# Petroleum

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Naturally occurring combustible liquid

"Crude oil" redirects here. For the 2008 film, see [*Crude Oil* (film)](/source/Crude_Oil_(film)). For other uses, see [Petroleum (disambiguation)](/source/Petroleum_(disambiguation)).

A sample of petroleum

[Pumpjack](/source/Pumpjack) pumping an oil well near [Lubbock, Texas](/source/Lubbock%2C_Texas), U.S.

An oil refinery in [Ahmadi Governorate](/source/Ahmadi_Governorate) in Kuwait

**Petroleum**, also known as **crude oil** or simply **oil**, is a [natural resource](/source/Natural_resource) that appears as a yellowish-black liquid [chemical mixture](/source/Chemical_mixture) found in [geological formations](/source/Geological_formation), consisting primarily of [hydrocarbons](/source/Hydrocarbon).[1] The term *petroleum* refers to both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil, as well as to [petroleum products](/source/Petroleum_product) that consist of [refined](/source/Refining) crude oil.

Petroleum is a [fossil fuel](/source/Fossil_fuel) formed over millions of years from [anaerobic decay](/source/Anaerobic_decay) of [organic materials](/source/Organic_material) from buried [prehistoric](/source/Prehistoric_life) [organisms](/source/Organism), particularly [plankton](/source/Plankton) and [algae](/source/Algae). It is estimated that 70% of the world's oil deposits were formed during the [Mesozoic](/source/Mesozoic), 20% were formed in the [Cenozoic](/source/Cenozoic), and only 10% were formed in the [Paleozoic](/source/Paleozoic).[2] Conventional reserves of petroleum are primarily recovered by [drilling](/source/Oil_drilling), which is performed after studying the relevant [structural geology](/source/Structural_geology), [analysis of the sedimentary basin](/source/Sedimentary_basin_analysis), and [characterization of the petroleum reservoir](/source/Reservoir_characterization). There are also [unconventional](/source/Unconventional_(oil_%26_gas)_reservoir) reserves such as [oil sands](/source/Oil_sands) and [oil shale](/source/Oil_shale) which are recovered using methods such as [fracking](/source/Fracking).

Once extracted, oil is refined and separated, most easily by [distillation](/source/Continuous_distillation#Continuous_distillation_of_crude_oil), into numerous products for direct use or use in manufacturing. Petroleum products include fuels such as [gasoline](/source/Gasoline) (petrol), [diesel](/source/Diesel_fuel), [kerosene](/source/Kerosene) and [jet fuel](/source/Jet_fuel); [bitumen](/source/Bitumen), [paraffin wax](/source/Paraffin_wax) and lubricants; [reagents](/source/Reagent) used to make [plastics](/source/Plastic); [solvents](/source/Solvents), textiles, [refrigerants](/source/Refrigerants), paint, [synthetic rubber](/source/Synthetic_rubber), [fertilizers](/source/Fertilizers), [pesticides](/source/Pesticide), pharmaceuticals, and thousands of other [petrochemicals](/source/Petrochemical). Petroleum is used to manufacture a wide variety of materials essential for modern life,[3] and it is estimated that the world consumes about 100 million [barrels](/source/Barrel_(unit)#Oil_barrel) (16 million [cubic metres](/source/Cubic_metre)) each day. Petroleum production played a key role in industrialization and [economic development](/source/Economic_development),[4] especially after the [Second Industrial Revolution](/source/Second_Industrial_Revolution). Some petroleum-rich countries, known as [petrostates](/source/Petrostate), gained significant economic and international influence during the latter half of the 20th century due to their control of oil production and trade.

Petroleum is a [non-renewable natural resource](/source/Non-renewable_resource), and its [exploitation](/source/Exploitation_of_natural_resources) is damaging to the [natural environment](/source/Natural_environment), [climate system](/source/Climate_system) and human health. [Extraction](/source/Extraction_of_petroleum), [refining](/source/Petroleum_industry) and burning of petroleum fuels counteract [carbon sinks](/source/Carbon_sink) by [releasing](/source/Greenhouse_gas_emissions) large quantities of [greenhouse gases](/source/Greenhouse_gas) back into the Earth's atmosphere, making petroleum one of the major contributors to [anthropogenic climate change](/source/Anthropogenic_climate_change). Other [negative environmental effects](/source/Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry), at almost all stages of use, include direct release—such as [oil spills](/source/Oil_spill)—and secondary pollution of air and water sources.

Proximity to petroleum deposits, and subsequent access to and pricing of oil have historically fueled both domestic and geopolitical conflicts, state-sanctioned [oil wars](/source/Oil_war), diplomatic and [trade frictions](/source/Trade_war), [energy policy](/source/Energy_policy) disputes and other [resource conflicts](/source/Environmental_conflict). While production is estimated to reach [peak oil](/source/Peak_oil) before 2035,[5] global economic focus on [climate change mitigation](/source/Climate_change_mitigation) in the transition to [renewable energy](/source/Renewable_energy) sources and increased electrification will greatly reduce dependency on petroleum.[6]

## Etymology

The close structural similarity of vanadium [porphyrin](/source/Porphyrin) compound (left) extracted from petroleum and [chlorophyll a](/source/Chlorophyll_a) (right) established the biological origin of petroleum.

The word *petroleum* comes from Medieval Latin *[petroleum](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/petroleum#Latin)* (literally 'rock oil'), which comes from Latin *[petra](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/petra#Latin)* 'rock' (from Greek *pétra* [πέτρα](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%80%CE%AD%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B1#Ancient_Greek)) and *[oleum](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/oleum#Latin)* 'oil' (from Greek *élaion* [ἔλαιον](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BC%94%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BD#Ancient_Greek)).[7][8] The origin of the term stems from monasteries in southern Italy where it was in use by the end of the first millennium as an alternative for the older term "[naphtha](/source/Naphtha)".[9] After that, the term was used in numerous manuscripts and books, such as in the treatise *[De Natura Fossilium](/source/De_Natura_Fossilium)*, published in 1546 by German mineralogist [Georg Bauer](/source/Georg_Bauer).[10] After the advent of the oil industry during the second half of the 19th century, the term became commonly known for the liquid form of hydrocarbons.

## History

Main article: [History of the petroleum industry](/source/History_of_the_petroleum_industry)

### Early

An oil derrick in [Okemah, Oklahoma](/source/Okemah%2C_Oklahoma) in 1922

Petroleum in one form or another has been used since ancient times. More than 4,300 years ago, [bitumen](/source/Bitumen) was mentioned when the [Sumerians](/source/Sumer) used it to make boats. A tablet of the legend of the birth of [Sargon of Akkad](/source/Sargon_of_Akkad) mentions a basket which was closed by straw and bitumen. More than 4,000 years ago, according to [Herodotus](/source/Herodotus) and [Diodorus Siculus](/source/Diodorus_Siculus), asphalt (bitumen) was used in the construction of the walls and towers of [Babylon](/source/Babylon); there were oil pits near [Ardericca](/source/Ardericca_in_Susiana) and Babylon and a pitch spring on [Zakynthos](/source/Zakynthos).[11] In Babylon, petroleum was used for road construction, ship caulking, and medicine.[12]

The use of petroleum in ancient China dates back more than 2,000 years. The *[I Ching](/source/I_Ching)*, one of the earliest Chinese writings, cites that oil in its raw state, without refining, was first discovered, extracted, and used in China in the 1st century BCE. In addition, the Chinese were the first to record the use of petroleum as fuel as early as the 4th century BCE.[13][14][15] By 347 CE, oil was produced from bamboo-drilled wells in China.[16][17]

In the 7th century, petroleum was among the essential ingredients for [Greek fire](/source/Greek_fire), an incendiary projectile weapon that was used by [Byzantine Greeks](/source/Byzantine_Greeks) against Arab ships attacking [Constantinople](/source/Constantinople).[18] Crude oil was distilled by [Persian chemists](/source/Alchemy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world), with clear descriptions given in Arabic handbooks such as those of [Abu Bakr al-Razi](/source/Abu_Bakr_al-Razi).[19]

In the 9th century, [oil fields](/source/Petroleum_reservoir) were exploited in the area around modern [Baku](/source/Baku), Azerbaijan. These fields were described by Abu Bakr al-Razi in the 10th century and by [Marco Polo](/source/Marco_Polo) in the 13th century, who describes the output of those wells as hundreds of shiploads.[20] Arab and Persian chemists distilled crude oil to produce flammable products for military purposes. Through [Islamic Spain](/source/Islamic_Spain), distillation became available in Western Europe by the 12th century.[21] It was present in Romania since the 13th century, being recorded as păcură.[22]

Sophisticated oil pits, 4.5 to 6 metres (15 to 20 ft) deep, were dug by the [Seneca people](/source/Seneca_people) and other [Iroquois](/source/Iroquois) in [Western Pennsylvania](/source/Western_Pennsylvania) as early as 1415–1450. The French General [Louis-Joseph de Montcalm](/source/Louis-Joseph_de_Montcalm) encountered Seneca using petroleum for ceremonial fires and as a healing lotion during a visit to [Fort Duquesne](/source/Fort_Duquesne) in 1750.[23] Early British explorers to [Myanmar](/source/Myanmar) documented a flourishing oil extraction industry based in [Yenangyaung](/source/Yenangyaung) that, in 1795, had hundreds of hand-dug wells under production.[24] [Merkwiller-Pechelbronn](/source/Merkwiller-Pechelbronn) is said to be the first European site where petroleum has been explored and used. The still active Erdpechquelle, a spring where petroleum appears mixed with water, has been used since 1498, notably for medical purposes.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

### 19th century

[Ignacy Łukasiewicz](/source/Ignacy_%C5%81ukasiewicz), credited with the first commercial oil extraction in 1854 in [Bóbrka](/source/B%C3%B3brka%2C_Krosno_County), Poland, and opening the world's first industrial oil refinery

In 1859, [Edwin Drake](/source/Edwin_Drake) drilled the world's first successful oil well at what is now known as [Drake Well](/source/Drake_Well) in [Cherrytree Township, Pennsylvania](/source/Cherrytree_Township%2C_Pennsylvania).

Shale [bings](/source/Spoil_tip) near [Broxburn](/source/Broxburn), three of a total of 19 in [West Lothian](/source/West_Lothian), Scotland

In the mid-19th century, oil wells developed quickly in various parts of the world, though the title of the "first oil well" depends on the criteria. In 1846, a group of [Russian Imperial](/source/Russian_Empire) engineers directed by Major Alexeyev of the Bakinskii Corps of Mining Engineers accidentally struck oil while hand-drilling with a primitive percussion rig in [Bibi-Heybat](/source/Bibiheyb%C9%99t), near [Baku](/source/Baku) (now Azerbaijan), though they were not specifically searching for oil.[25] In 1853, [Ignacy Łukasiewicz](/source/Ignacy_%C5%81ukasiewicz), who discovered how to distill [kerosene](/source/Kerosene) from seep crude oil and invented the modern [kerosene lamp](/source/Kerosene_lamp), hand-dug the first intentional well for commercial oil extraction in [Bóbrka](/source/B%C3%B3brka%2C_Krosno_County), Poland, to supply fuel for lighting (still operational as of 2025[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Petroleum&action=edit)).[26] A hand-dug well and another refinery followed in 1857 near [Ploiești](/source/Ploie%C8%99ti), Romania. Romania (then a vassal of the Ottoman Empire) was the first country in the world to have its annual crude oil output officially recorded in international statistics – 275 tonnes for 1857.[27][28]

In 1858, Georg Christian Konrad Hunäus found a significant amount of petroleum while drilling for [lignite](/source/Lignite) in [Wietze](/source/Wietze), Germany. Wietze later provided about 80% of German consumption in the Wilhelmine Era.[29] The production stopped in 1963, but Wietze has hosted a petroleum museum since 1970.[30] [Oil sands](/source/Oil_sands) have been mined since the 18th century.[31] In Wietze, natural asphalt/bitumen has been explored since the 18th century.[32] Both in Pechelbronn as in Wietze, the coal industry dominated the petroleum technologies.[33]

Chemist [James Young](/source/James_Young_(chemist)) in 1847 noticed a natural petroleum seepage in the coal mine at [Riddings](/source/Riddings), Derbyshire, from which he distilled a light thin oil suitable for use as lamp oil, at the same time obtaining a more viscous oil suitable for lubricating machinery. In 1848, Young set up a small business refining crude oil.[34] Young eventually succeeded (by distilling [cannel coal](/source/Cannel_coal) at low heat) in creating a fluid resembling petroleum, which when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. Young found that by slow distillation he could obtain several useful liquids from it, one of which he named "paraffine oil" because at low temperatures it congealed into a substance resembling [paraffin wax](/source/Paraffin_wax).[34] The production of these oils and solid paraffin wax from coal formed the subject of his patent dated October 17, 1850. In 1850, Young & Meldrum and Edward William Binney entered into partnership under the title of E.W. Binney & Co. at [Bathgate](/source/Bathgate) in West Lothian and E. Meldrum & Co. at Glasgow; their works at Bathgate were completed in 1851 and became the first truly commercial oil-works in the world with the first modern oil refinery.[35][*[clarification needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify)*]

The demand for petroleum as a fuel for lighting in North America and around the world quickly grew.[36] The first oil well in the Americas was drilled in 1859 by [Edwin Drake](/source/Edwin_Drake) at what is now called the [Drake Well](/source/Drake_Well) in [Cherrytree Township, Pennsylvania](/source/Cherrytree_Township%2C_Pennsylvania). There also was a company associated with it, and it sparked an [oil boom](/source/Oil_boom) and rapid expansion of the global petroleum industry. The same year, engine-drilled wells appeared in West Virginia.[37][38]

The [first commercial oil well](/source/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_Canada#Early_origins) in Canada became operational in 1858 at [Oil Springs, Ontario](/source/Oil_Springs%2C_Ontario).[39] Businessman [James Miller Williams](/source/James_Miller_Williams) dug several wells between 1855 and 1858 before discovering a rich reserve of oil four metres below ground.[40][*[specify](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*] Williams extracted 1.5 million litres of crude oil by 1860, refining much of it into kerosene lamp oil. Williams's well became commercially viable a year before Drake's Pennsylvania operation and could be argued to be the first commercial oil well in North America.[41] The discovery at Oil Springs touched off an oil boom which brought hundreds of speculators and workers to the area. Advances in drilling continued into 1862 when local driller Shaw reached a depth of 62 metres using the spring-pole drilling method.[42] On January 16, 1862, after an explosion of natural gas, Canada's first [oil gusher](/source/Blowout_(well_drilling)) came into production, shooting into the air at a recorded rate of 480 cubic metres (3,000 bbl) per day.[43] By the end of the 19th century the Russian Empire, particularly the [Branobel](/source/Branobel) company in Azerbaijan, had taken the lead in production.[44]

### 20th century

A [World War II](/source/World_War_II) poster promoting [carpooling](/source/Carpooling) as a way to ration vital gasoline during the war

In the 1930s, [Alfred Treibs](/source/Alfred_Treibs) determined the biological origin of petroleum, which was previously controversial.[45][46]

Access to oil was a major factor in several military conflicts of the 20th century, including [World War II](/source/World_War_II), during which oil facilities were a major strategic asset and were [extensively bombed](/source/Oil_campaign_chronology_of_World_War_II).[47] The [German invasion of the Soviet Union](/source/Operation_Barbarossa) included the goal to capture the [Baku oilfields](/source/Petroleum_industry_in_Azerbaijan), as it would provide much-needed oil supplies for the German military which was suffering from blockades.[48]

[Oil exploration](/source/Oil_exploration) in North America during the early 20th century led to the U.S. becoming the leading producer by mid-century. As petroleum production in the U.S. peaked during the 1960s, the United States was surpassed by Saudi Arabia and the Soviet Union in total output.[49][50][51]

During the [1973 oil crisis](/source/1973_oil_crisis), Saudi Arabia and other [Arab nations](/source/Organization_of_Arab_Petroleum_Exporting_Countries) imposed an [oil embargo](/source/Oil_embargo) against the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan and other Western nations which supported Israel in the [Yom Kippur War](/source/Yom_Kippur_War).[52] This was followed by the [1979 oil crisis](/source/1979_oil_crisis), which was caused by a drop in oil production in the wake of the [Iranian Revolution](/source/Iranian_Revolution) and caused oil prices to more than double. The two oil price shocks had many short and long-term effects on global politics and the global economy.[53] They led to sustained reductions in demand as a result of substitution to other fuels, especially coal and nuclear, and improvements in [energy efficiency](/source/Efficient_energy_use), facilitated by government policies.[54] High oil prices also induced investment in oil production by non-OPEC countries, including [Prudhoe Bay](/source/Prudhoe_Bay%2C_Alaska) in Alaska, the [North Sea](/source/North_Sea) offshore fields of the United Kingdom and Norway, the Cantarell offshore field of Mexico, and oil sands in Canada.[55]

### 21st century

About 90 percent of vehicular fuel needs are met by oil.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] Petroleum makes up 40 percent of total energy consumption in the United States, but is responsible for only one percent of electricity generation.[56] Petroleum's worth as a portable, dense energy source powering the vast majority of vehicles and as the base of many industrial chemicals makes it one of the world's most important [commodities](/source/Commodities). The top three oil-producing countries as of 2018 are the United States, Russia, and Saudi Arabia.[57] In 2018, due in part to developments in [hydraulic fracturing](/source/Fracking) and [horizontal drilling](/source/Directional_drilling), the United States became the world's largest producer.[58]

About 80 percent of the world's readily accessible reserves are located in the Middle East, with 62.5 percent coming from the Arab five: Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Iraq, Qatar, and Kuwait. A large portion of the world's total oil exists as unconventional sources, such as bitumen in [Athabasca oil sands](/source/Athabasca_oil_sands) and [extra heavy oil](/source/Heavy_crude_oil) in the [Orinoco Belt](/source/Orinoco_Belt). While significant volumes of oil are extracted from oil sands, particularly in Canada, logistical and technical hurdles remain, as oil extraction requires large amounts of heat and water, making its net energy content quite low relative to conventional crude oil. Thus, Canada's oil sands are not expected to provide more than a few million barrels per day in the foreseeable future.[59][60][61]

Many modern geopolitical conflicts are to do with petroleum.[62]

## Composition

Petroleum consists of a variety of liquid, gaseous, and solid components. Lighter [hydrocarbons](/source/Hydrocarbon) are the gases [methane](/source/Methane), [ethane](/source/Ethane), [propane](/source/Propane) and [butane](/source/Butane). Otherwise the bulk of the liquid and solids are largely heavier [organic compounds](/source/Organic_compound), often hydrocarbons (C and H only). The proportion of light hydrocarbons in a petroleum mixture varies among oil fields.[63]

An oil well produces predominantly crude oil. Because the pressure is lower at the surface than underground, some of the gas will come out of [solution](/source/Solution_(chemistry)) and be recovered (or burned) as *associated gas* or *solution gas*. A [gas well](/source/Gas_well) produces predominantly [natural gas](/source/Natural_gas). However, because the underground temperature is higher than at the surface, the gas may contain heavier hydrocarbons such as [pentane](/source/Pentane), [hexane](/source/Hexane), and [heptane](/source/Heptane) ("[natural-gas condensate](/source/Natural-gas_condensate)", often shortened to *condensate.*) Condensate resembles gasoline in appearance and is similar in composition to some [volatile](/source/Volatility_(chemistry)) [light crude oils](/source/Light_crude_oil).[64][65]

The hydrocarbons in crude oil are mostly [alkanes](/source/Alkane), [cycloalkanes](/source/Cycloalkane) and various [aromatic hydrocarbons](/source/Aromatic_compound), while the other organic compounds contain [nitrogen](/source/Nitrogen), [oxygen](/source/Oxygen), and [sulfur](/source/Sulfur), and traces of metals such as [iron](/source/Iron), [nickel](/source/Nickel), [copper](/source/Copper) and [vanadium](/source/Vanadium). Many oil reservoirs contain live bacteria.[66] The molecular composition of crude oil varies widely from formation to formation, but the proportion of [chemical elements](/source/Chemical_element) varies over fairly narrow limits as follows:[67]

Composition by weight Element Percent range Carbon 83 to 85% Hydrogen 10 to 14% Nitrogen 0.1 to 2% Oxygen 0.05 to 1.5% Sulfur 0.05 to 6.0% Metals < 0.1%

Four different types of hydrocarbon appear in crude oil. The relative percentage of each varies, determining the properties of each oil.[63]

Composition by weight Hydrocarbon Average Range Alkanes (paraffins) 30% 15 to 60% Naphthenes 49% 30 to 60% Aromatics 15% 3 to 30% Asphaltics 6% remainder

Unconventional resources are much larger than conventional ones.[68]

[2,2,4-Trimethylpentane](/source/2%2C2%2C4-Trimethylpentane), a [hydrocarbon](/source/Hydrocarbon) with the [octane number](/source/Octane_number) of 100. Black spheres are [carbon](/source/Carbon) and white spheres are [hydrogen](/source/Hydrogen) atoms.

The alkanes from pentane (C5H12) to octane (C8H18) are refined into gasoline, the ones from [nonane](/source/Nonane) (C9H20) to [hexadecane](/source/Hexadecane) (C16H34) into [diesel fuel](/source/Diesel_fuel), kerosene and [jet fuel](/source/Jet_fuel). Alkanes with more than 16 carbon atoms can be refined into [fuel oil](/source/Fuel_oil) and [lubricating oil](/source/Lubricating_oil). At the heavier end of the range, paraffin wax is an alkane with approximately 25 carbon atoms, while asphalt has 35 and up, although these are usually [cracked](/source/Fluid_catalytic_cracking) in modern refineries into more valuable products. The lightest fraction, the so-called petroleum gases, are subjected to diverse processing depending on cost. These gases are either [flared off](/source/Gas_flare), sold as [liquefied petroleum gas](/source/Liquefied_petroleum_gas), or used to power the refinery's own burners. During the winter, butane (C4H10) is blended into the gasoline pool at high rates because its high [vapour pressure](/source/Vapor_pressure) assists with cold starts. The *aromatic hydrocarbons* are [unsaturated hydrocarbons](/source/Degree_of_unsaturation) that have one or more [benzene rings](/source/Benzene_ring). They tend to burn with a sooty flame, and many have a sweet aroma. Some are [carcinogenic](/source/Carcinogenic).

These different components are separated by [fractional distillation](/source/Fractional_distillation) at an oil refinery to produce gasoline, jet fuel, kerosene, and other hydrocarbon fractions. The components in an oil sample can be determined by [gas chromatography](/source/Gas_chromatography) and [mass spectrometry](/source/Mass_spectrometry).[69] Due to the large number of co-[eluted](/source/Elution) hydrocarbons within oil, many cannot be resolved by traditional gas chromatography. This [unresolved complex mixture](/source/Unresolved_complex_mixture) (UCM) of hydrocarbons is particularly apparent when analysing weathered oils and extracts from tissues of organisms exposed to oil.

Crude oil varies greatly in appearance depending on its composition. It is usually black or dark brown (although it may be yellowish, reddish, or even greenish). In the reservoir it is usually found in association with natural gas (which being lighter forms a "gas cap" over the petroleum) and [saline water](/source/Saline_water) (which being heavier than most forms of crude oil, generally sinks beneath it). Crude oil may also be found in a semi-solid form mixed with sand and water, as in the [Athabasca oil sands](/source/Athabasca_oil_sands) in Canada, where it is usually referred to as crude bitumen. In Canada, bitumen is considered a sticky, black, tar-like form of crude oil which is so thick and heavy that it must be heated or diluted before it will flow.[70] Venezuela also has large amounts of oil in the [Orinoco oil sands](/source/Orinoco_oil_sands), although the hydrocarbons trapped in them are less viscous than in Canada and are usually called extra heavy oil. Oil sands resources are called [unconventional oil](/source/Unconventional_oil) to distinguish them from oil which can be extracted using traditional oil well methods. Between them, Canada and Venezuela contain an estimated 3.6 trillion barrels (570×10^9 m3) of bitumen and extra heavy oil, about twice the volume of the world's reserves of conventional oil.[71]

## Formation

### Fossil petroleum

Structure of a vanadium [porphyrin](/source/Porphyrin) compound (left) extracted from petroleum by [Alfred E. Treibs](/source/Alfred_E._Treibs), father of [organic geochemistry](/source/Organic_geochemistry). Treibs noted the close structural similarity of this molecule and [chlorophyll a](/source/Chlorophyll_a) (right).[45][46]

Petroleum is a [fossil fuel](/source/Fossil_fuel) derived from [fossilized](/source/Fossilized) organic materials, such as [zooplankton](/source/Zooplankton) and [algae](/source/Algae).[46][72] Vast amounts of these remains settled to sea or lake bottoms where they were covered in [stagnant water](/source/Water_stagnation) (water with no [dissolved oxygen](/source/Oxygen_saturation)) or [sediments](/source/Sediment) (such as [mud](/source/Mud) and [silt](/source/Silt)) faster than they could [decompose aerobically](/source/Decomposition#Anaerobic_vs_aerobic). Approximately 1 m below this sediment, water oxygen concentration was low, below 0.1 mg/L, and [anoxic conditions](/source/Anoxic_waters) existed. Temperatures also remained constant.[72]

As further layers settled into the sea or lake bed, intense heat and pressure built up in the lower regions. This process caused the organic matter to change, first into a waxy material known as [kerogen](/source/Kerogen) (found in various [oil shales](/source/Oil_shale) around the world) and then with more heat into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons via a process known as [catagenesis](/source/Catagenesis_(geology)). Formation of petroleum occurs from hydrocarbon [pyrolysis](/source/Pyrolysis) in a variety of mainly [endothermic](/source/Endothermic) reactions at high temperatures or pressures, or both.[72][73] These phases are described in detail below.

#### Anaerobic decay

In the absence of plentiful oxygen, [*aerobic* bacteria](/source/Aerobic_organism) were prevented from decaying the organic matter after it was buried under a layer of sediment or water. However, [*anaerobic* bacteria](/source/Anaerobic_organism) were able to reduce [sulfates](/source/Sulfate) and [nitrates](/source/Nitrate) among the matter to [H2S](/source/Hydrogen_sulfide) and [N2](/source/Nitrogen) respectively by using the matter as a source for other reactants. Due to such anaerobic bacteria, at first, this matter began to break apart mostly via [hydrolysis](/source/Hydrolysis): [polysaccharides](/source/Polysaccharide) and [proteins](/source/Protein) were hydrolyzed to [simple sugars](/source/Simple_sugars) and [amino acids](/source/Amino_acid) respectively. These were further anaerobically [oxidized](/source/Oxidized) at an accelerated rate by the [enzymes](/source/Enzyme) of the bacteria: e.g., proteins went through [oxidative deamination](/source/Oxidative_deamination) to [amino acids](/source/Amino_acid), which in turn reacted further to [ammonia](/source/Ammonia) and [α-keto acids](/source/Keto_acid). [Monosaccharides](/source/Monosaccharide) in turn ultimately decayed to [CO2](/source/Carbon_dioxide) and methane. The anaerobic decay products of amino acids, monosaccharides, [phenols](/source/Phenols) and [aldehydes](/source/Aldehyde) combined into [fulvic acids](/source/Fulvic_acid). Fats and [waxes](/source/Wax) were not extensively hydrolyzed under these mild conditions.[72]

#### Kerogen formation

Some [phenolic compounds](/source/Phenols) produced from previous reactions worked as [bactericides](/source/Bactericide) and the [Actinomycetales](/source/Actinomycetales) order of bacteria also produced antibiotic compounds (e.g., [streptomycin](/source/Streptomycin)). Thus the action of anaerobic bacteria ceased at about 10 m below the water or sediment. The mixture at this depth contained fulvic acids, unreacted and partially reacted fats and waxes, slightly modified [lignin](/source/Lignin), resins and other hydrocarbons.[72] As more layers of organic matter settled into the sea or lake bed, intense heat and pressure built up in the lower regions.[73] As a consequence, compounds of this mixture began to combine in poorly understood ways to kerogen. Combination happened in a similar fashion as [phenol](/source/Phenol) and [formaldehyde](/source/Formaldehyde) molecules react to [urea-formaldehyde](/source/Urea-formaldehyde) resins, but kerogen formation occurred in a more complex manner due to a bigger variety of reactants. The total process of kerogen formation from the beginning of anaerobic decay is called **diagenesis**, a word that means a transformation of materials by dissolution and recombination of their constituents.[72]

#### Transformation of kerogen into fossil fuels

Kerogen formation continued to a depth of about 1 [km](/source/Km) from the Earth's surface where temperatures may reach around 50 [°C](/source/%C2%B0C). Kerogen formation represents a halfway point between organic matter and fossil fuels: kerogen can be exposed to oxygen, oxidize and thus be lost, or it could be buried deeper inside the [Earth's crust](/source/Crust_(geology)) and be subjected to conditions which allow it to slowly transform into fossil fuels like petroleum. The latter happened through **catagenesis** in which the reactions were mostly [radical](/source/Radical_(chemistry)) [rearrangements](/source/Rearrangement_reaction) of kerogen. These reactions took thousands to millions of years, and no external reactants were involved. Due to the radical nature of these reactions, kerogen reacted towards two classes of products: those with low H/C ratio ([anthracene](/source/Anthracene) or products similar to it) and those with high H/C ratio (methane or products similar to it); i.e., carbon-rich or hydrogen-rich products. Because catagenesis was closed off from external reactants, the resulting composition of the fuel mixture was dependent on the composition of the kerogen via reaction [stoichiometry](/source/Stoichiometry). Three types of kerogen exist: type I (algal), II (liptinic) and III (humic), which were formed mainly from algae, plankton and [woody plants](/source/Woody_plant) (this term includes trees, shrubs and [lianas](/source/Liana)) respectively.[72]

Catagenesis was pyrolytic despite the fact that it happened at relatively low temperatures (when compared to commercial pyrolysis plants) of 60 to several hundred °C. Pyrolysis was possible because of the long reaction times involved. Heat for catagenesis came from the decomposition of radioactive materials of the crust, especially [40K](/source/Potassium-40), [232Th](/source/Thorium-232), [235U](/source/Uranium-235) and [238U](/source/Uranium-238). The heat varied with [geothermal gradient](/source/Geothermal_gradient) and was typically 10–30 °C per km of depth from the Earth's surface. Unusual [magma](/source/Magma) intrusions, however, could have created greater localized heating.[72]

#### Oil window (temperature range)

Geologists often refer to the temperature range in which oil forms as an *"oil window"*.[74][75][72] Below the minimum temperature oil remains trapped in the form of kerogen. Above the maximum temperature the oil is converted to natural gas through the process of [thermal cracking](/source/Thermal_cracking). Sometimes, oil formed at extreme depths may migrate and become trapped at a much shallower level. The Athabasca oil sands are one example of this.[72]

### Abiogenic petroleum

An alternative mechanism to the one described above was proposed by Russian scientists in the mid-1850s, the hypothesis of [abiogenic petroleum origin](/source/Abiogenic_petroleum_origin) (petroleum formed by inorganic means), but this is contradicted by geological and geochemical evidence.[76] Abiogenic sources of oil have been found but never in commercially profitable amounts. "The controversy isn't over whether abiogenic oil reserves exist," said Larry Nation of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. "The controversy is over how much they contribute to Earth's overall reserves and how much time and effort geologists should devote to seeking them out."[77]

## Reservoirs

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A [hydrocarbon](/source/Hydrocarbon) trap consists of a reservoir rock (yellow) where oil (red) can accumulate, and a caprock (green) that prevents it from egressing.

Three conditions must be present for a [petroleum reservoir](/source/Petroleum_reservoir) to form:

- A [source rock](/source/Source_rock) rich in hydrocarbon material buried deeply enough for subterranean heat to cook it into oil,

- A porous and [permeable](/source/Permeability_(porous_media)) reservoir rock where it can accumulate,

- A [caprock](/source/Caprock) (seal) or other mechanism to prevent the oil from escaping to the surface.

Within these reservoirs, fluids will typically organize themselves like a three-layer cake with a layer of water below the oil layer and a layer of gas above it, although the different layers vary in size between reservoirs. Because most hydrocarbons are less dense than rock or water, they often migrate upward through adjacent rock layers until either reaching the surface or becoming trapped within porous rocks (known as reservoirs) by impermeable rocks above. However, the process is influenced by underground water flows, causing oil to migrate hundreds of kilometres horizontally or even short distances downward before becoming trapped in a reservoir. When hydrocarbons are concentrated in a trap, an oil field forms, from which the liquid can be extracted by drilling and pumping.

The reactions that produce oil and natural gas are often modeled as first order breakdown reactions, where hydrocarbons are broken down to oil and natural gas by a set of parallel reactions, and oil eventually breaks down to natural gas by another set of reactions. The latter set is regularly used in [petrochemical](/source/Petrochemical) plants and [oil refineries](/source/Oil_refineries).

Petroleum has mostly been recovered by oil drilling (natural petroleum springs are rare). Drilling is carried out after studies of [structural geology](/source/Structural_geology) (at the reservoir scale), [sedimentary basin analysis](/source/Sedimentary_basin_analysis), and [reservoir characterisation](/source/Reservoir_modeling) (mainly in terms of the porosity and permeability of geologic reservoir structures).[78][79] Wells are drilled into oil reservoirs to extract the crude oil. "Natural lift" production methods that rely on the natural reservoir pressure to force the oil to the surface are usually sufficient for a while after reservoirs are first tapped. In some reservoirs, such as in the Middle East, the natural pressure is sufficient over a long time. The natural pressure in most reservoirs, however, eventually dissipates. Then the oil must be extracted using "[artificial lift](/source/Artificial_lift)" means. Over time, these "primary" methods become less effective and "secondary" production methods may be used. A common secondary method is ["waterflood"](/source/Water_injection_(oil_production)) or injection of water into the reservoir to increase pressure and force the oil to the drilled shaft or "wellbore". Eventually "tertiary" or "enhanced" oil recovery methods may be used to increase the oil's flow characteristics by injecting steam, carbon dioxide and other gases or chemicals into the reservoir. In the United States, primary production methods account for less than 40 percent of the oil produced on a daily basis, secondary methods account for about 50 percent, and tertiary recovery the remaining 10 percent. Extracting oil (or "bitumen") from oil/tar sand and oil shale deposits requires mining the sand or shale and heating it in a vessel or [retort](/source/Retort), or using "in-situ" methods of injecting heated liquids into the deposit and then pumping the liquid back out saturated with oil.

### Unconventional oil reservoirs

See also: [Unconventional oil](/source/Unconventional_oil), [Oil shale reserves](/source/Oil_shale_reserves), and [Unconventional (oil and gas) reservoir](/source/Unconventional_(oil_and_gas)_reservoir)

Oil-eating bacteria [biodegrade](/source/Biodegrade) oil that has escaped to the surface. Oil sands are reservoirs of partially biodegraded oil still in the process of escaping and being biodegraded, but they contain so much migrating oil that, although most of it has escaped, vast amounts are still present—more than can be found in conventional oil reservoirs. The lighter fractions of the crude oil are destroyed first, resulting in reservoirs containing an extremely heavy form of crude oil, called crude bitumen in Canada, or extra-heavy crude oil in Venezuela. These two countries have the world's largest deposits of oil sands.[80]

On the other hand, oil shales are source rocks that have not been exposed to heat or pressure long enough to convert their trapped hydrocarbons into crude oil. Technically speaking, oil shales are not always shales and do not contain oil, but are fined-grain sedimentary rocks containing an insoluble organic solid called kerogen. The kerogen in the rock can be converted into crude oil using heat and pressure to simulate natural processes. The method has been known for centuries and was patented in 1694 under British Crown Patent No. 330 covering, "A way to extract and make great quantities of pitch, tar, and oil out of a sort of stone." Although oil shales are found in many countries, the United States has the world's largest deposits.[81]

## Classification

See also: [Benchmark (crude oil)](/source/Benchmark_(crude_oil))

The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (January 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Some [marker crudes](/source/Benchmark_(crude_oil)) with their [sulfur](/source/Sulfur) content (horizontal) and [API gravity](/source/API_gravity) (vertical) and relative production quantity[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

The [petroleum industry](/source/Petroleum_industry) generally classifies crude oil by the geographic location it is produced in (e.g., [West Texas Intermediate](/source/West_Texas_Intermediate), [Brent](/source/Brent_oilfield), or [Oman](/source/DME_Oman_Crude_Oil_Futures_Contract)), its [API gravity](/source/API_gravity) (an oil industry measure of density), and its sulfur content. Crude oil may be considered *[light](/source/Light_crude_oil)* if it has low density, *[heavy](/source/Heavy_crude_oil)* if it has high density, or *medium* if it has a density between that of *light* and *heavy*.[82] Additionally, it may be referred to as *[sweet](/source/Sweet_crude_oil)* if it contains relatively little sulfur or *[sour](/source/Sour_crude_oil)* if it contains substantial amounts of sulfur.[83]

The geographic location is important because it affects transportation costs to the refinery. *Light* crude oil is more desirable than *heavy* oil since it produces a higher yield of gasoline, while *sweet* oil commands a higher price than *sour* oil because it has fewer environmental problems and requires less refining to meet sulfur standards imposed on fuels in consuming countries. Each crude oil has unique molecular characteristics which are revealed by the use of [crude oil assay](/source/Crude_oil_assay) analysis in petroleum laboratories.[84]

[Barrels](/source/Barrel_(unit)) from an area in which the crude oil's molecular characteristics have been determined and the oil has been classified are used as pricing references throughout the world. Some of the common reference crudes are:[85]

- [West Texas Intermediate](/source/West_Texas_Intermediate) (WTI), a very high-quality, sweet, light oil delivered at [Cushing, Oklahoma](/source/Cushing%2C_Oklahoma) for North American oil.

- [Brent Blend](/source/Brent_Blend), consisting of 15 oils from fields in the [Brent](/source/Brent_oilfield) and [Ninian](/source/Ninian_Central_Platform) systems in the [East Shetland Basin](/source/East_Shetland_Basin) of the [North Sea](/source/North_Sea). The oil landed at [Sullom Voe](/source/Sullom_Voe) terminal in [Shetland](/source/Shetland). Oil production from Europe, Africa and Middle Eastern oil flowing West tends to be priced off this oil, which forms a benchmark.

- [Dubai-Oman](/source/Dubai_Crude), used as a benchmark for the Middle East sour crude oil flowing to the Asia-Pacific region.

- [Tapis](/source/Tapis_crude) (from Malaysia, used as a reference for light Far East oil).

- Minas (from Indonesia, used as a reference for heavy Far East oil).

- The [OPEC Reference Basket](/source/OPEC_Reference_Basket), a weighted average of oil blends from various [OPEC](/source/OPEC) (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) countries

- [Midway Sunset](/source/Midway-Sunset_Oil_Field) Heavy, by which heavy oil in California is priced.[86][*[failed verification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability)*]

- [Western Canadian Select](/source/Western_Canadian_Select) the benchmark crude oil for emerging heavy, high TAN (acidic) crudes.[87]

There are declining amounts of these benchmark oils being produced each year, so other oils are more commonly what is actually delivered. While the reference price may be for WTI delivered at Cushing, the actual oil being traded may be a discounted Canadian heavy oil – Western Canadian Select – delivered at [Hardisty](/source/Hardisty%2C_Alberta), Alberta, and for a Brent Blend delivered at Shetland, it may be a discounted Russian Export Blend delivered at the port of [Primorsk](/source/Primorsk%2C_Leningrad_Oblast).[88]

## Use

Once extracted, oil is refined and separated, most easily by [distillation](/source/Continuous_distillation#Continuous_distillation_of_crude_oil), into numerous products for direct use or use in manufacturing, such as gasoline (petrol), diesel and kerosene to asphalt and chemical reagents ([ethylene](/source/Ethylene), [propylene](/source/Propylene), [butene](/source/Butene), [acrylic acid](/source/Acrylic_acid), [para-xylene](/source/Para-xylene)[89]) used to make plastics, [pesticides](/source/Pesticide) and [pharmaceuticals](/source/Pharmaceuticals).[90] In terms of volume, most petroleum is converted into fuels for combustion engines. In terms of value, petroleum underpins the petrochemical industry, which includes many high value products such as pharmaceuticals and plastics. By volume, 84% of hydrocarbons present in petroleum are converted into fuels.

### Fuels and lubricants

Due to its high [energy density](/source/Energy_density), easy transportability and [relative abundance](/source/Oil_reserves), oil has become the world's most important source of energy since the mid-1950s. Petroleum is used mostly, by volume, for refining into [fuel oil](/source/Fuel_oil) and gasoline, both important *[primary energy](/source/Primary_energy)* sources. , including gasoline, diesel, jet, heating, and other fuel oils, and [liquefied petroleum gas](/source/Liquefied_petroleum_gas).[91] Closely related to fuels for combustion engines are [Lubricants](/source/Lubricant), [greases](/source/Grease_(lubricant)), and [viscosity](/source/Viscosity) stabilizers.

### Chemicals

Further information: [Petroleum product](/source/Petroleum_product) and [Petrochemical](/source/Petrochemical)

General structure of an [alkene](/source/Alkene)

Many pharmaceuticals are derived from petroleum, albeit via multi-step processes. Modern medicine depends on petroleum as a source of building blocks, reagents, and solvents.[92] Similarly, virtually all pesticides, insecticides, and herbicides are derived from petroleum. Pesticides have profoundly affected life expectancies by controlling [disease vectors](/source/Disease_vector) and by increasing [crop yield](/source/Crop_yield). Like pharmaceuticals, pesticides are in essence petrochemicals. Almost all plastics and synthetic polymers are derived from petroleum, which is the source of monomers. [Alkenes](/source/Alkenes) (olefins) are one important class of these precursor molecules.

### Other derivatives

Natural [bitumen](/source/Bitumen), commonly referred to as Asphalt

- [Wax](/source/Wax), used in the packaging of [frozen foods](/source/Frozen_food), among others, [paraffin wax](/source/Paraffin_wax), derived from petroleum oil.[93]

- [Sulfur](/source/Sulfur) and its derivative [sulfuric acid](/source/Sulfuric_acid). Hydrogen sulfide is a product of [sulfur removal](/source/Hydrodesulfurization) from petroleum fraction. It is oxidized to elemental sulfur and then to sulfuric acid.

- Bulk [tar](/source/Tar) and [asphalt](/source/Bitumen).

- [Petroleum coke](/source/Petroleum_coke), used in speciality carbon products or as solid fuel.

## Industry

This section is an excerpt from [Petroleum industry](/source/Petroleum_industry).[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Petroleum_industry&action=edit)]

Petroleum industry map showing oil pipelines, natural gas pipelines, refineries, and petroleum fields

World [oil reserves](/source/Oil_and_gas_reserves_and_resource_quantification) as of 2013

Venezuela and Middle Eastern countries have the largest proven crude oil reserves.[94]

The [petroleum industry](/source/Petroleum_industry), also known as the oil industry, includes the global processes of [exploration](/source/Hydrocarbon_exploration), [extraction](/source/Extraction_of_petroleum), [refining](/source/Oil_refinery), [transportation](/source/Petroleum_transport) (often by [oil tankers](/source/Oil_tanker) and [pipelines](/source/Pipeline_transport)), and [marketing](/source/Downstream_(petroleum_industry)#Marketing) of [petroleum products](/source/List_of_crude_oil_products). The largest volume products of the industry are [fuel oil](/source/Fuel_oil) and [gasoline](/source/Gasoline) (petrol). Petroleum is also the raw material for many [chemical products](/source/Petrochemical), including [pharmaceuticals](/source/Pharmaceutical_drug), [solvents](/source/Solvent), [fertilizers](/source/Fertilizer), [pesticides](/source/Pesticide), synthetic [fragrances](/source/Aroma_compound), and [plastics](/source/Plastic). The industry is usually divided into three major components: [upstream](/source/Upstream_(petroleum_industry)), [midstream](/source/Midstream), and [downstream](/source/Downstream_(petroleum_industry)). Upstream regards exploration and extraction of crude oil, midstream encompasses transportation and [storage](/source/Oil_terminal) of it, and downstream concerns refining crude oil into various [end products](/source/Petroleum_product).

Petroleum is vital to many industries, and is necessary for the maintenance of industrial [civilization](/source/Civilization) in its current configuration, making it a critical concern for many nations. Oil accounts for a large percentage of the world's [energy consumption](/source/Energy_consumption), ranging from a low of 32% for Europe and Asia, to a high of 53% for the Middle East.

Other geographic regions' consumption patterns are as follows: [South](/source/South_America) and [Central America](/source/Central_America) (44%), [Africa](/source/Africa) (41%), and [North America](/source/North_America) (40%). The world consumes 36 billion [barrels](/source/Barrel_(unit)) (5.8 km3) of oil per year,[95] with [developed nations](/source/Developed_country) being the largest consumers. The [United States](/source/United_States) consumed 18% of the oil produced in 2015.[96] The production, distribution, refining, and retailing of petroleum taken as a whole represents the world's largest industry in terms of dollar value.

### Transport

This section is an excerpt from [Petroleum transport](/source/Petroleum_transport).[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Petroleum_transport&action=edit)]

Oil train near [La Crosse, Wisconsin](/source/La_Crosse%2C_Wisconsin)

[Petroleum transport](/source/Petroleum_transport) is the transportation of petroleum and derivatives such as gasoline ([petrol](/source/Petrol)).[97] Petroleum products are transported via rail cars, trucks, tanker vessels, and pipeline networks. The method used to move the petroleum products depends on the volume that is being moved and its destination. Land-based transportation modes such as pipelines and rail each have strengths and weaknesses. One of the key differences is the cost associated with transporting petroleum though pipeline or rail. The risks with moving petroleum products are pollution related and the chance of spillage. Petroleum oil is very hard to clean up and is very toxic to living animals and their surroundings.

In the 1950s, shipping costs made up 33% of the price of oil transported from the [Persian Gulf](/source/Persian_Gulf) to the United States,[98] but with the development of [supertankers](/source/Oil_tanker) in the 1970s, the cost of shipping dropped to 5% of the price of Persian oil in the US.[98] The share of the shipping cost on the final cost of the delivered commodity was less than 3% in 2010.

### Price

This section is an excerpt from [Price of oil](/source/Price_of_oil).[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Price_of_oil&action=edit)]

The price of oil from 1983 to 2023
  [West Texas Intermediate](/source/West_Texas_Intermediate)

  [Brent Crude](/source/Brent_Crude)

  [Urals oil](/source/Urals_oil) (Russian export mix)

  [Dubai Crude](/source/Dubai_Crude)

  [OPEC Reference Basket](/source/OPEC_Reference_Basket)

Oil traders, Houston, 2009

The [nominal price](/source/Nominal_price) of oil from 1861 to 2020 from [Our World in Data](/source/Our_World_in_Data)

The [price of oil](/source/Price_of_oil), or the oil price, generally refers to the [spot price](/source/Spot_price) of a [barrel](/source/Oil_barrel) (42 U.S. gallons; 159 liters) of [benchmark crude oil](/source/Benchmark_crude_oil)—a reference price for buyers and sellers of crude oil such as [West Texas Intermediate](/source/West_Texas_Intermediate) (WTI), [Brent Crude](/source/Brent_Crude), [Dubai Crude](/source/Dubai_Crude), [OPEC Reference Basket](/source/OPEC_Reference_Basket), [Tapis crude](/source/Tapis_crude), [Bonny Light](/source/Bonny_Light), [Urals oil](/source/Urals_oil), [Isthmus](/source/Isthmus-34_Light), and [Western Canadian Select](/source/Western_Canadian_Select) (WCS) among others.[99][100] Oil prices are determined by global [supply and demand](/source/Supply_and_demand), rather than any country's domestic production level, although the [Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries](/source/OPEC) (OPEC) [cartel](/source/Cartel) increases oil prices.[101][102][103]

### Trade

Nominal and inflation-adjusted U.S. dollar price of crude oil between 1861 and 2015

Crude oil is traded as a future on both the [NYMEX](/source/NYMEX) and [ICE](/source/Intercontinental_Exchange) exchanges.[104] Futures contracts are agreements in which buyers and sellers agree to purchase and deliver specific amounts of physical crude oil on a given date in the future. A contract covers any multiple of 1,000 barrels and can be purchased up to nine years into the future.[105]

## Use by country

### Consumption

In the 2021 US Energy Information Administration (EIA) estimate, the world consumes 97.26 million barrels of oil each day.[106]

Per capita oil consumption

Oil consumption by country

This table orders the amount of petroleum consumed in 2011 in thousand [barrels](/source/Barrel_(unit)) (1,000 bbl) per day and in thousand cubic metres (1,000 m3) per day:[107][108]

Consuming nation 2011 (1,000 bbl/ day) (1,000 m3/ day) Population in millions bbl/year per capita m3/year per capita National production/ consumption United States 1 18,835.5 2,994.6 314 21.8 3.47 0.51 China 9,790.0 1,556.5 1345 2.7 0.43 0.41 Japan 2 4,464.1 709.7 127 12.8 2.04 0.03 India 2 3,292.2 523.4 1198 1 0.16 0.26 Russia 1 3,145.1 500.0 140 8.1 1.29 3.35 Saudi Arabia (OPEC) 2,817.5 447.9 27 40 6.4 3.64 Brazil 2,594.2 412.4 193 4.9 0.78 0.99 Germany 2 2,400.1 381.6 82 10.7 1.70 0.06 Canada 2,259.1 359.2 33 24.6 3.91 1.54 South Korea 2 2,230.2 354.6 48 16.8 2.67 0.02 Mexico 1 2,132.7 339.1 109 7.1 1.13 1.39 France 2 1,791.5 284.8 62 10.5 1.67 0.03 Iran (OPEC) 1,694.4 269.4 74 8.3 1.32 2.54 United Kingdom 1 1,607.9 255.6 61 9.5 1.51 0.93 Italy 2 1,453.6 231.1 60 8.9 1.41 0.10

Source: US Energy Information Administration[109]

Population Data:[110]

1 [peak production of oil](/source/Peak_oil) already passed in this state

2 This country is not a major oil producer

		- Global fossil carbon emissions, an indicator of consumption, from 1800 to 2010. Total Oil

		- The rate of world energy usage per year from 1970 to 2017.[111]

		- Daily oil consumption from 1980 to 2006.

		- Oil consumption by percentage of total per region from 1980 to 2006: US Europe Asia and Oceania .

		- Oil consumption 1980 to 2007 by region.

### Production

For oil production by country, see [List of countries by oil extraction](/source/List_of_countries_by_oil_extraction).

For oil reserves by country, see [List of countries by proven oil reserves](/source/List_of_countries_by_proven_oil_reserves).

Oil production by country

Oil production per capita

Crude Oil (Mbbl/d)Year0200040006000800010,00012,000197019801990200020102020CanadaChinaIranRussiaSaudi ArabiaUnited StatesCrude Oil Production

Top oil-producing countries from 1973 to 2018.[112] View [source data](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Data:Crude_Oil_Production.tab).

World map with [countries by oil production](/source/List_of_countries_by_oil_production) from 2006 to 2012

In petroleum industry parlance, *production* refers to the quantity of crude extracted from reserves, not the literal creation of the product.

Country Oil Production (bbl/day, 2016)[113] 1 Russia 10,551,497 2 Saudi Arabia (OPEC) 10,460,710 3 United States 8,875,817 4 Iraq (OPEC) 4,451,516 5 Iran (OPEC) 3,990,956 6 China, People's Republic of 3,980,650 7 Canada 3,662,694 8 United Arab Emirates (OPEC) 3,106,077 9 Kuwait (OPEC) 2,923,825 10 Brazil 2,515,459 11 Venezuela (OPEC) 2,276,967 12 Mexico 2,186,877 13 Nigeria (OPEC) 1,999,885 14 Angola (OPEC) 1,769,615 15 Norway 1,647,975 16 Kazakhstan 1,595,199 17 Qatar (OPEC) 1,522,902 18 Algeria (OPEC) 1,348,361 19 Oman 1,006,841 20 United Kingdom 939,760

### Exportation

See also: [Fossil fuel exporters](/source/Fossil_fuel_exporters) and [OPEC](/source/OPEC)

Petroleum Exports by Country (2014) from Harvard Atlas of Economic Complexity

In order of net exports in 2011, 2009 and 2006 in thousand [bbl](/source/Barrel_(unit))/[d](/source/Day) and thousand m3/d:

# Exporting nation 103bbl/d (2011) 103m3/d (2011) 103bbl/d (2009) 103m3/d (2009) 103bbl/d (2006) 103m3/d (2006) 1 Saudi Arabia (OPEC) 8,336 1,325 7,322 1,164 8,651 1,376 2 Russia 1 7,083 1,126 7,194 1,144 6,565 1,044 3 Iran (OPEC) 2,540 403 2,486 395 2,519 401 4 United Arab Emirates (OPEC) 2,524 401 2,303 366 2,515 400 5 Kuwait (OPEC) 2,343 373 2,124 338 2,150 342 6 Nigeria (OPEC) 2,257 359 1,939 308 2,146 341 7 Iraq (OPEC) 1,915 304 1,764 280 1,438 229 8 Angola (OPEC) 1,760 280 1,878 299 1,363 217 9 Norway 1 1,752 279 2,132 339 2,542 404 10 Venezuela (OPEC) 1 1,715 273 1,748 278 2,203 350 11 Algeria (OPEC) 1 1,568 249 1,767 281 1,847 297 12 Qatar (OPEC) 1,468 233 1,066 169 – – 13 Canada 2 1,405 223 1,168 187 1,071 170 14 Kazakhstan 1,396 222 1,299 207 1,114 177 15 Azerbaijan 1 836 133 912 145 532 85 16 Trinidad and Tobago 1 177 112 167 160 155 199

Source: US Energy Information Administration[114]

1 [peak production](/source/Peak_oil) already passed in this state

2 Canadian statistics are complicated by the fact it is both an importer and exporter of crude oil, and refines large amounts of oil for the U.S. market. It is the leading source of U.S. imports of oil and products, averaging 2,500,000 bbl/d (400,000 m3/d) in August 2007.[115]

Total world production/consumption (as of 2005) is approximately 84 million barrels per day (13,400,000 m3/d).

### Importation

In order of net imports in 2011, 2009 and 2006 in thousand [bbl](/source/Barrel_(unit))/[d](/source/Day) and thousand m3/d:

# Importing nation 103bbl/day (2011) 103m3/day (2011) 103bbl/day (2009) 103m3/day (2009) 103bbl/day (2006) 103m3/day (2006) 1 United States 1 8,728 1,388 9,631 1,531 12,220 1,943 2 China 5,487 872 4,328 688 3,438 547 3 Japan 4,329 688 4,235 673 5,097 810 4 India 2,349 373 2,233 355 1,687 268 5 Germany 2,235 355 2,323 369 2,483 395 6 South Korea 2,170 345 2,139 340 2,150 342 7 France 1,697 270 1,749 278 1,893 301 8 Spain 1,346 214 1,439 229 1,555 247 9 Italy 1,292 205 1,381 220 1,558 248 10 Singapore 1,172 186 916 146 787 125 11 Republic of China (Taiwan) 1,009 160 944 150 942 150 12 Netherlands 948 151 973 155 936 149 13 Turkey 650 103 650 103 576 92 14 Belgium 634 101 597 95 546 87 15 Thailand 592 94 538 86 606 96

Source: US Energy Information Administration[116]

1 [peak production of oil](/source/Peak_oil) expected in 2020[117]

### Non-producing consumers

Countries whose oil production is 10% or less of their consumption.

# Consuming nation (bbl/day) (m3/day) 1 Japan 5,578,000 886,831 2 Germany 2,677,000 425,609 3 South Korea 2,061,000 327,673 4 France 2,060,000 327,514 5 Italy 1,874,000 297,942 6 Spain 1,537,000 244,363 7 Netherlands 946,700 150,513 8 Turkey 575,011 91,663

Source: CIA World Factbook[*[failed verification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability)*]

## Environmental effects

Main article: [Environmental impact of the petroleum industry](/source/Environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry)

### Climate

A diesel fuel spill on a road, with visible [iridescence](/source/Iridescence)

Seawater acidification

As of 2018[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Petroleum&action=edit), about a quarter of annual global [greenhouse gas emissions](/source/Greenhouse_gas_emissions) is the carbon dioxide from burning petroleum (plus [methane leaks](/source/Methane_leaks) from the industry).[118][119][a] Along with the burning of coal, petroleum combustion is the largest contributor to the increase in atmospheric CO2.[120][121] Atmospheric CO2 has risen over the last 150 years to current levels of over 415 [ppmv](/source/Ppmv),[122] from the [180–300 ppmv of the prior 800 thousand years](/source/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentrations_in_the_geologic_past).[123][124][125] The rise in Arctic temperature has reduced the minimum [Arctic ice pack](/source/Arctic_ice_pack) to 4,320,000 km2 (1,670,000 sq mi), a loss of almost half since satellite measurements started in 1979.[126]

[Ocean acidification](/source/Ocean_acidification) is the increase in the acidity of the Earth's oceans caused by the uptake of CO2 from the atmosphere.The saturation state of [calcium carbonate](/source/Calcium_carbonate) decreases with the uptake of carbon dioxide in the ocean.[127] This increase in acidity inhibits all marine life—having a greater effect on smaller organisms as well as shelled organisms such as [Pectinoidea](/source/Pectinoidea).[128]

### Extraction

Oil extraction is simply the removal of oil from the reservoir (oil pool). There are many methods of extracting the oil from the reservoirs for example; mechanical shaking,[129] water-in-oil emulsion, and [specialty chemicals](/source/Specialty_chemicals) called [demulsifiers](/source/Demulsifiers) that separate the oil from water. Oil extraction is costly and often environmentally damaging. Offshore exploration and extraction of oil disturb the surrounding marine environment.[130]

### Oil spills

Further information: [List of oil spills](/source/List_of_oil_spills)

Kelp after an oil spill

Oil slick from the [Montara oil spill](/source/Montara_oil_spill) in the Timor Sea, September 2009

Volunteers cleaning up the aftermath of the [Prestige oil spill](/source/Prestige_oil_spill)

Crude oil and refined fuel [spills](/source/Oil_spill) from tanker ship accidents have damaged natural ecosystems and human livelihoods in Alaska, the [Gulf of Mexico](/source/Gulf_of_Mexico), the [Galápagos Islands](/source/Gal%C3%A1pagos_Islands), France and many other places. The quantity of oil spilled during accidents has ranged from a few hundred tons to several hundred thousand tons (e.g., [Deepwater Horizon oil spill](/source/Deepwater_Horizon_oil_spill), [SS Atlantic Empress](/source/SS_Atlantic_Empress), [Amoco Cadiz](/source/Amoco_Cadiz)). Smaller spills have already proven to have a great impact on ecosystems, such as the [*Exxon Valdez* oil spill](/source/Exxon_Valdez_oil_spill).

Oil spills at sea are generally much more damaging than those on land, since they can spread for hundreds of square miles in a thin oil slick which can cover beaches with a thin coating of oil. This can kill sea birds, mammals, shellfish, and other organisms it coats. Oil spills on land are more readily containable if a makeshift earth dam can be rapidly bulldozed around the spill site before most of the oil escapes, and land animals can avoid the oil more easily.

Control of oil spills is difficult, requiring ad hoc methods and often a large amount of manpower. The dropping of bombs and incendiary devices from aircraft on the [SS *Torrey Canyon*](/source/SS_Torrey_Canyon) wreck produced poor results;[131] modern techniques would include pumping the oil from the wreck, like in the [*Prestige* oil spill](/source/Prestige_oil_spill) or the [*Erika*](/source/MV_Erika) oil spill.[132]

Though crude oil is predominantly composed of various hydrocarbons, certain nitrogen heterocyclic compounds, such as [pyridine](/source/Pyridine), [picoline](/source/Picoline), and [quinoline](/source/Quinoline) are reported as contaminants associated with crude oil, as well as facilities processing oil shale or coal and have also been found at legacy [wood treatment](/source/Creosote) sites. These compounds have a very high water solubility and thus tend to dissolve and move with water. Certain naturally occurring bacteria such as *[Micrococcus](/source/Micrococcus)*, *[Arthrobacter](/source/Arthrobacter)*, and *[Rhodococcus](/source/Rhodococcus)* have been shown to degrade these contaminants.[133]

Because petroleum is a naturally occurring substance, its presence in the environment is not necessarily the result of human causes such as accidents and routine activities ([seismic](/source/Seismic) exploration, [drilling](/source/Boring_(earth)), extraction, refining and combustion). Phenomena such as [seeps](/source/Seeps)[134] and [tar pits](/source/Tar_pit) are examples of areas that petroleum affects without human involvement.

### Tarballs

Main article: [Tarball (oil)](/source/Tarball_(oil))

A tarball is a blob of crude oil (not to be confused with [tar](/source/Tar), which is a human-made product derived from pine trees or refined from petroleum) which has been weathered after floating in the ocean. Tarballs are an aquatic pollutant in most environments, although they can occur naturally, for example in the [Santa Barbara Channel](/source/Santa_Barbara_Channel) of California[135][136] or in the Gulf of Mexico off Texas.[137] Their concentration and features have been used to assess the extent of oil spills. Their composition can be used to identify their sources of origin,[138][139] and tarballs may be dispersed over long distances by deep sea currents.[136] They are slowly decomposed by bacteria, including *[Chromobacterium violaceum](/source/Chromobacterium_violaceum)*, *[Cladosporium resinae](/source/Cladosporium_resinae)*, *[Bacillus submarinus](/source/Bacillus_submarinus)*, *[Micrococcus varians](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Micrococcus_varians&action=edit&redlink=1)*, *[Pseudomonas aeruginosa](/source/Pseudomonas_aeruginosa)*, *[Candida marina](/source/Candida_marina)* and *[Saccharomyces estuari](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saccharomyces_estuari&action=edit&redlink=1)*.[135]

### Whales

A bottle of unrefined [whale oil](/source/Whale_oil)

James S. Robbins has argued that the advent of petroleum-refined kerosene saved some species of great whales from extinction by providing an inexpensive substitute for [whale oil](/source/Whale_oil), thus eliminating the economic imperative for open-boat [whaling](/source/Whaling),[140] but others say that fossil fuels increased whaling with most whales being killed in the 20th century.[141]

## Alternatives

In 2018 road transport used 49% of petroleum, aviation 8%, and uses other than energy 17%.[142] [Electric vehicles](/source/Electric_vehicle) are the main alternative for road transport and [biojet](/source/Biojet) for aviation.[143][144][145] [Single-use plastics](/source/Disposable_product) have a high carbon footprint and may pollute the sea, but as of 2022 the best alternatives are unclear.[146]

## International relations

See also: [2022 boycott of Russia and Belarus](/source/2022_boycott_of_Russia_and_Belarus)

Control of petroleum production has been a significant driver of international relations during much of the 20th and 21st centuries.[147] Organizations like [OPEC](/source/OPEC) have played an outsized role in international politics. Some historians and commentators have called this the "[Age of Oil](/source/Age_of_Oil)"[147] With the rise of [renewable energy](/source/Renewable_energy) and addressing climate change some commentators expect a realignment of international power away from petrostates.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

### Corruption

"Oil rents" have been described as connected with corruption in political literature.[148] A 2011 study suggests that increases in oil rents increased corruption in countries with heavy government involvement in the production of oil. The study found that increases in oil rents "significantly deteriorates political rights". The investigators say that oil exploitation gave politicians "an incentive to extend civil liberties but reduce political rights in the presence of oil windfalls to evade redistribution and conflict".[149]

### Conflict

Main articles: [oil war](/source/Oil_war) and [Petro-aggression](/source/Petro-aggression)

Petroleum production has been linked with conflict for many years, leading to thousands of deaths.[150] Petroleum deposits are in very few countries around the world.[151][152] Conflicts may start when countries refuse to cut oil production in which other countries respond to such actions by increasing their production causing a trade war as experienced during the [2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war](/source/2020_Russia%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_oil_price_war).[153] Other conflicts start with countries wanting petroleum resources or other reasons on oil resource territory experienced in the [Iran–Iraq War](/source/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War).[154]

### OPEC

This section is an excerpt from [OPEC](/source/OPEC).[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=OPEC&action=edit)]

The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries ([OPEC](/source/OPEC) [/ˈoʊpɛk/](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English) [*OH-pek*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key)) is an intergovernmental [cartel](/source/Cartel) enabling the co-operation of leading oil-producing and oil-dependent countries in order to collectively influence the global oil market and maximize [profit](/source/Profit_(economics)). It was founded on 14 September 1960 in [Baghdad](/source/Baghdad) by the first five members: [Iran](/source/Pahlavi_Iran), [Iraq](/source/First_Republic_of_Iraq), [Kuwait](/source/Kuwait), [Saudi Arabia](/source/Saudi_Arabia) and [Venezuela](/source/Venezuela). The organization, which currently comprises 11 member countries, accounted for 38 percent of [global oil production](/source/List_of_countries_by_oil_production) in 2022.[155][156] It is estimated that 79.5 percent of the world's proven oil reserves are located within OPEC nations, with the [Middle East](/source/Middle_East) alone accounting for 67.2 percent of OPEC's total reserves.[157][158]

In a series of steps in the 1960s and 1970s, OPEC restructured the global system of oil production in favor of oil-producing states and away from an [oligopoly](/source/Oligopoly) of dominant Anglo-American oil firms, the "[Seven Sisters](/source/Seven_Sisters_(oil_companies))".[159] In the 1970s, [restrictions in oil production](/source/1970s_energy_crisis) led to a dramatic rise in oil prices with long-lasting and far-reaching consequences for the global economy. Since the 1980s, OPEC has had a limited impact on world oil-supply and oil-price stability, as there is frequent cheating by members on their commitments to one another, and as member commitments reflect what they would do even in the absence of OPEC.[160]

The formation of OPEC marked a turning point toward [national sovereignty over natural resources](/source/Nationalization_of_oil_supplies). OPEC decisions have come to play a prominent role in the global oil market and in [international relations](/source/Petroleum_politics). Economists have characterized OPEC as a textbook example of a [cartel](/source/Cartel),[161] a group whose members cooperate to reduce [market competition](/source/Competition_(economics)) and obtain [monopoly profits](/source/Monopoly_profit).

The current OPEC members are[\[ref\]](http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/about_us/25.htm) Algeria, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, the Republic of the Congo, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela. The former members are Angola, Ecuador, Indonesia, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates.[162] OPEC+ is a larger group consisting of OPEC members and other oil-producing countries. It was formed in late 2016 to better control the global crude oil market.[163] Canada, Egypt, Norway, and Oman have attended some meetings as observers. The United Arab Emirates left both OPEC and OPEC+ in 2026.

## Future production

This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (February 2021)

World oil production by average barrels per day between 2011 and 2022

[Consumption](/source/Consumption_function) in the 20th and 21st centuries has been abundantly pushed by automobile sector growth. The [1985–2003 oil glut](/source/1980s_oil_glut) even fueled the sales of low fuel economy vehicles in [OECD](/source/OECD) countries. The 2008 economic crisis seems to have had some impact on the sales of such vehicles; still, in 2008 oil consumption showed a small increase.

In 2016 Goldman Sachs predicted lower demand for oil due to emerging economies concerns, especially China.[164] The [BRICS](/source/BRICS) (Brasil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) countries might also kick in, as China briefly had the largest automobile market in December 2009.[165] In the long term, uncertainties linger; the OPEC believes that the OECD countries will push low consumption policies at some point in the future; when that happens, it will definitely curb oil sales, and both OPEC and the [Energy Information Administration](/source/Energy_Information_Administration) kept lowering their 2020 consumption estimates during the past five years.[166] A detailed review of [International Energy Agency](/source/International_Energy_Agency) oil projections have revealed that revisions of world oil production, price and investments have been motivated by a combination of demand and supply factors.[167] All together, non-OPEC conventional projections have been fairly stable the last 15 years, while downward revisions were mainly allocated to OPEC. Upward revisions are primarily a result of US [tight oil](/source/Tight_oil).

Production will also face an increasingly complex situation; while OPEC countries still have large reserves at low production prices, newly found reservoirs often lead to higher prices; offshore giants such as [Tupi](/source/Tupi_oil_field), Guara and [Tiber](/source/Tiber_oilfield) demand high investments and ever-increasing technological abilities. Subsalt reservoirs such as Tupi were unknown in the 20th century, mainly because the industry was unable to probe them. [Enhanced oil recovery](/source/Enhanced_Oil_Recovery) techniques such as those used at the [Daqing Oil Field](/source/Daqing_Oil_Field)[168] will continue to play a major role in increasing the world's recoverable oil.

The expected availability of petroleum resources has always been around 35 years or even less since the start of the modern exploration. The [oil constant](/source/Oil_constant), an insider pun in the German industry, refers to that effect.[169] A growing number of divestment campaigns from major funds pushed by newer generations who question the sustainability of petroleum may hinder the financing of future oil prospection and production.[170]

### Peak oil

[Peak oil](/source/Peak_oil) is a term applied to the projection that future petroleum production, whether for individual oil wells, entire oil fields, whole countries, or worldwide production, will eventually peak and then decline at a similar rate to the rate of increase before the peak as these reserves are exhausted.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*][171] The peak of oil discoveries was in 1965, and oil production per year has surpassed oil discoveries every year since 1980.[172]

Lack of knowledge and/or transparency in the accounting of global oil reserves makes it difficult to predict the oil peak in any given region.[173] Based on available production data, proponents have previously predicted the peak for the world in 1989, 1995, or 1995–2000. Some of these predictions date from before the recession of the early 1980s and the consequent lowering in global consumption, the effect of which was to delay the date of any peak by several years. Just as the 1971 U.S. peak in oil production was only clearly recognized after the fact, a peak in world production will be difficult to discern until production clearly drops off.[174] In 2020, according to [BP's Energy Outlook 2020](/source/BP#Climate_policy), peak oil had been reached, due to the changing energy landscape coupled with the [economic toll of the COVID-19 pandemic](/source/Financial_market_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Oil_prices).

While there has been much focus historically on peak oil supply, the focus is increasingly shifting to peak demand as more countries seek to transition to renewable energy. The GeGaLo index of geopolitical gains and losses assesses how the geopolitical position of 156 countries may change if the world fully transitions to renewable energy resources. Former oil exporters are expected to lose power, while the positions of former oil importers and countries rich in renewable energy resources is expected to strengthen.[175]

### Unconventional oil

This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (May 2022)

The calculus for peak oil has changed with the introduction of unconventional production methods. In particular, the combination of horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing has resulted in a significant increase in production from previously uneconomic plays.[176] Certain rock strata contain hydrocarbons but have low permeability and are not thick from a vertical perspective. Conventional vertical wells would be unable to economically retrieve these hydrocarbons. Horizontal drilling, extending horizontally through the strata, permits the well to access a much greater volume of the strata. Hydraulic fracturing creates greater permeability and increases hydrocarbon flow to the wellbore.

## Hydrocarbons on other worlds

On [Saturn's](/source/Saturn's) largest moon, [Titan](/source/Titan_(moon)), lakes of liquid hydrocarbons comprising methane, ethane, propane and other constituents occur naturally. Data collected by the space probe *[Cassini–Huygens](/source/Cassini%E2%80%93Huygens)* yield an estimate that the visible lakes and seas of Titan contain about 300 times the volume of Earth's proven oil reserves.[177][178] Drilled samples from the surface of [Mars](/source/Mars) taken in 2015 by the [*Curiosity* rover's](/source/Curiosity_Rover) [Mars Science Laboratory](/source/Mars_Science_Laboratory) have found organic molecules of benzene and propane in 3-billion-year-old rock samples in [Gale Crater](/source/Gale_(crater)).[179]

## In fiction

This section is an excerpt from [Petrofiction](/source/Petrofiction).[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Petrofiction&action=edit)]

[Petrofiction](/source/Petrofiction) or oil fiction[180] is a [genre](/source/Genre) of [fiction](/source/Fiction) focused on the role of petroleum in society.[181]

## See also

- [Energy portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Energy)

- [Barrel of oil equivalent](/source/Barrel_of_oil_equivalent) – Unit of energy

- [Filling station](/source/Filling_station) – Facility that sells gasoline and diesel

- [Gas/oil ratio](/source/Gas%2Foil_ratio) – Measurement in oil production

- [Heavy metals](/source/Heavy_metals) – Term used for certain metallic elements

- [International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals](/source/International_Safety_Guide_for_Oil_Tankers_and_Terminals) – Code of practice first published in 1978

- [Lead poisoning](/source/Lead_poisoning) – Poisoning caused by lead in the body

- [List of oil exploration and production companies](/source/List_of_oil_exploration_and_production_companies)

- [List of oil fields](/source/List_of_oil_fields) – Some of the major oilfields of the past and present

- [Manure-derived synthetic crude oil](/source/Manure-derived_synthetic_crude_oil) – Synthetic bio-oil converted from manure

- [Oil burden](/source/Oil_burden) – Economic statistic

- [Oil reserves in France](/source/Oil_reserves_in_France)

- [Petroleum geology](/source/Petroleum_geology) – Field in geology

- [Petroleum politics](/source/Petroleum_politics)

- [Petrocurrency](/source/Petrocurrency) – Financial asset backed by a country's revenues from petroleum exports

- [Thermal depolymerization](/source/Thermal_depolymerization) – Process for breaking-down polymers

- [Total petroleum hydrocarbon](/source/Total_petroleum_hydrocarbon) – Total concentration of petroleum-derived hydrocarbons in environmental samples

- [Waste oil](/source/Waste_oil) – Unsuitable petroleum-based or synthetic oil

- [Unconventional (oil & gas) reservoir](/source/Unconventional_(oil_%26_gas)_reservoir) – Type of hydrocarbon reservoirPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

## Explanatory footnotes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-120)** 12.4 gigatonnes petroleum (and about 1 Gt CO2 eq from methane)/50 gigatonnes total

## Citations

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** ["EIA Energy Kids – Oil (petroleum)"](https://web.archive.org/web/20170707183134/https://www.eia.gov/KIDS/energy.cfm?page=oil_home-basics-k.cfm). *www.eia.gov*. Archived from [the original](http://www.eia.gov/KIDS/energy.cfm?page=oil_home-basics-k.cfm) on July 7, 2017. Retrieved March 18, 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** Donev, Jason. ["Oil formation"](https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Oil_formation). Energy Edication, [University of Calgary](/source/University_of_Calgary). Retrieved April 13, 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Dixie_State_College_2_3-0)** Krauss, Clifford; Mouawad, Jad (March 1, 2011). ["Libyan tremors threaten to rattle the oil world"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110306154842/http://www.hindu.com/2011/03/01/stories/2011030155921100.htm). *[The Hindu](/source/The_Hindu)*. Chennai, India. Archived from [the original](http://www.hindu.com/2011/03/01/stories/2011030155921100.htm) on March 6, 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** ["The Economic Benefits of Oil & Gas"](https://www.energy.gov/articles/economic-impact-oil-and-gas). *Department of Energy*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20240331224819/https://www.energy.gov/articles/economic-impact-oil-and-gas) from the original on March 31, 2024. Retrieved March 31, 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** Bullard, Nathaniel (December 9, 2021). ["Peak Oil Demand Is Coming But Not So Soon"](https://www.bnnbloomberg.ca/peak-oil-demand-is-coming-but-not-so-soon-1.1693325). *BNN, [Bloomberg News](/source/Bloomberg_News)*. Retrieved December 11, 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** R, Tom; all; Warren, Hayley. ["Peak Oil Is Already Here"](https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2020-peak-oil-era-is-suddenly-upon-us/). Bloomberg.com. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201218064958/https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2020-peak-oil-era-is-suddenly-upon-us/) from the original on December 18, 2020. Retrieved December 31, 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** ["petroleum"](https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=petroleum) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200516164428/https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=petroleum) May 16, 2020, at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), in the American Heritage Dictionary

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** *[Petroleum](http://www.thefreedictionary.com/petroleum)*, Medieval Latin: literally, rock oil = Latin petr(a) rock (< Greek pétra) + oleum oil, The Free Dictionary.com. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170110024856/http://www.thefreedictionary.com/petroleum) January 10, 2017, at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-van_Dijk_2022,_n_9-0)** van Dijk, J.P. (2022); Unravelling the Maze of Scientific Writing Through the Ages: On the Origins of the Terms Hydrocarbon, Petroleum, Natural Gas, and Methane. Amazon Publishers, 166 pp. PaperBack Edition B0BKRZRKHW. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [979-8-3539-8917-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/979-8-3539-8917-2)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** [Bauer, Georg](/source/Georg_Bauer) (1955) [1546]. *De Natura Fossilium*. Translated by Bandy, Mark Chance; Bandy, Jean A. Mineola, NY: Dover.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-EB1911_11-0)** One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the [public domain](/source/Public_domain): Redwood, Boverton (1911). "[Petroleum](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Petroleum)". In [Chisholm, Hugh](/source/Hugh_Chisholm) (ed.). *[Encyclopædia Britannica](/source/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition)*. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 316.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** Reinicke, Kurt M.; Hueni, Greg; Liermann, Norbert; Oppelt, Joachim; Reichetseder, Peter; Unverhaun, Wolfram (2014). "Oil and Gas, 1. Introduction". *Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry*. pp. 1–14. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/14356007.a23_117.pub2](https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14356007.a23_117.pub2). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-527-30673-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-527-30673-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** Zhiguo, Gao (1998). *Environmental regulation of oil and gas*. London: Kluwer Law International. p. 8. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-411-0726-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-411-0726-8). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [39313498](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/39313498).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** Deng, Yinke (2011). [*Ancient Chinese Inventions*](https://archive.org/details/ancientchinesein0000deng). Cambridge University Press. p. [40](https://archive.org/details/ancientchinesein0000deng/page/40). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-18692-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-18692-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** Burke, Michael (2008). *Nanotechnology: The Business*. Taylor & Francis. p. 3. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4200-5399-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-5399-9).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** Totten, George E. ["ASTM International – Standards Worldwide"](http://www.astm.org/COMMIT/D02/to1899_index.html). *astm.org*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170706232229/https://www.astm.org/COMMIT/D02/to1899_index.html) from the original on July 6, 2017. Retrieved March 18, 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** Dalvi, Samir (2015). *Fundamentals of Oil & Gas Industry for Beginners*. Notion Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-93-5206-419-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-5206-419-9).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-OPEC_:1_161-0)** Colgan, Jeff D. (2021). ["The Stagnation of OPEC"](https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/oso/9780197546376.001.0001/oso-9780197546376-chapter-4). *Partial Hegemony: Oil Politics and International Order*. Oxford University Press. pp. 94–118. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/oso/9780197546376.001.0001](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780197546376.001.0001). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-754637-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-754637-6).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-OPEC_ope2_164-0)** [Cohen, Ariel](/source/Ariel_Cohen). ["OPEC Is Dead, Long Live OPEC+"](https://www.forbes.com/sites/arielcohen/2018/06/29/opec-is-dead-long-live-opec/). *[Forbes](/source/Forbes)*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190802092849/https://www.forbes.com/sites/arielcohen/2018/06/29/opec-is-dead-long-live-opec/) from the original on August 2, 2019. Retrieved August 2, 2019. The deal represents the latest successful policy effort by the 24 member supercartel, informally referred to as the 'Vienna Group' or 'OPEC+,' to put their thumb on the scale of global oil markets. And it's a huge thumb indeed. [...] OPEC's 14 members control 35 percent of global oil supplies and 82 percent of proven reserves. With the addition of the 10 Non-OPEC nations, notable among them Russia, Mexico and Kazakhstan, those shares increase to 55 percent and 90 percent respectively. This affords OPEC+ a level of influence over the world economy never seen before.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-170)** Samuel Schubert, Peter Slominski UTB, 2010: Die Energiepolitik der EU Johannes Pollak, 235 Seiten, p. 20

1. **[^](#cite_ref-171)** ["Rating agency S&P warns 13 oil and gas companies they risk downgrades as renewables pick up steam"](https://www.theguardian.com/business/2021/jan/27/rating-agency-sp-warns-13-oil-and-gas-companies-they-risk-downgrades-as-renewables-pick-up-steam). *The Guardian*. January 27, 2021. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210127175822/https://www.theguardian.com/business/2021/jan/27/rating-agency-sp-warns-13-oil-and-gas-companies-they-risk-downgrades-as-renewables-pick-up-steam) from the original on January 27, 2021. Retrieved January 27, 2021.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-175)** [Peak Oil Info and Strategies](http://www.oildecline.com/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20120617184210/http://www.oildecline.com/) June 17, 2012, at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) "The only uncertainty about peak oil is the time scale, which is difficult to predict accurately."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-176)** Overland, Indra; Bazilian, Morgan; Ilimbek Uulu, Talgat; Vakulchuk, Roman; Westphal, Kirsten (2019). ["The GeGaLo index: Geopolitical gains and losses after energy transition"](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.esr.2019.100406). *Energy Strategy Reviews*. **26** 100406. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2019EneSR..2600406O](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019EneSR..2600406O). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.esr.2019.100406](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.esr.2019.100406). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[11250/2634876](https://hdl.handle.net/11250%2F2634876).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-177)** [*U.S. Crude Oil Production Forecast – Analysis of Crude Types*](http://www.eia.gov/analysis/petroleum/crudetypes/pdf/crudetypes.pdf) (PDF), Washington, DC: U.S. Energy Information Administration, May 28, 2015, [archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191122192224/https://www.eia.gov/analysis/petroleum/crudetypes/pdf/crudetypes.pdf) (PDF) from the original on November 22, 2019, retrieved September 13, 2018, U.S. oil production has grown rapidly in recent years. U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) data, which reflect combined production of crude oil and lease condensate, show a rise from 5.6 million barrels per day (bbl/d) in 2011 to 7.5 million bbl/d in 2013, and a record 1.2 million bbl/d increase to 8.7 million bbl/d in 2014. Increasing production of light crude oil in low-permeability or tight resource formations in regions like the Bakken, Permian Basin, and Eagle Ford (often referred to as light tight oil) account for nearly all the net growth in U.S. crude oil production. EIA's latest Short-Term Energy Outlook, issued in May 2015, reflects continued production growth in 2015 and 2016, albeit at a slower pace than in 2013 and 2014, with U.S. crude oil production in 2016 forecast to reach 9.2 million bbl/d. Beyond 2016, the Annual Energy Outlook 2015 (AEO2015) projects further production growth, although its pace and duration remains highly uncertain.

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## External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to [Petroleum](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Petroleum).

[Wikisource](/source/Wikisource) has the text of the 1905 *[New International Encyclopedia](/source/New_International_Encyclopedia)* article  "**[Petroleum](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Petroleum)**".

- [Global Fossil Infrastructure Tracker](http://ggon.org/fossil-tracker/)

- [API – the trade association of the US oil industry.](http://www.api.org/) ([American Petroleum Institute](/source/American_Petroleum_Institute))

- [U.S. Energy Information Administration](http://www.eia.doe.gov/oil_gas/petroleum/info_glance/petroleum.html) - [U.S. Department of Energy EIA – World supply and consumption](http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/contents.html)

- [Joint Organisations Data Initiative | Oil and Gas Data Transparency](https://www.jodidata.org/)

- [U.S. National Library of Medicine: Hazardous Substances Databank – Crude Oil](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/toxnet/index.html)

- ["Petroleum"](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_American_Cyclop%C3%A6dia_(1879)/Petroleum). *[The American Cyclopædia](/source/The_American_Cyclop%C3%A6dia)*. 1879.

- "[A Short History of Petroleum](https://books.google.com/books?id=p4o9AQAAIAAJ)", [Scientific American](/source/Scientific_American), August 10, 1878, p. 85

v t e Electricity delivery Concepts Automatic generation control Backfeeding Base load Demand factor Droop speed control Electric power Electric power quality Electrical fault Energy demand management Energy return on investment Vehicle-to-grid Grid code Grid strength Home energy storage Load-following Merit order Nameplate capacity Peak demand Power factor Power-flow study Power system reliability Repowering Utility frequency Variability Fossil fuel power station Coal Natural gas Oil shale Petroleum Nuclear Grid energy storage Pumped-storage hydroelectricity Compressed-air energy storage Flywheel energy storage Battery energy storage system Superconducting magnetic energy storage Thermal energy storage Seasonal thermal energy storage Power-to-gas Compressed carbon dioxide energy storage Sources Non-renewable Fossil fuel power station Coal Natural gas Oil shale Petroleum Nuclear Renewable Biofuel Biogas Biomass Geothermal Hydro Marine Current Osmotic Thermal Tidal Wave Solar Sustainable biofuel Wind Generation AC power Cogeneration Combined cycle Cooling tower Dispatchable Induction generator Inertial response Inverter-based resource Micro CHP Microgeneration Rankine cycle Three-phase electric power Virtual power plant Transmission and distribution Ancillary services Balancing authority Contingency (electrical grid) Demand response Distributed generation Dynamic demand Electric power distribution Electric power system Electric power transmission Electrical busbar system Electrical grid Electricity retailing Grid balancing High-voltage direct current High-voltage shore connection Interconnector Load management Mains electricity by country Overhead power line Conductor gallop Power station Pumped hydro Single-wire earth return Smart grid Substation Super grid Transformer Transmission system operator (TSO) Transmission tower Utility pole Voltage control and reactive power management Failure modes Black start Brownout Cascading failure Islanding Power outage List Rolling blackout Protective devices Arc-fault circuit interrupter Circuit breaker Earth-leakage Sulfur hexafluoride Generator interlock kit Numerical relay Power system protection Protective relay Residual-current device (GFI) Economics and policies Availability factor Capacity factor Carbon offsets and credits Cost of electricity by source Energy subsidies Environmental tax Feed-in tariff Fossil fuel phase-out Load factor Net metering Pigouvian tax Renewable Energy Certificates Renewable energy commercialization Renewable Energy Payments Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread Statistics and production Electric energy consumption List of electricity sectors Category

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v t e Energy History Index Outline Fundamental concepts Conservation of energy Energetics Energy Units Energy condition Energy level Energy system Energy transformation Energy transition Mass Negative mass Mass–energy equivalence Power Thermodynamics Enthalpy Entropic force Entropy Exergy Free entropy Heat capacity Heat transfer Irreversible process Isolated system Laws of thermodynamics Negentropy Quantum thermodynamics Thermal equilibrium Thermal reservoir Thermodynamic equilibrium Thermodynamic free energy Thermodynamic potential Thermodynamic state Thermodynamic system Thermodynamic temperature Volume (thermodynamics) Work Types Binding Nuclear Chemical Dark Elastic Electric potential energy Electrical Gravitational Binding Interatomic potential Internal Ionization Kinetic Magnetic Mechanical Negative Phantom Potential Quantum chromodynamics binding energy Quantum fluctuation Quantum potential Quintessence Radiant Rest Sound Surface Thermal Vacuum Zero-point Energy carriers Battery Capacitor Electricity Enthalpy Fuel Fossil Oil Heat Latent heat Hydrogen Hydrogen fuel Mechanical wave Radiation Sound wave Work Primary energy Bioenergy Fossil fuel Coal Natural gas Petroleum Geothermal Gravitational Hydropower Marine Nuclear fuel Natural uranium Radiant Solar Wind Energy system components Biomass Electric power Electricity delivery Energy engineering Fossil fuel power station Cogeneration Integrated gasification combined cycle Geothermal power Hydropower Hydroelectricity Tidal power Wave farm Nuclear power Nuclear power plant Radioisotope thermoelectric generator Oil refinery Solar power Concentrated solar power Photovoltaic system Solar thermal energy Solar furnace Solar power tower Wind power Airborne wind energy Wind farm Use and supply Efficient energy use Agriculture Computing Transport Energy conservation Energy consumption Energy policy Energy development Energy security Energy storage Renewable energy Sustainable energy World energy supply and consumption Africa Asia Australia Canada Europe Mexico South America United States Misc. Energy in work Carbon footprint Energy democracy Energy recovery Energy recycling Jevons paradox Waste-to-energy Waste-to-energy plant Category Commons Portal WikiProject

v t e Petroleum refining Petroleum List of oil refineries Processes Desalting Atmospheric distillation Vacuum distillation Catalytic cracking Catalytic reforming Alkylation Isomerisation Polymerisation Hydrodesulphurisation Sweetening Hydrocracking Solvent deasphalting Visbreaking Coking Amine gas treating Commons

v t e Petroleum industry Petroleum Primary energy Benchmarks Argus Sour Bonny Light Brent Dubai Indian Basket Indonesian Isthmus-34 Light Japan Cocktail OPEC Reference Basket Tapis Urals West Texas Intermediate Western Canadian Select Data Natural gas Consumption Production Reserves Imports Exports Price Petroleum Consumption Production Reserves Imports Exports Posted oil price Price of gasoline and diesel Exploration Core sampling Geophysics Integrated asset modelling Petroleum engineering Reservoir simulation Reservoir modeling Petroleum geology Petrophysics Reflection seismology Seismic inversion Seismic source Drilling Blowout Completion Squeeze job Differential sticking Directional drilling Geosteering Drill stem test Drilling engineering Drilling fluid invasion Lost circulation Measurement Shale oil extraction Ljungström method Tracers Underbalanced drilling Well logging Production Petroleum fiscal regime Concessions Production sharing agreements Artificial lift Gas lift Pumpjack Submersible pump (ESP) Downstream Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) Gas reinjection Steam injection Midstream Petroleum product Pipeline Refining Upstream Water injection Well intervention XT History 1967 Oil Embargo 1973 oil crisis 1979 oil crisis 1980s oil glut 1990 oil price shock 2000s energy crisis 2010s oil glut 2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war Nationalization GECF OPEC Seven Sisters Standard Oil Canada France India Iraq Norway Saudi Arabia United States Venezuela Provinces and fields List of natural gas fields List of oil fields Caspian Sea Daqing Oil Field East Midlands Oil Province East Texas Gulf of Mexico Niger Delta North Sea Permian Basin Persian Gulf Prudhoe Bay Russia Venezuela Shengli Oil Field Western Canada Sedimentary Basin Other topics Abbreviations Classification sweet oil sour oil Oil shale gas Orphan wells Peak oil fossil fuel phase-out timing Petrocurrency Petrodollar recycling Petrofiction Shale band Shale gas Swing producer Unconventional (oil and gas) reservoir heavy crude oil sands oil shale tight oil Companies and organisations Major petroleum companies Supermajors BP Chevron Eni ExxonMobil Shell TotalEnergies National oil companies Abu Dhabi National Oil Company ANCAP Bharat Petroleum China National Offshore Oil Corporation China National Petroleum Corporation Ecopetrol Equinor Gazprom Hindustan Petroleum Indian Oil Corporation Iraq National Oil Company KazMunayGas Kuwait Petroleum Corporation Lotos Naftogaz National Iranian Oil Company National Iranian South Oil Company NNPC Limited Oil & Gas Development Company Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Orlen PDVSA Pemex Pertamina Petrobangla Petrobras PetroChina Petronas Petrovietnam PTT Public Company Limited QatarEnergy Rosneft Saudi Aramco Sinopec SOCAR Sonangol Sonatrach TPAO YPF Energy trading Enron Glencore Gunvor Mercuria Naftiran Intertrade Trafigura Vitol Others APA Corporation Cenovus Energy Cepsa ConocoPhillips Devon Energy Eneos Holdings Galp Energia Hess Corporation Husky Energy Imperial Oil Lukoil Marathon Oil Marathon Petroleum Occidental Petroleum OMV Phillips 66 Port Harcourt Refining Company Reliance Industries Repsol Suncor Energy Sunoco Surgutneftegas TechnipFMC TNK-BP Tullow Oil Tüpraş Valero Energy Major services companies Amec Foster Wheeler Baker Hughes Cameron International CGG CH2M Chicago Bridge & Iron Company China Oilfield Services Enbridge GE Power Halliburton Nabors Industries Naftiran Intertrade NOV Inc. Petrofac Saipem SLB Snam Subsea 7 TC Energy Transocean Valaris Limited Weatherford International John Wood Group Others American Petroleum Institute Canadian petroleum companies Intercontinental Exchange Futures International Association of Oil & Gas Producers International Energy Agency Society of Petroleum Engineers World Petroleum Council Category

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Petroleum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.