# Pay (Roman army)

> Mediated Wiki article. Canonical URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Pay_(Roman_army)
> Markdown URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Pay_(Roman_army).md
> Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_(Roman_army)
> Source revision: 1353999150
> License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/)

Pay in the Roman army

This article relies excessively on references to primary sources. Please improve this article by adding secondary or tertiary sources. Find sources: "Pay" Roman army – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Some examples of [denarius](/source/Denarius), annual pay of soldiers in the [Roman army](/source/Roman_army). Top: approx. 157 BC. [Roman Republic](/source/Roman_Republic), approx. 73 AD. [Vespasian](/source/Vespasian), approx. 161 [Marcus Aurelius](/source/Marcus_Aurelius), approx. 194 [Septimius Severus](/source/Septimius_Severus); bottom: approx. 199 [Caracalla](/source/Caracalla), approx. 200 [Julia Domna](/source/Julia_Domna), approx. 219 [Elagabalus](/source/Elagabalus), approx. 236 [Maximinus Thrax](/source/Maximinus_Thrax)

**Pay** in the [Roman army](/source/Roman_army) was defined by the annual ***stipendium*** received by a Roman soldier, of whatever rank he was, from the [Republican era](/source/Roman_Republic) until the [Later Roman Empire](/source/Later_Roman_Empire). It constituted the main part of the Roman soldier's income, who from the end of the Republic began to receive, in addition to the [spoils of war](/source/Looting), prize money called [donativa](/source/Donativum). The latter grew to such an extent in the following centuries that by the 4th century, the ancient *stipendium* constituted only 10–15% of the Roman [legionary](/source/Legionary)'s entire income.

## History

See also: [Roman army](/source/Roman_army) and [donativum](/source/Donativum)

### Republican Era

Main article: [Roman Republic](/source/Roman_Republic)

#### The first *stipendium* in the late 5th century BC

See also: [Marcus Furius Camillus](/source/Marcus_Furius_Camillus)

During [407 BC](/source/407_BC), when the Roman army was divided into three parts and sent to plunder the enemies' territory under the command of three of the four military Tribunes ([Lucius Valerius Potitus](/source/Lucius_Valerius_Poplicola_Potitus) headed for Anzio, Gnaeus Cornelius Cossus headed for [Ecetra](/source/Ecetra), and [Numerius Fabius Ambustus](/source/Numerius_Fabius_Ambustus) attacked and conquered [Anxur](/source/Terracina), leaving the prey to the soldiers of all three armies), the stipend for the soldiers was established, perhaps at the direction of [Furius Camillus](/source/Marcus_Furius_Camillus) himself. Below is how [Livy](/source/Livy) tells it:

"The patricians then added a most opportune gift for the plebs: the Senate decreed, with no prior mention of it to plebs or tribunes, that soldiers should receive a stipend drawn from the State coffers. Until that time each person fulfilled military service at his own expense. (60) As far as we know, no measure was greeted with such joy by the plebs."

— [Livy](/source/Livy), *[Ab Urbe condita libri](/source/Ab_Urbe_condita_libri)*, IV, 59–60, op. cit.

The consequences were obvious: acknowledgements from the plebeians, controversy from the Tribunes who saw some of their weapons blunted, protests from those who had to pay. The immediate benefit was that a law declaring war on Veius was passed, and the new Tribunes with military power led an army there consisting mostly of volunteers. And perhaps, also under this circumstance, the legion may have assumed the [manipular](/source/Maniple_(military_unit)) system as its battle formation.[1]

At the time of the [Punic Wars](/source/Punic_Wars), pay was set at 2 [obols](/source/Obol_(coin)) per day, or one-third of a [drachma](/source/Ancient_drachma) (one [denarius](/source/Denarius) after [211 BC](/source/211_BC)), for the period they were under arms.[2] In addition, each infantryman was entitled to a share of the spoils of war (prisoners were sold as slaves, as well as animals, treasure, weapons, and other goods), which were auctioned off and the proceeds distributed to officers and men according to various criteria. [Centurions](/source/Centurion) received twice the pay of their men, that is, four [obols](/source/Obol_(coin)) or two-thirds of a [drachma](/source/Ancient_drachma) a day. As for the food ration, infantrymen were distributed about two-thirds of an Attic [medimnos](/source/Medimnos) of grain per month.[3]

It is also known from [Polybius](/source/Polybius) that if the pay distributed to Roman horsemen was one drachma a day, three times what an infantryman earned,[2] the monthly rations were seven [medimnoi](/source/Medimnos) of barley and two of wheat.[3] Allies ([socii](/source/Socii)), on the other hand, were given one medimnos and a third of wheat free of charge, as well as five of barley per month.[4] To the allies all this was given as a gift. In the case of the Romans, on the other hand, the [quaestor](/source/Quaestor) deducted from the *stipendium* the price set for wheat, clothing, and any weapons that they might need.[5]

#### The reform of Gaius Marius (107–101 BC)

Marble bust of [Gaius Marius](/source/Gaius_Marius).

Toward the end of the 2nd century BC Rome had found itself embroiled in a [war](/source/Jugurthine_War) in [Numidia](/source/Numidia), in which, because of the lack of appeal of any kind, it was almost impossible to find new recruits. From this premise the consul of that year, [Gaius Marius](/source/Gaius_Marius), decided to open the legions to anyone, whether or not they were landowners,[6] as [Sallust](/source/Sallust) tells it:

Marius noticed that the spirits of the [plebs](/source/Plebs) were full of enthusiasm. Without wasting any time he loaded the ships with weapons, stipendium for the soldiers and anything else useful, ordering Manlius to embark. He, meanwhile, enlisted soldiers, not as was the custom at that time, by social classes, but rather by accepting all volunteers, for the most part destitute of (*[capite censi](/source/Capite_censi)*).

— [Sallust](/source/Sallust), Bellum Iugurthinum, LXXXVI

Permanent active duty thus underwent a major change in [107 BC](/source/107_BC). The [Roman Republic](/source/Roman_Republic) was forced to take on the burden of equipping and supplying legionary troops, allowing everyone, including have-nots, to enlist. The minimum age for volunteers (no longer forced to serve) was now set at 17, and the maximum at 46.[7] This was the first example of a professional army where conscription by census was abolished, while [veteran soldiers](/source/Veteran_(Roman_history)), who drew daily sustenance (food and lodging, as well as equipment) from the army, received a pension in the form of land allotments in the colonies and, later on, of [Roman citizenship](/source/Roman_citizenship) as well. To them, Marius and then subsequent commanders also granted to share the spoils plundered during military campaigns.[8]

#### In Caesar's time

Caesar did not, in the course of the [conquest of Gaul](/source/Gallic_Wars), deprive his soldiers of the opportunity to loot, but the mere [legionary](/source/Legionary) had to be clear about the ultimate goal of the campaign, and his actions were not to affect the commander's operational plans. Aware of the misery of his soldiers, Caesar, on his own initiative, doubled the pay in [51](/source/51_BC)–[50 BC](/source/50_BC) from 5 to 10 asses per day (equal to 225 denarii per year), so that the legionary's pay remained unchanged until the period of Emperor [Domitian](/source/Domitian) ([81](/source/AD_81)-[96](/source/AD_96)).[9]

He, unlike many of his predecessors who provided troops with occasional donations, deemed it necessary to give continuity to the service the soldiers provided, instituting the right to a reward in land for discharge, in accordance with the custom that until then had been at the total discretion solely of the commander.

### High Empire

During the High Empire, supply to the troops, stationed along the [imperial borders](/source/Limes_(Roman_Empire)), was ensured by a system of food collection, including through forced requisitions (against reimbursement), called *annona militaris*. Basically, from the pay of [legionaries](/source/Legionary) and [auxiliaries](/source/Auxilia) all costs associated with their maintenance were, then, deducted. The *stipendium* was, therefore, composed of a pay in coin and one "in kind."

#### In the time of Augustus (30 BC – 14 AD)

[Augustus](/source/Augustus) reorganized the entire [system of the imperial border defenses](/source/Limes_(Roman_Empire)), permanently quartering [legions](/source/Roman_legion) and [auxilia](/source/Auxilia) in fortresses and [forts](/source/Castra) along the [limes](/source/Limes_(Roman_Empire)). He brought order to the financial administration of the Roman state, awarding a salary and leave bonus to all soldiers in the imperial army (both [legionaries](/source/Legionary) and [auxiliaries](/source/Auxilia)) with the creation of an *[aerarium militare](/source/Aerarium_militare)*.

With reference to the [auxiliary troops](/source/Auxilia) Augustus offered them a four-monthly pay and uniform equipment, equal to about 1/3 of what a legionary (who received 225 [denarii](/source/Denarius) annually) received, that is, around 75 [denarii](/source/Denarius) annually. The *stipendium* of an *[Ala](/source/Ala_(Roman_allied_military_unit))* knight, however, was higher than that of a [Roman legionary](/source/Legionary), hovering around 250 [denarii](/source/Denarius), while that of a knight of *[cohors equitata](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cohors_equitata_(military_unit)&action=edit&redlink=1)* ranged around 200 denarii.[10] In essence, the *[equites alares](/source/Ala_(Roman_allied_military_unit))* (Ala knights) were the highest paid: after them were the infantrymen of a *cohors equitata* with 150 denarii and finally those of a *[cohors peditata](/source/Cohors_peditata)*.[11][12][13] According to some recent calculations, the annual outlay that the *[aerarium militare](/source/Aerarium_militare)* had to spend to maintain this massive army was between 31,000,000 [denarii](/source/Denarius) according to some[14] and 65,000,000 denarii according to others.[15]

Here is how the historian [Tacitus](/source/Tacitus) describes military service and soldier pay in the time of Augustus (in the year [14](/source/AD_14)):

"Military service is, in its essence, strenuous and yields nothing: one's soul and body are valued at ten [assēs](/source/As_(Roman_coin)) a day, and with these one must pay for clothing, weapons, tents, as well as to save oneself from the abuse of the [centurions](/source/Centurion) or to buy some exemption from some toil."

— [Tacitus](/source/Tacitus), [Annales](/source/Annals_(Tacitus)), I, 17.

The final reward upon discharge, almost as if it were a form of modern [severance package](/source/Severance_package), was 3,000 [denarii](/source/Denarius) for legionaries, while praetorians were given as much as 5,000 denarii.[16]

#### In the time of Domitian (81–96)

The first increase in a soldier's pay in imperial times was in the time of [Domitian](/source/Domitian), who increased it by a quarter not only the *stipendium* of [legionaries](/source/Legionary), but also that of [auxiliary units](/source/Auxilia), thus bringing the annual compensation to 333 [denarii](/source/Denarius) for an *[Ala](/source/Ala_(Roman_allied_military_unit))* knight, 266 denarii for a knight of *cohors equitata*, and 200 [denarii](/source/Denarius) for a foot soldier of *cohors equitata*.[10][17]

#### In the time of Septimius Severus (193–211)

[Septimius Severus](/source/Septimius_Severus) favored legionaries in several ways, increasing their pay and granting them the right to marry while in service,[18] as well as allowing them to live with their families outside the camp ([canabae](/source/Canaba)). This reform entailed a "regionalization" of the legions, which in this way became tied not only to their commander but also to a specific territory.

#### In the time of Caracalla (211–217)

With the introduction of the *[Constitutio Antoniniana](/source/Constitutio_Antoniniana)* by Emperor [Caracalla](/source/Caracalla), [Roman citizenship](/source/Roman_citizenship) was granted to all inhabitants of the empire except the *[dediticii](/source/Dediticii)*. The aim was to increase tax revenues in the treasury's coffers to attempt to meet the rising costs of [military](/source/Roman_army) salaries needed to maintain armies along the [frontiers](/source/Limes_(Roman_Empire)).

#### Maximinus Thrax (235)

According to Herodian's version, the revolt of the soldiers that led to the death of Alexander Severus was mainly due to the fact that many of the soldiers of [Pannonian](/source/Pannonia) origin, who were very devoted to Maximinus,[19] felt that Alexander was depending too much on his mother's power and was behaving cowardly in conducting the Germanic war against the [Alemanni](/source/Alemanni). They recalled the recent [disasters in the East](/source/Sassanid_campaign_of_Severus_Alexander) caused by the Emperor's continued hesitation.[19] Thus they planned the killing of Alexander and the elevation to the imperial purple of Maximinus,[20] to whom they apparently threw the purple mantle as he passed for inspection.[21] While at first he refused, he later decided to accept, although he felt that such acclamation should be followed by the immediate killing of Alexander before he organized his legions.[22] And so after promising to double their *stipendium*, new *[donativa](/source/Donativum)*, and cancel all punishments, he marched decisively against Alexander's camp (which was located at [Mogontiacum](/source/Roman_Mogontiacum)).[23]

#### Summary table of military *stipendia*: from Augustus to Maximinus Thrax

Below is a table that attempts to summarize, based on calculations made by some modern scholars and the little literary evidence of the time, as well as limited archaeological-epigraphic documentation that has come down to us, the annual pay of Roman soldiers:[24][25]

Roman legion Augustus (in denarii) Domitian (in denarii) Septimius Severus (in denarii) Caracalla (in denarii) Maximinus Thrax (in denarii)[23] legionary (miles) 225 300 450 675 1350 immunis 225 300 450 675 1.350 principalis sesquiplicarius (= pay equal to 1.5 times) (Cornicen, Tesserarius e Beneficiarius) 337 450 675 1.012 2.025 principalis duplicarius (= pay equal to 2 times) (Optio, Aquilifer, Signifer, Imaginifer, Vexillarius equitum, Cornicularius, Campidoctor) 450 600 900 1.350 2.700 principalis triplicarius (= pay equal to 3 times)[26] (Evocatus)[26] 675 900 1350 2025 4050 Legionary knight 262 350 525 787 1.575 Centurion / decurion 3.375 4.500 6.750 10.125 20.250 Centurion primo ordo 6.750 9.000 13.500 20.250 40.500 Centurion primus pilus 13.500 18.000 27.000 40.500 81.000 Praefectus castrorum 15.000 20.000 30.000 45.000 90.000 Tribunus angusticlavius 18.750 25.000 37.500 56.250 112.500 Tribunus laticlavius 30.000 40.000 60.000 90.000 180.000

Auxiliary troops Augustus (in denarii) Domitian (in denarii) Septimius Severus (in denarii) Caracalla (in denarii) Maximinus Thrax (in denarii) Infantryman of cohors peditata 75 100 150 225 450 Infantryman of cohors equitata 150 200 300 450 900 Knight of cohors equitata 200 267 400 600 1.200 Knight of Ala 250 333 500 750 1.500 Praefectus cohortis 3.375 4.500 6.750 10.125 20.250 Praefectus alae 11.250 15.000 22.500 33.750 67.500

Garrisons of Rome Augustus (in denarii) Domitian (in denarii) Septimius Severus (in denarii) Caracalla (in denarii) Maximinus Thrax (in denarii) praetorianus 750[27] 1.000 1.500 2.250 4.500 urbanicianus 375[27] 500 750 1.125 2.250 vigil 150[27] 200 300 450 900

Navy Augustus (in denarii) Domitian (in denarii) Septimius Severus (in denarii) Caracalla (in denarii) Maximinus Thrax (in denarii) classiarius (Classis Misenensis) 150 200 300 450 900 classiarius (Classis Ravennatis) 150 200 300 450 900 classiarius (Classis provincialis) 75 100 150 225 450

#### Army costs in the first two centuries of the Empire

See also: [Roman economy](/source/Roman_economy)

The impact of the costs of such a large army (from [Augustus](/source/Augustus) to the [Severans](/source/Severan_dynasty)) on the economy of the Roman Empire can be measured, albeit roughly, as follows:

Military expenditures as a percentage of the Roman Empire's GDP Date Empire population Empire GDP (millions of denarii)[note 1] Cost of the military (millions of denarii)[note 1] Cost of the military (% of GDP) 14 AD. 46 million[28] 5.000[29] 123[30] 2.5% 150 AD. 61 million[31] 6.800 194[note 2] 2.9% 215 AD. 50 million[32] 5.435 223[note 2] 4.1%

The cost of the entire army grew moderately as a % of GDP between AD 14 and 150, despite an increase in manpower of about 50%, from about 255,000 armed men[33] in AD 23 to 383,000[34] under [Hadrian](/source/Hadrian), to about 442,000[35] by the death of [Septimius Severus](/source/Septimius_Severus) in 211.

This was because the population of the empire, and thus the total GDP, increased significantly (+35 percent approx.). Subsequently, the percentage of army spending toward GDP increased by almost half, although the increase in army personnel was only about 15% (from [150](/source/AD_150) to 215). This was mainly due to the Antonine plague, which epidemiological historians have estimated to have reduced the empire's population by 15% to 30%. However, even in 215, the Romans were spending a similar percentage on GDP as the defense of the only global superpower, the United States of America, spends today (amounting to 3.5 percent of GDP in 2003). However, the actual burden on taxpayers, in a quasi-agricultural economy with truly limited surplus production (80 percent of the imperial population depended on [subsistence agriculture](/source/Subsistence_agriculture) and an additional 10 percent on subsistence income), was certainly much heavier. Indeed, a study of imperial taxes in [Egypt](/source/Roman_Egypt), by far the best-documented province, established that the burden was relatively heavy.[36]

Military expenditures thus constituted about 75 percent of the total state budget, since "social" spending was little, whereas all the rest was spent on prestigious building projects in [Rome](/source/Rome) and the [provinces](/source/Roman_province); this was supplemented by a grain subsidy for those found to be unemployed, as well as aid to the proletariat of Rome ([congiaria](/source/Congiarium)) and subsidies to Italic families (similar to modern family allowances), to encourage them to beget more children. Augustus instituted this policy, distributing 250 denarii for every child born.[37] Further subsidies were later introduced for Italic families ([Institutio Alimentaria](/source/Alimenta)), by Emperor [Trajan](/source/Trajan).[38]

## See also

- [Tributum](/source/Tributum)

- [Donativum](/source/Donativum)

- [Denarius](/source/Denarius)

## Notes

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:0_28-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:0_28-1) Constant values as of 14 AD expressed in denarii, untied by increases in military pay to compensate for currency devaluation

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:2_33-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:2_33-1) Duncan-Jones: costs of years 14–84, inflated by army increase, also assuming bonuses paid to auxiliaries after 84

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** [Livy](#CITEREFLivy), 8.3)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:0_2-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:0_2-1) [Polybius](#CITEREFPolybius), 6.39)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:1_3-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:1_3-1) [Polybius](#CITEREFPolybius), 39.13)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** [Polybius](#CITEREFPolybius), 39.13–14)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** [Polybius](#CITEREFPolybius), 39.15)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** [Connolly (1976](#CITEREFConnolly1976), p. 26)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** [Connolly (1998](#CITEREFConnolly1998), p. 213)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** [Connolly (1998](#CITEREFConnolly1998), p. 214)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** [Milan (1993](#CITEREFMilan1993), p. 95)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:2_10-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:2_10-1) [Le Bohec (1992](#CITEREFLe_Bohec1992), p. 283)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** [Cheesman (1914](#CITEREFCheesman1914), p. 35)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** [Tacitus](#CITEREFTacitus), IV, 19)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** [CIL](/source/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum) [VIII, 18042.](https://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_url.php?s_sprache=it&p_publication=CIL+08%2C+18042&r_sortierung=Belegstelle)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** [Cascarino (2008](#CITEREFCascarino2008), p. 12)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** [Le Bohec (1992](#CITEREFLe_Bohec1992), p. 284)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** [Milan (1993](#CITEREFMilan1993), p. 119)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** [Suetonius](/source/Suetonius). *Domitian*. 7, 3.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** [Keppie (1998](#CITEREFKeppie1998), p. 148)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:3_19-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:3_19-1) [Herodian](#CITEREFHerodian), VI, 8.3)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** [Herodian](#CITEREFHerodian), VI, 8.4)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** [Herodian](#CITEREFHerodian), VI, 8.5)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** [Herodian](#CITEREFHerodian), VI, 8.7)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:4_23-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:4_23-1) [Herodian](#CITEREFHerodian), VI, 8.8)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** [Cascarino (2008](#CITEREFCascarino2008), pp. 48–54 & 84–86)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** [Le Bohec (1992](#CITEREFLe_Bohec1992), pp. 280–284)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:5_26-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:5_26-1) [AE](/source/L'Ann%C3%A9e_%C3%A9pigraphique) [1976, 495](https://edcs.hist.uzh.ch/de/search?citation=AE+1976%2C+00495).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:6_27-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:6_27-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-:6_27-2) [Tacitus](#CITEREFTacitus), I, 17)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** [CAH XI](#CITEREFCAH_XI), p. 812)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** [Scheidel & Friesen (2009](#CITEREFScheidelFriesen2009), p. 7)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** [Duncan-Jones (1994](#CITEREFDuncan-Jones1994), p. 36)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** [CAH XI](#CITEREFCAH_XI), p. 814)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-34)** [Stathakopoulos (2007](#CITEREFStathakopoulos2007), p. 95)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-35)** Implied from [Tacitus](/source/Tacitus), *Annales*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** CAH XI 320 estimates 380,000

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** [MacMullen (1980](#CITEREFMacMullen1980), p. 454)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-38)** [Duncan-Jones (1994)](#CITEREFDuncan-Jones1994)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** [Suetonius](/source/Suetonius). *Augustus*. 46.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-40)** [Duncan-Jones (1994](#CITEREFDuncan-Jones1994), p. 35)

## Bibliography

- Marcellinus, Ammianus (2007). Salem, A. (ed.). *Le Storie (testo latino a fronte)*. UTET. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-88-02-07712-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-02-07712-3).

- Caesar. *Commentarii de Bello Gallico*.

- [Polybius](/source/Polybius). *Histories*. VI, 19-42.

- [Sallust](/source/Sallust). *[Bellum Iugurthinum](/source/Bellum_Iugurthinum)*. LXXXVI.

- [Vegetius](/source/Vegetius). *De re militari*.

- [Livy](/source/Livy). *[Ab urbe condita libri](/source/Ab_urbe_condita_libri)*. VIII.

- Herodian. [*Roman history*](https://www.livius.org/sources/content/herodian-s-roman-history/herodian-6.8/). Vol. VI.

- [Tacitus](/source/Tacitus). *[Annales](/source/Annals_(Tacitus))*. I.

- [Suetonius](/source/Suetonius). *Augustus*.

- [Suetonius](/source/Suetonius). *Domitian*.

- Abranson, E.; Colbus, J.P. (1979). *La vita dei legionari ai tempi della guerra di Gallia*. Milan: Mondadori.

- *Cambridge Ancient History (CAH)*. Vol. XI The High Empire (2nd ed.). pp. 70–192.

- Cascarino, G. (2007). *L'esercito romano. Armamento e organizzazione*. Vol. I – Dalle origini alla fine della repubblica. Rimini: -Il Cerchio.

- Cascarino, G. (2008). *L'esercito romano. Armamento e organizzazione*. Vol. II – Da Augusto ai Severi. Rimini: Il Cerchio.

- Cascarino, G.; Sansilvestri, C. (2009). *L'esercito romano. Armamento e organizzazione*. Vol. III – Dal III secolo alla fine dell'Impero d'Occidente. Rimini: Il Cerchio.

- Cheesman, G. L. (1914). *The Auxilia during the first two century A.D*. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

- Connolly, P. (1976). *L'esercito romano*. Milan: A. Mondadori.

- Connolly, P. (1998). *Greece and Rome at war*. London: Greenhill Books/Lionel Leventhal. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1-85367-303-X](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85367-303-X).

- Duncan-Jones, Richard (1994). *Money and Government in the Roman Empire*.

- Fields, N. (2006). *Roman Auxiliary Cavalryman*. Oxford: Osprey Publishing.

- Gabba, E. (1973). *Esercito e società nella tarda Repubblica romana*. Firenze: La nuova Italia.

- Goldsworthy, A. K. (1998). *The Roman Army at War, 100 BC-AD 200*. Oxford – N.Y: Clarendon Press.

- Goldsworthy, A.K. (2007). *Storia completa dell'esercito romano*. Modena: Logos. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-88-7940-306-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-7940-306-1).

- Keppie, L. (1998). *The Making of the Roman Army, from Republic to Empire*. London: University of Oklahoma Press.

- Le Bohec, Y. (1992). *L'esercito romano da Augusto alla fine del III secolo*. Rome: Carocci.

- Le Bohec, Y. (2008). *Armi e guerrieri di Roma antica. Da Diocleziano alla caduta dell'impero*. Rome: Carocci. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-88-430-4677-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-430-4677-5).

- MacMullen, R. (1980). "How Big was the Roman imperial Army?". *KLIO*: 454.

- Mazzarino, S. (1973). *L'impero romano*. Bari: Laterza.

- Milan, A. (1993). *Le forze armate nella storia di Roma Antica*. Rome: Jouvence.

- Parker, H. (1958). *The Roman Legions*. N.Y.: Barnes & Noble Inc.

- Reddé, M. (1986). *Mare nostrum*. Paris: École française de Rome.

- Rodríguez González, J. (2003). *Historia de las legiones Romanas*. Madrid: École française de Rome.

- Ruffolo, Giorgio (2004). *Quando l'Italia era una superpotenza*. Einaudi.

- Scheidel, Walter; Friesen, Steven (2009). ["The Size of the Economy and the Distribution of Income in the Roman Empire"](https://doi.org/10.3815%2F007543509789745223). *The Journal of Roman Studies*. **99**: 61–91. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3815/007543509789745223](https://doi.org/10.3815%2F007543509789745223). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [202968244](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:202968244).

- Stathakopoulos, D.Ch. (2007). *Famine and Pestilence in the late Roman and early Byzantine Empire*.

- Webster, G. (1998). *The Roman Imperial Army*. London – Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press.

---
Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Pay (Roman army)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_(Roman_army)) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_(Roman_army)?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.