 2012 |volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=234–240 |doi=10.1111/j.1753-4887.2011.00467.x |pmid=22458696 |type=Review |doi-access=free }}]
=== Research and health effects ===
In July 2003, the United States [Food and Drug Administration](/source/Food_and_Drug_Administration) approved the first qualified [health claim](/source/health_claim) specific to consumption of seeds (including pistachios) to lower the risk of [heart disease](/source/heart_disease): "[Scientific evidence](/source/Scientific_evidence) suggests but does not prove that eating {{convert|1.5|oz|g|1}} per day of most nuts, such as pistachios, as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol may reduce the risk of heart disease".[{{cite web |url=http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/qhcnuts2.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617172958/http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/qhcnuts2.html |archive-date=17 June 2008 |title=Qualified Health Claims: Letter of Enforcement Discretion – Nuts and Coronary Heart Disease (Docket No 02P-0505) |access-date=17 June 2008 |author=Office of Nutritional Products, Labeling and Dietary Supplements |date=23 July 2003 |publisher=[Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition](/source/Center_for_Food_Safety_and_Applied_Nutrition) }}] Although a typical serving of pistachios supplies substantial food energy (nutrition table), their consumption in normal amounts is not associated with weight gain or [obesity](/source/obesity).[{{cite journal |last1=Mohammadifard |first1=N |last2=Salehi-Abargouei |first2=A |last3=Salas-Salvadó |first3=J |last4=Guasch-Ferré |first4=M |last5=Humphries |first5=K |last6=Sarrafzadegan |first6=N |title=The effect of tree nut, peanut, and soy nut consumption on blood pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |date=May 2015 |volume=101 |issue=5 |pages=966–982 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.114.091595 |pmid=25809855 |type=Systematic Review & Meta-Analysis |doi-access=free }}] A 2021 review found that pistachio consumption for three months or less significantly reduced [triglyceride](/source/triglyceride) levels.[{{cite journal |last1=Muley |first1=Arti |title=Effect of tree nuts on glycemic outcomes in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review |journal=JBI Evidence Synthesis |date=2021 |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=966–1002 |doi=10.11124/JBISRIR-D-19-00397 |pmid=33141798 |s2cid=226250006 }}]
==History==
The pistachio tree is native to [Iran](/source/Flora_of_Iran) and Central Asia.[{{Cite book |last=Marks |first=Gil |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gFK_yx7Ps7cC&pg=PT1 |title=Encyclopedia of Jewish Food |date=2010 |publisher=HMH |isbn=978-0544186316 |language=en |quote=These pale green nuts covered with a papery skin grow on a small deciduous tree native to Persia, the area that still produces the best pistachios. }}][{{Cite web |title=''Pistacia vera'' L. |publisher=Kew Science |url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:70280-1 |access-date=24 May 2019 |website=Plants of the World Online }}][{{Cite web |title=Pistachio {{!}} Description, Uses, & Nutrition |url=https://www.britannica.com/plant/pistachio-plant |access-date=24 May 2019 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |quote=The pistachio tree is believed to be indigenous to Iran. }}][{{Cite journal |last=V. Tavallali and M. Rahemi |date=2007 |title=Effects of Rootstock on Nutrient Acquisition by Leaf, Kernel and Quality of Pistachio (''Pistacia vera'' L.) |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/53e4/b0db43473510e6cbadb0b076bb77791f498a.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=American-Eurasian J. Agric. & Environ. Sci. |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=240–246 |s2cid=7346114 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224061521/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/53e4/b0db43473510e6cbadb0b076bb77791f498a.pdf |archive-date=24 February 2019 |quote=Native ''P. vera'' forests are located in north eastern part of Iran particularly in Sarakhs region. This native ''P. vera'' is the origin of cultivated pistachio trees in Iran [1]. ''[P. mutica](/source/Pistacia_atlantica)'' is a wild species indigenous to Iran that grows with almonds, oak, and other forest trees and is common to most Alpine regions. ''[P. khinjuk](/source/Pistacia_khinjuk)'' is another wild species indigenous to Iran, growing along with ''P. mutica'' in alpine areas, low altitudes and warmer areas as well }}]
[Archaeological evidence](/source/Archaeology) shows that pistachio seeds were a common food as early as 6750 BCE.[{{cite web |title=History and Agriculture of the Pistachio Nut |url=http://www.ireco.lu/UK/pistachionut.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060708221932/http://www.ireco.lu/UK/pistachionut.html |archive-date=8 July 2006 |access-date=27 February 2012 |publisher=IRECO }}] The earliest archeological evidence of pistachio production goes back to the Bronze Age Central Asia and comes from [Djarkutan](/source/Djarkutan), modern Uzbekistan.[{{cite book |author=D. T. Potts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7lK6l7oF_ccC&pg=PA199 |title=A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, Volume 1 |date=21 May 2012 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1405189880 |page=199 }}][{{cite book |author=Harlan Walker |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lpOqTUucwhUC&pg=PA84 |title=Cooks and Other People |publisher=Oxford Symposium |year=1996 |isbn=978-0907325727 |page=84 }}]
The [Hanging Gardens of Babylon](/source/Hanging_Gardens_of_Babylon) were said to have contained pistachio trees during the reign of King [Marduk-apla-iddina II](/source/Marduk-apla-iddina_II) about 700 BCE.[Davidson (1999) ''Oxford Companion to food,'' Oxford University Press]
[Theophrastus](/source/Theophrastus) described it as a [terebinth](/source/terebinth)-like tree with [almond](/source/almond)-like nuts from [Bactria](/source/Bactria).[{{Cite book |last=Theophrastus |author2=[Arthur Hort](/source/Arthur_Hort) |title=Enquiry into Plants |publisher=William Heinemann |others=Translated by Sir Arthur Hort |year=1916 |volume=1 |location=London |pages=317 }}]
It appears in [Dioscorides](/source/Dioscorides)' writings as ''pistákia'' (πιστάκια), recognizable as ''P. vera'' by its comparison to [pine nut](/source/pine_nut)s.[James Strong, ed. ''Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature,'' ''s.v.'' "Nut".]
[Pliny the Elder](/source/Pliny_the_Elder) wrote in his [''Natural History''](/source/Natural_History_(Pliny)) that ''pistacia'', "well known among us", was one of the trees unique to Syria, and that the [seed](/source/seed) was introduced into Italy by the Roman [proconsul](/source/proconsul) in Syria, [Lucius Vitellius the Elder](/source/Lucius_Vitellius_the_Elder) (in office in 35 AD), and into [Hispania](/source/Hispania) at the same time by [Flaccus Pompeius](/source/Cicero).[[Pliny's Natural History](/source/Pliny's_Natural_History), xiii.10.5, xv.22.]
The manuscript ''De observatione ciborum'' (''On the Observance of Foods'') by [Anthimus](/source/Anthimus_(physician)),[{{cite Q |Q130283165 |mode=cs1 }}] from the early sixth century, implies that ''pistacia'' remained well-known in Europe in [late antiquity](/source/late_antiquity).
An article on pistachio tree cultivation was brought down in [Ibn al-'Awwam](/source/Ibn_al-'Awwam)'s 12th-century agricultural work, ''Book on Agriculture''.[{{cite book |last=Ibn al-'Awwam |first=Yaḥyá |url=https://archive.org/details/lelivredelagric00algoog/page/n14/mode/2up |title=Le livre de l'agriculture d'Ibn-al-Awam (kitab-al-felahah) |publisher=A. Franck |year=1864 |location=Paris |pages=245–248 (ch. 7 – Article 14) |language=fr |translator=J.-J. Clement-Mullet |oclc=780050566 |author-link=Ibn al-'Awwam}} (pp. [245](/source/iarchive%3Alelivredelagric00algoog%2Fpage%2Fn352%2Fmode%2F2up)–248 (Article XIV)]
[Archaeologists](/source/Archaeologists) have found evidence from excavations at [Jarmo](/source/Jarmo) in northeastern Iraq for the consumption of Atlantic pistachio.[{{Cite web |last=Rieger |first=Mark |title=Pistachio – ''Pistacia vera'' |url=http://www.uga.edu/fruit/pistachio-pistacia-vera/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20141030171646/http://www.uga.edu/fruit/pistachio-pistacia-vera/ |access-date=16 January 2023 |date=30 October 2014 |archive-date=30 October 2014 |publisher=University of Georgia }}]
In 1904 and 1905, [David Fairchild](/source/David_Fairchild) of the [United States Department of Agriculture](/source/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture) introduced hardier [cultivar](/source/cultivar)s to California collected from China, but it was not promoted as a commercial crop until 1929.[{{Cite book |last=Fairchild |first=David |url=https://archive.org/details/worldwasmygarden00fair |title=The World Was My Garden (first published in 1938) |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons; Blackburn Press (2018) |year=2018 |isbn=1932846301 |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/worldwasmygarden00fair/page/174 174] |author-link=David Fairchild |url-access=registration }}] [Walter T. Swingle's](/source/Walter_Tennyson_Swingle) pistachios from Syria had already fruited well at [Niles](/source/Niles%2C_Fremont%2C_California), California, by 1917.[[Liberty Hyde Bailey](/source/Liberty_Hyde_Bailey), ''Cyclopedia of American Agriculture: II.Crops'', 1917, ''s.v.''"Importance of plant introduction" p. {{page needed|date=September 2022 }}]
The first commercial pistachio harvest in California took place in 1976.[{{cite news |last=Durkin |first=Andrea |date=14 April 2020 |title=Pistachios: The Quirks of Agricultural Trade in a Nutshell |language= |pages= |newspaper=Global Trade |publisher= |location= |url=https://www.globaltrademag.com/pistachios-the-quirks-of-agricultural-trade-in-a-nutshell/ |access-date=21 February 2023 }}] By 2008, U.S. pistachio production rivaled that of Iran. Drought and cold weather in Iran led to severe declines in production, while U.S. production was increasing. At that time, pistachios were Iran's second-most important export product, after the oil and gas sector.[{{cite news |last=Dahl |first=Frederick |date=8 October 2008 |title=Iran faces U.S. challenge in "pistachio war" |language= |pages= |newspaper=[Reuters](/source/Reuters) |publisher= |location= |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iran-pistachios/iran-faces-u-s-challenge-in-pistachio-war-idUSTRE49806E20081009 |access-date=21 February 2023 }}]
By 2020, there were 150,000 pistachio farmers in Iran, approximately 70% of whom were small-scale producers using inefficient manual picking and processing techniques. There were 950 far larger U.S. producers, using highly efficient mechanized production techniques.