# PEDOT:PSS

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**Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrene sulfonate** (**PEDOT:PSS**) is a composite material where [PEDOT](/source/PEDOT) (the [conductive polymer](/source/Conductive_polymer)) provides electrical conductivity, and PSS ([polystyrene sulfonate](/source/Polystyrene_sulfonate)) acts as a counter-ion to balance the charge and improve the water solubility and processability of PEDOT. Polystyrene sulfonate is a [sulfonated](/source/Aromatic_sulfonation) [polystyrene](/source/Polystyrene). Part of the [sulfonyl](/source/Sulfonyl) groups are [deprotonated](/source/Deprotonation) and carry a negative charge. The other component [poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)](/source/Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)) (PEDOT) is a [conjugated](/source/Conjugated_system) polymer and carries positive charges and is based on [polythiophene](/source/Polythiophene). Together the [charged](/source/Electric_charge) [macromolecules](/source/Macromolecule) form a macromolecular [salt](/source/Salt_(chemistry)).[1]

## Synthesis

PEDOT:PSS can be prepared by mixing an aqueous solution of [PSS](/source/Polystyrene_sulfonate) with [EDOT](/source/3,4-Ethylenedioxythiophene) monomer, and to the resulting mixture, a solution of [sodium persulfate](/source/Sodium_persulfate) and [ferric sulfate](/source/Ferric_sulfate).[2][3] The addition of these reagents initiates the oxidative chemical polymerization of EDOT in water to form PEDOT.[4] The stabilizing PSS forms a shell around a core of PEDOT in a nano-sized structure. The negatively charged sulfonic acid ions help stabilize the positively charged PEDOT ions.[5]

## Applications

PEDOT:PSS has the highest efficiency among conductive organic [thermoelectric materials](/source/Thermoelectric_materials) (ZT~0.42) and thus can be used in flexible [thermoelectric generators](/source/Thermoelectric_generator).[6] Yet its largest application is as a [transparent](/source/Transparency_and_translucency), [conductive polymer](/source/Conductive_polymer) with high [ductility](/source/Ductility). For example, [AGFA](/source/AGFA) coats 200 million [photographic films](/source/Photographic_film) per year[citation needed] with a thin, extensively-stretched layer of virtually transparent and colorless PEDOT:PSS as an [antistatic agent](/source/Antistatic_agent) to prevent electrostatic discharges during production and normal film use, independent of [humidity](/source/Humidity) conditions, and as electrolyte in [polymer electrolytic capacitors](/source/Polymer_capacitor).[clarification needed] PEDOT:PSS is commonly used in organic light emitting diode (OLED) and organic solar cell for hole injection or hole extraction to improve carrier transport.[7]

If organic compounds, including high boiling solvents like [methylpyrrolidone](/source/Methylpyrrolidone), [dimethyl sulfoxide](/source/Dimethyl_sulfoxide), [sorbitol](/source/Sorbitol), ionic liquids and surfactants, are added conductivity increases by many orders of magnitude.[8][9][10][11][12] This makes it also suitable as a [transparent](/source/Transparency_and_translucency) [electrode](/source/Electrode), for example in [touchscreens](/source/Touchscreens), [organic light-emitting diodes](/source/Organic_light-emitting_diode),[13] flexible [organic solar cells](/source/Organic_solar_cell)[14][15] and [electronic paper](/source/Electronic_paper) to replace the traditionally used [indium tin oxide](/source/Indium_tin_oxide) (ITO). Owing to the high conductivity (up to 4600 S/cm),[16] it can be used as a cathode material in [capacitors](/source/Capacitors) replacing manganese dioxide or liquid [electrolytes](/source/Electrolytes). It is also used in [organic electrochemical transistors](/source/Organic_electrochemical_transistor).

The conductivity of PEDOT:PSS can also be significantly improved by a post-treatment with various compounds, such as [ethylene glycol](/source/Ethylene_glycol), [dimethyl sulfoxide](/source/Dimethyl_sulfoxide) (DMSO), salts, [zwitterions](/source/Zwitterion), cosolvents, acids, alcohols, phenol, [geminal diols](/source/Geminal_diol) and amphiphilic fluoro-compounds.[17][18][19][20][21] This conductivity is comparable to that of ITO, the popular transparent electrode material, and it can triple that of ITO after a network of [carbon nanotubes](/source/Carbon_nanotube) and silver [nanowires](/source/Nanowire) is embedded into PEDOT:PSS[22] and used for flexible organic devices.[23]

PEDOT:PSS is generally applied as a [dispersion](/source/Emulsion_dispersion) of [gelled](/source/Gel) particles in [water](/source/Water). A conductive layer on glass is obtained by spreading a layer of the dispersion on the surface usually by [spin coating](/source/Spin_coating) and driving out the water by heat. Special PEDOT:PSS [inks](/source/Inks) and formulations were developed for different [coating and printing processes](/source/Coating_and_printing_processes). Water-based PEDOT:PSS [inks](/source/Inks) are mainly used in slot die coating, [flexography](/source/Flexography), [rotogravure](/source/Rotogravure) and [inkjet](/source/Inkjet) printing. If a high viscous paste and slow drying is required like in [screen-printing](/source/Screen-printing) processes PEDOT:PSS can also be supplied in high boiling [solvents](/source/Solvents) like [propanediol](/source/Propanediol). Dry PEDOT:PSS [pellets](/source/Pelletizing) can be produced with a [freeze drying](/source/Freeze_drying) method which are redispersable in [water](/source/Water) and different [solvents](/source/Solvents), for example [ethanol](/source/Ethanol) to increase drying speed during printing. Finally, to overcome degradation to [ultraviolet](/source/Ultraviolet) light and high [temperature](/source/Temperature) or [humidity](/source/Humidity) conditions PEDOT:PSS UV-stabilizers are available. [Linköping University](/source/Link%C3%B6ping_University) claim to have made a "wooden transistor" by replacing the [lignin](/source/Lignin) from [balsawood](/source/Balsawood) with PEDOT:PSS[24]

## Mechanical Properties

Since PEDOT:PSS is most frequently used in [thin film](/source/Thin_film) architectures, several methods have been developed to accurately probe its mechanical properties; for example, water-supported tensile testing, four-point bend tests to measure adhesive and cohesive fracture energy, buckling tests to measure modulus, and bending tests on PDMS and polyethylene supports to probe the crack onset strain.[25] Though PEDOT:PSS has a lower [electrical mobility](/source/Electrical_mobility) than [silicon](/source/Silicon), which can also be incorporated into flexible electronics through the incorporation of stress-relief structures, sufficiently flexible PEDOT:PSS can enable lower cost-processing, such as [roll-to-roll processing](/source/Roll-to-roll_processing).[26] The most important characteristics for an [organic semiconductor](/source/Organic_semiconductor) used in thin-film architectures are low modulus in the elastic regime and high stretchability prior to fracture.[26] These properties have been found to be highly correlated to relative humidity.[27] At high relative humidity (>40%) hydrogen bonds are weakened in the PSS due to the uptake of water which leads to higher strain before fracture and lower elastic modulus. At low relative humidity (<23%) the presence of strong bonding between PSS grains leads to higher modulus and lower strain before fracture. Films at higher relative humidity are presumed to fail by [intergranular fracture](/source/Intergranular_fracture), whereas lower relative humidity leads to [transgranular fracture](/source/Transgranular_fracture). Additives like 3-glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane (GOPS) can drastically improve the mechanical stability in aqueous media even at low concentrations of 1 wt% without significantly impeding the electrical properties.[28]

PEDOT:PSS can also show [self-healing](/source/Self-healing_material) properties if submerged in water after sustaining mechanical damage.[29] This self-healing capability is proposed to be enabled by the [hygroscopic](/source/Hygroscopy) property of PSS−.[30] Common PEDOT:PSS additives that improve the electrical conductivity have varying effects on self-healing. While [ethylene glycol](/source/Ethylene_glycol) improves electrical and mechanical self-healing, [sulfuric acid](/source/Sulfuric_acid) reduces the former but improves the latter, presumably because it undergoes [autoprotolysis](/source/Autoprotolysis). [Polyethylene glycol](/source/Polyethylene_glycol) improves the electrical and thermoelectric self-healing, but reduces the mechanical self-healing.[30]

PEDOT:PSS is also attractive for conductive textile applications. Though it results in inferior thermoelectric properties, wet-spinning has been shown to result in high conductivity and stiff fibers due to preferential alignment of polymer chains during fiber drawing.[31]

## References

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [PEDOT:PSS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PEDOT%3APSS) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PEDOT%3APSS?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.