# Palynology

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Pollen and spore grains seen under differen research-grade microscopes, including [confocal microscopy](/source/Confocal_microscopy).[1]

Study of pollen and other acid-resistant microoscopic organic material

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**Palynology** is the study of microorganisms and microscopic fragments of macroorganisms that are composed of acid-resistant organic material and occur in [sediments](/source/Sediment), [sedimentary rocks](/source/Sedimentary_rock), and even some metasedimentary rocks. **Palynomorphs** are the microscopic, acid-resistant organic remains and debris produced by a wide variety of [plants](/source/Plant), [animals](/source/Animal), and [Protista](/source/Protista) that have existed since the late [Proterozoic](/source/Proterozoic).[2][3]

It is the science that studies contemporary and fossil [palynomorphs](#Palynomorphs) (paleopalynology), including [pollen](/source/Pollen), [spores](/source/Spores), [orbicules](/source/Orbicule), [dinocysts](/source/Dinocysts), [acritarchs](/source/Acritarchs), [chitinozoans](/source/Chitinozoa) and [scolecodonts](/source/Scolecodonts), together with [particulate organic matter](/source/Particulate_organic_matter) (POM) and [kerogen](/source/Kerogen) found in [sedimentary](/source/Sedimentary) rocks and [sediments](/source/Sediment). Palynology does not include [diatoms](/source/Diatoms), [foraminiferans](/source/Foraminiferans) or other organisms with [siliceous](/source/Siliceous) or [calcareous](/source/Calcareous) [tests](/source/Test_(biology)). The name of the science and organisms is derived from the Greek [Ancient Greek](/source/Ancient_Greek_language): παλύνω, [romanized](/source/Romanization_of_Ancient_Greek): *palynō*

, "strew, sprinkle" and *[-logy](/source/-logy)*) or of "particles that are strewn".[3][4]

Palynology is an interdisciplinary science that stands at the intersection of [earth science](/source/Earth_science) ([geology](/source/Geology) or geological science) and [biological science](/source/Biological_science) ([biology](/source/Biology)), particularly [plant science](/source/Plant_science) ([botany](/source/Botany)). [Biostratigraphy](/source/Biostratigraphy), a branch of [paleontology](/source/Paleontology) and [paleobotany](/source/Paleobotany), involves [fossil](/source/Fossil) palynomorphs from the [Precambrian](/source/Precambrian) to the [Holocene](/source/Holocene) for their usefulness in the [relative dating](/source/Relative_dating) and correlation of sedimentary [strata](/source/Strata). Palynology is also used to date and understand the evolution of many kinds of plants and animals. In [paleoclimatology](/source/Paleoclimatology), fossil palynomorphs are studied for their usefulness in understanding ancient Earth history in terms of reconstructing [paleoenvironments](/source/Paleoecology) and paleoclimates.[3][4]

Palynology is quite useful in disciplines such as [archeology](/source/Archeology), in honey production, and [criminal](/source/Criminal_law) and [civil law](/source/Civil_law_(legal_system)).[3][4] In archaeology, palynology is widely used to reconstruct ancient paleoenvironments and environmental shifts that significantly influenced past human societies and reconstruct the diet of prehistoric and historic humans. [Melissopalynology](/source/Melissopalynology), the study of pollen and other palynomorphs in [honey](/source/Honey), identifies the sources of pollen in terms of geographical location(s) and [genera](/source/Genera) of plants. This not only provides important information on the [ecology](/source/Ecology) of honey bees, it also an important tool in discovering and policing the criminal adultriation and mislabeling of honey and its products. [Forensic palynology](/source/Forensic_palynology) uses palynomorphs as evidence in criminal and civil law to prove or disprove a physical link between objects, people, and places.[4][5]

## Palynomorphs

Palynomorphs are broadly defined as organic remains, including [microfossils](/source/Microfossil), and microscopic fragments of macroorganisms that are composed of acid-resistant organic material and range in size between 5 and 500 [micrometres](/source/Micrometre). They are extracted from soils, [sedimentary rocks](/source/Sedimentary_rock) and [sediment cores](/source/Pollen_core), and other materials by a combination of physical (ultrasonic treatment and [wet sieving](/source/Sieve_analysis)) and chemical (acid digestion) procedures to remove the non-organic fraction. Palynomorphs may be composed of organic material such as [chitin](/source/Chitin), [pseudochitin](/source/Pseudochitin) and [sporopollenin](/source/Sporopollenin).[6]

 A late [Silurian](/source/Silurian) [sporangium](/source/Sporangium) bearing [trilete spores](/source/Trilete_spore). Such spores provide the earliest evidence of life on land.[7] **Green**: A spore tetrad. **Blue**: A spore bearing a trilete mark – the Y-shaped scar. The spores are about 30–35 μm across.

Palynomorphs form a [geological](/source/Geological) record of importance in determining the type of [prehistoric life](/source/Prehistoric_life) that existed at the time the sedimentary [strata](/source/Strata) was laid down. As a result, these microfossils give important clues to the prevailing [climatic conditions](/source/Paleogeography) of the time. Their paleontological utility derives from an abundance numbering in millions of palynomorphs per gram in organic marine deposits, even when such deposits are generally not [fossiliferous](/source/Fossiliferous). Palynomorphs, however, generally have been destroyed in [metamorphic](/source/Metamorphic_rock) or recrystallized rocks.[6]

Typical palynomorphs include [dinoflagellate cysts](/source/Dinoflagellate_cysts), [acritarchs](/source/Acritarch), [spores](/source/Spore), [pollen](/source/Pollen), plant tissue, [fungi](/source/Fungi), [scolecodonts](/source/Scolecodonts) (scleroprotein teeth, jaws, and associated features of [polychaete](/source/Polychaeta) [annelid](/source/Annelid) worms), [arthropod](/source/Arthropod) organs (such as [insect](/source/Insect) mouthparts), and [chitinozoans](/source/Chitinozoa). Palynomorph microscopic structures that are abundant in most sediments are resistant to routine pollen extraction.[6]

## Palynofacies

A **palynofacies** is the complete assemblage of [organic matter](/source/Organic_matter) and [palynomorphs](#Palynomorphs) in a fossil deposit. The term was introduced by the French [geologist](/source/Geologist) [André Combaz](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Andr%C3%A9_Combaz&action=edit&redlink=1) [[wikidata](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q63441366)] in 1964. Palynofacies studies are often linked to investigations of the organic [geochemistry](/source/Geochemistry) of [sedimentary rocks](/source/Sedimentary_rock). The study of the palynofacies of a [sedimentary depositional environment](/source/Sedimentary_depositional_environment) can be used to learn about the depositional palaeoenvironments of sedimentary rocks in exploration geology, often in conjunction with palynological analysis and [vitrinite](/source/Vitrinite) reflectance.[8][9][10]

Palynofacies can be used in two ways:

- [Organic](/source/Organic_matter) palynofacies considers all the acid insoluble [particulate organic matter](/source/Particulate_organic_matter) (POM), including [kerogen](/source/Kerogen) and [palynomorphs](#Palynomorphs) in sediments and palynological preparations of sedimentary rocks. The sieved or unsieved preparations may be examined using [strew mounts](/source/Strew_mount) on microscope slides that may be examined using a transmitted light biological microscope or [ultraviolet](/source/Ultraviolet) (UV) fluorescence microscope. The abundance, composition and preservation of the various components, together with the thermal alteration of the organic matter is considered.

- Palynomorph palynofacies considers the abundance, composition and diversity of palynomorphs in a sieved palynological preparation of sediments or palynological preparation of [sedimentary rocks](/source/Sedimentary_rock). The ratio of [marine](/source/Ocean) [fossil](/source/Fossil) [phytoplankton](/source/Phytoplankton) ([acritarchs](/source/Acritarchs) and [dinoflagellate](/source/Dinoflagellate) cysts), together with [chitinozoans](/source/Chitinozoa), to terrestrial palynomorphs ([pollen](/source/Pollen) and [spores](/source/Spores)) can be used to derive a terrestrial input index in marine sediments.

## History

[Pollen core](/source/Pollen_core) sampling, Fort Bragg, North Carolina

### Early history

The earliest reported observations of pollen under a microscope are likely to have been in the 1640s by the English [botanist](/source/Botanist) [Nehemiah Grew](/source/Nehemiah_Grew),[11] who described pollen and the stamen, and concluded that pollen is required for sexual reproduction in flowering plants.

By the late 1870s, as optical microscopes improved and the principles of [stratigraphy](/source/Stratigraphy) were worked out, [Robert Kidston](/source/Robert_Kidston) and [P. Reinsch](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=P._Reinsch&action=edit&redlink=1) were able to examine the presence of fossil spores in the Devonian and Carboniferous coal seams and make comparisons between the living spores and the ancient fossil spores.[12] Early investigators include [Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg](/source/Christian_Gottfried_Ehrenberg) ([radiolarians](/source/Radiolarian), [diatoms](/source/Diatoms) and [dinoflagellate cysts](/source/Dinoflagellate_cysts)), [Gideon Mantell](/source/Gideon_Mantell) ([desmids](/source/Desmid)) and [Henry Hopley White](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Henry_Hopley_White&action=edit&redlink=1) (dinoflagellate cysts).

### 1890s to 1940s

[Pine](/source/Pine) [pollen](/source/Pollen) under a modern simple light microscope

Quantitative analysis of pollen began with [Lennart von Post](/source/Lennart_von_Post)'s published work.[13] Although he published in the Swedish language, his methodology gained a wide audience through his lectures. In particular, his [Kristiania](/source/Kristiania) lecture of 1916 was important in gaining a wider audience.[14] Because the early investigations were published in the Nordic languages ([Scandinavian languages](/source/Scandinavian_languages)), the field of pollen analysis was confined to those countries.[15] The isolation ended with the German publication of [Gunnar Erdtman](/source/Gunnar_Erdtman)'s 1921 thesis. The methodology of pollen analysis became widespread throughout [Europe](/source/Europe) and [North America](/source/North_America) and revolutionized [Quaternary](/source/Quaternary) vegetation and [climate change](/source/Climate_change_(general_concept)) research.[14][16]

Earlier pollen researchers include Früh (1885),[17] who enumerated many common tree pollen types, and a considerable number of [spores](/source/Spore) and [herb](/source/Herb) pollen grains. There is a study of pollen samples taken from sediments of Swedish lakes by Trybom (1888);[18] [pine](/source/Pinus) and [spruce](/source/Picea) pollen was found in such profusion that he considered them to be serviceable as "[index fossils](/source/Index_fossils)". [Georg F. L. Sarauw](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Georg_F._L._Sarauw&action=edit&redlink=1) studied fossil pollen of middle Pleistocene age ([Cromerian](/source/Cromerian)) from the harbour of [Copenhagen](/source/Copenhagen).[19] Lagerheim (in Witte 1905) and C. A.Weber (in H. A. Weber 1918) appear to be among the first to undertake 'percentage frequency' calculations.

### 1940s to 1989

The term *palynology* was introduced by Hyde and Williams in 1944, following correspondence with the Swedish [geologist](/source/Geologist) [Ernst Antevs](/source/Ernst_Antevs), in the pages of the *[Pollen Analysis Circular](/source/Pollen_Analysis_Circular)* (one of the first journals devoted to pollen analysis, produced by [Paul Sears](/source/Paul_Sears) in North America). Hyde and Williams chose *palynology* on the basis of the [Greek](/source/Ancient_Greek) words *paluno* meaning 'to sprinkle' and *pale* meaning 'dust' (and thus similar to the [Latin](/source/Latin) word *pollen*).[20] The archive-based background to the adoption of the term *palynology* and to alternative names (e.g. *paepalology*, *pollenology*) has been exhaustively explored.[21] It has been argued there that the word gained general acceptance once used by the influential Swedish palynologist [Gunnar Erdtman](/source/Gunnar_Erdtman).

Pollen analysis in North America stemmed from [Phyllis Draper](/source/Phyllis_Draper), an MS student under Sears at the University of Oklahoma. During her time as a student, she developed the first pollen diagram from a sample that depicted the percentage of several species at different depths at Curtis Bog. This was the introduction of pollen analysis in North America;[22] pollen diagrams today still often remain in the same format with depth on the y-axis and abundances of species on the x-axis.

### 1990s to the 21st century

Pollen analysis advanced rapidly in this period due to advances in optics and computers. Much of the science was revised by [Johannes Iversen](/source/Johannes_Iversen) and [Knut Fægri](/source/Knut_F%C3%A6gri) in their textbook on the subject.[23]

## Methods of studying palynomorphs

### Chemical preparation

Chemical digestion follows a number of steps.[24] Initially the only chemical treatment used by researchers was treatment with [potassium hydroxide](/source/Potassium_hydroxide) (KOH) to remove [humic](/source/Humic_acid) substances; defloculation was accomplished through surface treatment or ultra-sonic treatment, although sonification may cause the pollen exine to rupture.[15] In 1924, the use of [hydrofluoric acid](/source/Hydrofluoric_acid) (HF) to digest [silicate](/source/Silicate) [minerals](/source/Mineral) was introduced by Assarson and Granlund, greatly reducing the amount of time required to scan slides for palynomorphs.[25]

Palynological studies using peats presented a particular challenge because of the presence of well-preserved organic material, including fine rootlets, moss leaflets and organic litter. This was the last major challenge in the chemical preparation of materials for palynological study. [Acetolysis](/source/Acetolysis) was developed by Gunnar Erdtman and his brother to remove these fine cellulose materials by dissolving them.[26] In acetolysis the specimen is treated with [acetic anhydride](/source/Acetic_anhydride) and [sulfuric acid](/source/Sulfuric_acid), dissolving [cellulistic](/source/Cellulose) materials and thus providing better visibility for palynomorphs.[27]

Some steps of the chemical treatments require special care for safety reasons, in particular the use of HF which diffuses very fast through the skin and, causes severe chemical burns, and can be fatal.[28]

Another treatment includes kerosene flotation for [chitinous](/source/Chitin) materials.

### Analysis

Once samples have been prepared chemically, they are mounted on [microscope](/source/Microscope) slides using silicon oil, glycerol or glycerol-jelly and examined using light [microscopy](/source/Microscopy) or mounted on a stub for [scanning electron microscopy](/source/Scanning_electron_microscope).

Researchers will often study either modern samples from a number of unique sites within a given area, or samples from a single site with a record through time, such as samples obtained from [peat](/source/Peat) or lake sediments. More recent studies have used the modern analog technique in which paleo-samples are compared to modern samples for which the parent vegetation is known.[29]

When the slides are observed under a microscope, the researcher counts the number of grains of each pollen taxon. This record is next used to produce a [pollen diagram](/source/Pollen_diagram). These data can be used to detect [anthropogenic](/source/Human_impact_on_the_environment) effects, such as logging,[30] traditional patterns of land use[31] or long term changes in regional climate[32]

## Applications

Palynology can be applied to problems in many scientific disciplines including [geology](/source/Geology), [botany](/source/Botany), [paleontology](/source/Paleontology), [archaeology](/source/Archaeology), [pedology (soil study)](/source/Pedology_(soil_study)), and [physical geography](/source/Physical_geography):

- [Biostratigraphy](/source/Biostratigraphy) and [geochronology](/source/Geochronology). Geologists use palynological studies in biostratigraphy to correlate [strata](/source/Stratum) and determine the relative age of a given bed, horizon, formation or [stratigraphical](/source/Stratigraphy) sequence. Because the distribution of [acritarchs](/source/Acritarchs), [chitinozoans](/source/Chitinozoa), [dinoflagellate cysts](/source/Dinoflagellate_cysts), [pollen](/source/Pollen) and [spores](/source/Spore) provides evidence of [stratigraphical correlation](/source/Stratigraphy) through [biostratigraphy](/source/Biostratigraphy) and [palaeoenvironmental](/source/Palaeoenvironment) reconstruction, one common and lucrative application of palynology is in [hydrocarbon exploration](/source/Hydrocarbon_exploration).

- [Paleoecology](/source/Paleoecology) and [climate change](/source/Climate_change_(general_concept)). Palynology can be used to reconstruct past [vegetation](/source/Vegetation) (land plants) and [marine](/source/Ocean) and [Freshwater phytoplankton](/source/Freshwater_phytoplankton) communities, and so infer past [environmental](/source/Natural_environment) ([palaeoenvironmental](/source/Paleoenvironment)) and [palaeoclimatic](/source/Paleoclimatology) conditions in an area [thousands or millions of years](/source/Geologic_timescale) ago, a fundamental part of research into climate change.

- Organic [palynofacies](/source/Palynofacies) studies, which examine the preservation of the particulate organic matter and [palynomorphs](#Palynomorphs) provides information on the depositional environment of sediments and depositional palaeoenvironments of [sedimentary rocks](/source/Sedimentary).

- [Geothermal](/source/Geothermal_activity) alteration studies examine the [colour](/source/Color) of palynomorphs extracted from rocks to give the thermal alteration and [maturation](/source/Hydrocarbon) of [sedimentary](/source/Sedimentary) sequences, which provides estimates of maximum [palaeotemperatures](/source/Paleotemperatures).

- [Limnology](/source/Limnology) studies. Freshwater palynomorphs and animal and plant fragments, including the [prasinophytes](/source/Prasinophyte) and [desmids](/source/Desmid) ([green algae](/source/Green_alga)) can be used to study past lake levels and long term [climate change](/source/Climate_change).

- [Taxonomy](/source/Scientific_classification) and [evolutionary studies](/source/Evolution). Involving the use of pollen morphological characters as source of taxonomic data to delimit plant species under same family or genus. Pollen apertural status is frequently used for differential sorting or finding similarities between species of the same taxa. This is also called Palynotaxonomy.

- [Forensic palynology](/source/Forensic_palynology): the study of [pollen](/source/Pollen) and other palynomorphs for evidence at a crime scene.

- [Allergy](/source/Allergy) studies and [pollen counting](/source/Pollen_counting). Studies of the geographic distribution and seasonal production of pollen, can be used to forecast pollen conditions, helping sufferers of allergies such as [hay fever](/source/Hay_fever).

- [Melissopalynology](/source/Melissopalynology): the study of pollen and spores found in honey.

- [Archaeological](/source/Archaeological) palynology examines human uses of plants in the past. This can help determine seasonality of site occupation, presence or absence of agricultural practices or products, and 'plant-related activity areas' within an archaeological context. [Bonfire Shelter](/source/Bonfire_Shelter) is one such example of this application.

## See also

- [Aperture (botany)](/source/Aperture_(botany)) – Areas on the walls of a pollen grain, where the wall is thinner and/or softer

- [Aeroplankton](/source/Aeroplankton) – Tiny lifeforms floating and drifting in the air, carried by the wind

- [Microbiology](/source/Microbiology) – Study of microscopic organisms (microbes)

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** Jaramillo, Carlos; Punyasena, Surangi W.; de Alba, Daurys; Alveo, Roxana; Arcila, Angelica; Bermudez, Jorge; Bustos, Jonatan; Caballero‐Rodriguez, Dayenari; Cardenas, Karen; Caro, David; Carvajal, Francy; Castañeda, Ivonne Marcela; Chaves, Shara; D'Apolito, Carlos; Diaz‐Jaramillo, Andres (2025-08-01). ["Digitizing collections to unlock the full potential of palynology: A case study with the Smithsonian palynology collection"](https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ppp3.70073). *PLANTS, PEOPLE, PLANET*. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/ppp3.70073](https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fppp3.70073). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2572-2611](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2572-2611).

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-WilliamsOther2020a_3-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-WilliamsOther2020a_3-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-WilliamsOther2020a_3-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-WilliamsOther2020a_3-3) Williams, G., Fensome, R.A., Miller, M. and Bujak, J., 2020. *Microfossils: palynology.* In Sorkhabi, R., ed., 15 pp., *Encyclopedia of Petroleum Geoscience.* Geneva, Switzerland, Springer Nature. 1000 pp.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-KnellerOther2020a_4-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-KnellerOther2020a_4-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-KnellerOther2020a_4-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-KnellerOther2020a_4-3) Kneller, M., and Fowell, F., 2009. *Palynology.* In Gornitz, V., ed., pp. 766-768., *Encyclopedia of Paleoclimatology and Ancient Environments.* Geneva, Switzerland, Springer Dordrecht. 1049 pp.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-LaurenceOther2014a_5-0)** Laurence, A.R., and Bryant, V.M., 2009. *Forensic Palynology.* In Bruinsma, G., and Weisburd, D., ed., pp. 1471-1754., *Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice.* New York, New York, Springer Science+Business Media. 5632 pp.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Traverse2007a_6-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Traverse2007a_6-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Traverse2007a_6-2) Traverse, A., 2007, *Paleopalynology* (2nd ed.). Amsterdam, the Netherlands, Springer-Dordrecht. 813 pp. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4020-5609-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-5609-3)

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** Jansonius, J.; D.C. McGregor (1996). ["Introduction, Palynology: Principles and Applications"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070709194314/http://www.palynology.org/history/jansonmcgrgrhist.html). *AASP Foundation*. **1**: 1–10. Archived from [the original](http://www.palynology.org/history/jansonmcgrgrhist.html) on 2007-07-09.

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FIPol_14-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FIPol_14-1) [Fægri, Knut](/source/Knut_F%C3%A6gri); [Johs. Iversen](/source/Johs._Iversen) (1964). [*Textbook of Pollen Analysis*](https://web.archive.org/web/20100403043220/http://www.palynology.org/history/erdtman.html). Oxford: [Blackwell Scientific Publications](/source/Blackwell_Scientific_Publications). Archived from [the original](http://www.palynology.org/history/erdtman.html) on 2010-04-03.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-InMem_15-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-InMem_15-1) Faegri, Knut (1973). "In memoriam O. Gunnar E. Erdtman". *Pollen et Spores*. **15**: 5–12.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** von Post, L (1918) "Skogsträdpollen i sydsvenska torvmosslagerföljder", Forhandlinger ved de Skandinaviske naturforskeres 16. møte i Kristiania 1916: p. 433

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** Früh, J (1885) "Kritische Beiträge zur Kenntnis des Torfes", Jahrb.k.k.Geol.Reichsanstalt 35

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** Trybom, F (1888) "Bottenprof fran svenska insjöar", Geol.Foren.Forhandl.10

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** Sarauw, G. F. L. (1897). ["Cromer-skovlaget i Frihavnen og trælevningerne i de ravførende sandlag ved København"](http://2dgf.dk/xpdf/bull-1897-1-4-17-44.pdf) [The Cromer Forest layer in the Free Harbour and Wood Remains in the Amber containing strata near Copenhagen] (PDF). *Meddelelser Fra Dansk Geologisk Forening / Bulletin of the Geological Society of Denmark* (in Danish). **1** (4): 17–44.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** Hyde, H.A.; D.A. Williams (1944). ["The Right Word"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070618031355/http://www.geo.arizona.edu/palynology/riteword.html). *Pollen Analysis Circular*. **8**: 6. Archived from [the original](http://www.geo.arizona.edu/palynology/riteword.html) on 2007-06-18.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** Edwards, Kevin J.; Pardoe, Heather S. (2018-01-02). ["How palynology could have been paepalology: the naming of a discipline"](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01916122.2017.1393020). *Palynology*. **42** (1): 4–19. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2018Paly...42....4E](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018Paly...42....4E). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/01916122.2017.1393020](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01916122.2017.1393020). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[2164/11661](https://hdl.handle.net/2164%2F11661). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0191-6122](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0191-6122).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Draper1928a_22-0)** Draper, P. (1928). ["A demonstration of the technique of pollen analysis"](http://ojs.library.okstate.edu/osu/index.php/OAS/article/viewFile/2553/2251). *Proceedings of the Oklahoma Academy of Science*. **8**: 63–64.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** Fægri, K. & Iversen, J. (1989) *Textbook of pollen analysis*. 4th ed. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester. 328 p.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** Bennett, K.D.; Willis, K.J. (2001). "Pollen". In Smol, John P.; Birks, H. John B.; Last, William M. (eds.). *Tracking Environmental Change Using Lake Sediments. Volume 3: Terrestrial, algal, and siliceous indicators*. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 5–32.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** Assarson, G. och E.; Granlund, E. (1924). "En metod for pollenanalys av minerogena jordarter". *Geologiska Föreningen i Stockholm Förhandlingar*. **46** (1–2): 76–82. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/11035892409444879](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F11035892409444879).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-BirksOthers2018a_26-0)** Birks, H. J. B; Berglund, B. (2018). "One hundred years of Quaternary pollen analysis 1916–2016". *Vegetation History and Archaeobotany*. **27** (2): 271–390. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2018VegHA..27..271B](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018VegHA..27..271B). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/s00334-017-0630-2](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00334-017-0630-2). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[1956/19365](https://hdl.handle.net/1956%2F19365).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** Erdtman, G. (1934). "Uber die Verwendung von Essigsaureanhydrid bei Pollenuntersuchungen". *Sven. Bot. Tidskr.* (in German). **28**: 354–358.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** ["Hydrofluoric acid fatality in Perth - hazard alert"](http://www.monash.edu.au/ohs/topics/hazard-alerts/hydrofluoric-acid-fatality.html). 1995-03-06. Retrieved 2011-12-18.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** Overpeck, J. T.; T. Webb; I. C. Prentice (1985). "Quantitative interpretation of fossil pollen spectra: Dissimilarity coefficients and the method of modern analogs". *Quaternary Research*. **23** (1): 87–108. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1985QuRes..23...87O](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985QuRes..23...87O). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/0033-5894(85)90074-2](https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0033-5894%2885%2990074-2). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [129797797](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129797797).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** Niklasson, Mats; Matts Lindbladh; Leif Björkman (2002). "A long-term record of *Quercus* decline, logging and fires in a southern Swedish *Fagus-Picea* forest". *Journal of Vegetation Science*. **13** (6): 765–774. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2002JVegS..13..765N](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002JVegS..13..765N). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1654-1103.2002.tb02106.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1654-1103.2002.tb02106.x). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [3236922](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3236922). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [84934798](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:84934798).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** Hebda, R.J.; R.W. Mathewes (1984). "Holocene history of cedar and native cultures on the North American Pacific Coast". *Science*. **225** (4663): 711–713. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1984Sci...225..711H](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984Sci...225..711H). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1126/science.225.4663.711](https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.225.4663.711). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [17810290](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17810290). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [39998080](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:39998080).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** Heusser, Calvin J.; L.E. Heusser; D.M. Peteet (1985). "Late-Quaternary climatic change on the American North Pacific coast". *Nature*. **315** (6019): 485–487. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1985Natur.315..485H](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985Natur.315..485H). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1038/315485a0](https://doi.org/10.1038%2F315485a0). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [4345551](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4345551).

## Sources

- Moore, P.D., et al. (1991), *Pollen Analysis* (Second Edition). Blackwell Scientific Publications. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-632-02176-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-632-02176-4)

- Traverse, A. (1988), *Paleopalynology*. Unwin Hyman. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-04-561001-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-04-561001-0)

- Roberts, N. (1998), *The Holocene an environmental history*, Blackwell Publishing. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-631-18638-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-18638-7)

## External links

- [The AASP - The Palynological Society](http://www.palynology.org/)

- [International Federation of Palynological Societies](https://web.archive.org/web/20050324000056/http://geo.arizona.edu/palynology/ifps.html)

- [Palynology Laboratory, French Institute of Pondicherry, India](https://web.archive.org/web/20060519091602/http://www.ifpindia.org/Palaeoenvironments-in-South-India.html)

- [The Palynology Unit, Kew Gardens, UK](https://web.archive.org/web/20040818150213/http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/scihort/palyn.html)

- [PalDat, palynological database hosted by the University of Vienna, Austria](http://www.paldat.org/)

- [The Micropalaeontological Society](http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted_sites/tms/)

- [Commission Internationale de Microflore du Paléozoique (CIMP), International Commission for Palaeozoic Palynology](https://cimp.weebly.com/)

- [Centre for Palynology, University of Sheffield, UK](https://web.archive.org/web/20000422160127/http://www.shef.ac.uk/uni/academic/N-Q/palysc/index.html)

- [Linnean Society Palynology Specialist Group (LSPSG)](http://www.linnean.org)

- [Canadian Association of Palynologists](http://www.scirpus.ca/cap/cap.shtml)

- [Pollen and Spore Identification Literature](https://web.archive.org/web/20050527035527/http://www.geo.arizona.edu/palynology/polident.html)

- [Palynologische Kring, The Netherlands and Belgium](http://www.palynologischekring.nl)

- [Palynofacies](http://www.equisetites.de/palbot/palynology/palynology.html#Palynofacies), an annotated link directory.

- Acosta *et al*., 2018. Climate change and peopling of the Neotropics during the Pleistocene-Holocene transition. Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana. [http://boletinsgm.igeolcu.unam.mx/bsgm/index.php/component/content/article/368-sitio/articulos/cuarta-epoca/7001/1857-7001-1-Acosta](http://boletinsgm.igeolcu.unam.mx/bsgm/index.php/component/content/article/368-sitio/articulos/cuarta-epoca/7001/1857-7001-1-Acosta)

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Palynology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palynology) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palynology?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.