# Oncorhynchus > Mediated Wiki article. Canonical URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Oncorhynchus > Markdown URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Oncorhynchus.md > Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oncorhynchus > Source revision: 1354823211 > License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) {{Short description|Genus of fishes}} {{Automatic taxobox | fossil_range = Late [Miocene](/source/Miocene) – recent | image = Oncorhynchus nerka 2.jpg | image_caption = [Sockeye salmon](/source/Sockeye_salmon), ''Oncorhynchus nerka''
Female (above) and male in mating season
Note male with [kype](/source/kype) (hooked snout) | taxon = Oncorhynchus | authority = [Suckley](/source/George_Suckley), 1861 | type_species = ''[Salmo gorbuscha](/source/Oncorhynchus_gorbuscha)''{{cn|date=August 2024}} | type_species_authority = ([Walbaum](/source/Johann_Julius_Walbaum), 1792) | subdivision_ranks = Species | subdivision = {{section link||Species}} }} '''''Oncorhynchus''''' is a [genus](/source/genus) of [ray-finned fish](/source/ray-finned_fish) in the [subfamily](/source/subfamily) [Salmoninae](/source/Salmoninae) of the [family](/source/Family_(taxonomy)) [Salmonidae](/source/Salmonidae), native to coldwater [tributaries](/source/tributaries) of the [North Pacific](/source/North_Pacific) basin. The genus contains sixteen [extant](/source/extant_taxon) [species](/source/species), namely six species of '''Pacific salmon''' and ten species of '''Pacific trout''', all of which are [migratory](/source/fish_migration) (either [anadromous](/source/anadromous) or [potamodromous](/source/potamodromous)) mid-[level](/source/trophic_level) [predatory fish](/source/predatory_fish) that display [natal homing](/source/natal_homing) and [semelparity](/source/semelparity). The name of the genus is derived from [Ancient Greek](/source/Ancient_Greek) ὄγκος (''ónkos''), meaning "bend", and ῥύγχος (''rhúnkhos''), meaning "snout", in reference to the hooked [secondary sexual characteristic](/source/secondary_sexual_characteristic) — known as the [kype](/source/kype) — that the males develop on the [lower jaw](/source/lower_jaw) tip during mating season. == Range == [Salmon](/source/Salmon) and [trout](/source/trout) within ''Oncorhynchus'' are native to the tributaries of the [North Pacific Ocean](/source/North_Pacific_Ocean), with their native [range](/source/range_(biology))s extend from the [Bering Sea](/source/Bering_Sea) coasts southwards to as far as [Taiwan](/source/Taiwan) in the west and [Mexico](/source/Mexico) in the east, although most of them are distributed in high-[latitude](/source/latitude) cold waters from the [Russian Far East](/source/Russian_Far_East) to the [Pacific Northwest](/source/Pacific_Northwest). In [North America](/source/North_America), some [subspecies](/source/subspecies) of [cutthroat trout](/source/cutthroat_trout) (''O. clarkii'') have become landlocked populations native to [endorheic](/source/endorheic) waters in the [Rocky Mountains](/source/Rocky_Mountains) and the [Great Basin](/source/Great_Basin), while others have crossed the [Continental Divide](/source/Continental_Divide_of_the_Americas) to inhabit the [Rio Grande](/source/Rio_Grande) and western tributaries of the [Mississippi River](/source/Mississippi_River), both of which drain into the [Gulf of Mexico](/source/Gulf_of_Mexico) instead of the Pacific Ocean. Several species of ''Oncorhynchus'', such as the [rainbow trout](/source/rainbow_trout) (''O. mykiss'') and [Chinook salmon](/source/Chinook_salmon) (''O. tshawytscha''), have been widely introduced into non-native waters around the globe, establishing [self-sustaining](/source/naturalization_(biology)) wild populations. The six Pacific salmons of ''Oncorhynchus'' are [anadromous](/source/fish_migration) (migratory) and [semelparous](/source/Semelparity_and_iteroparity) (die after [spawn](/source/Spawn_(biology))ing). Migration can be affected by [parasite](/source/parasite)s. Infected individuals can become weak and probably have shortened lifespans. Infection with parasites creates an effect known as [culling](/source/culling) whereby fish that are infected are less likely to complete the migration.{{cite journal|last1=Bartel|first1=Rebecca|last2=Oberhauser|first2=Karen |author-link2=Karen Oberhauser |last3=De Roode|first3=Jacob|last4=Atizer|first4=Sonya|title=Monarch butterfly migration and parasite transmission in eastern North America|journal=Ecology|date=February 2011|volume=92|issue=2|pages=342–351|doi=10.1890/10-0489.1|pmid=21618914 |pmc=7163749|bibcode=2011Ecol...92..342B }} Anadromous forms of ''Oncorhynchus mykiss'' known as [steelhead](/source/steelhead) are [iteroparous](/source/Semelparity_and_iteroparity). The [coastal cutthroat trout](/source/coastal_cutthroat_trout) (''Oncorhynchus clarkii clarkii'') is considered semi-anadromous, as it spends some time in the ocean, usually much closer to its native stream than its fully anadromous relatives. ==Evolution== [[File:Oncorhynchus rastrosus reconstruction by Ray Troll.png|thumb|The extinct ''[Oncorhynchus rastrosus](/source/Oncorhynchus_rastrosus)'' was one of the largest [salmonids](/source/Salmonidae).]] Several Late [Miocene](/source/Miocene) (about 7 million years ago ([Mya](/source/Myr))) trout-like fossils in [Idaho](/source/Idaho), in the [Clarkia Lake beds](/source/Clarkia_fossil_beds), appear to be of ''[Oncorhynchus](/source/Oncorhynchus_lacustris)''.{{cite web|url=http://associations.sou.edu/aaaspd/TableContents/LateCenHist.pdf|title=Late Cenozoic History of the Pacific Northwest|last=Smiley|first=Charles J|publisher=Association for the Advancement of Science: Pacific Division|access-date=11 March 2014|archive-date=11 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311182020/http://associations.sou.edu/aaaspd/TableContents/LateCenHist.pdf}} The presence of these species so far inland established ''Oncorhynchus'' was not only present in the Pacific drainages before the beginning of the [Pliocene](/source/Pliocene) (5–6 Mya), but also that [rainbow](/source/Rainbow_trout) and [cutthroat trout](/source/cutthroat_trout), and Pacific salmon lineages had diverged before the beginning of the Pliocene. Consequently, the split between ''Oncorhynchus'' and ''[Salmo](/source/Salmo)'' (Atlantic salmon) must have occurred well before the Pliocene. Suggested dates have gone back as far as the Early Miocene (about 20 Mya). One fossil species assigned to this genus, ''[O. rastrosus](/source/Oncorhynchus_rastrosus)'', the spike-toothed salmon ([synonym](/source/Synonym_(taxonomy)) ''Smilodonichthys''), is a {{convert|2.4 to 2.7|m|ft|adj=}} long species known from [Late Miocene](/source/Late_Miocene) to [Pliocene](/source/Pliocene) [fossil](/source/fossil)s.{{Cite journal |last1=Claeson |first1=Kerin M. |last2=Sidlauskas |first2=Brian L. |last3=Troll |first3=Ray |last4=Prescott |first4=Zabrina M. |last5=Davis |first5=Edward B. |date=2024-04-24 |title=From sabers to spikes: A newfangled reconstruction of the ancient, giant, sexually dimorphic Pacific salmon, †''Oncorhynchus rastrosus'' (SALMONINAE: SALMONINI) |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=19 |issue=4 |article-number=e0300252 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0300252 |doi-access=free |pmid=38656950 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=11042722|bibcode=2024PLoSO..1900252C }} The prehistoric species ''[O. australis](/source/Oncorhynchus_australis)'' (originally described in ''Salmo'') inhabited the [Lake Chapala](/source/Lake_Chapala) basin of southwestern Mexico during the [Pleistocene](/source/Pleistocene), making it the southernmost known [salmonid](/source/Salmonidae) to have inhabited North America. [Speciation](/source/Speciation) among ''Oncorhynchus'' has been examined for decades, and a family "tree" is not yet completely developed for the Pacific salmonids. [Mitochondrial DNA](/source/Mitochondrial_DNA) (mtDNA) research has been completed on a variety of Pacific trout and salmonid species, but the results do not necessarily agree with fossil research, or molecular research. [Chum](/source/Chum_salmon), [pink](/source/Pink_salmon) and [sockeye salmon](/source/sockeye_salmon) lineages are generally agreed to have diverged in the sequence after other species.{{cite book|last=McPhail|first=J.D.|author2=Strouder, D.J.|title=The Origin and Speciation of ''Oncorhynchus''|publisher=Chapman & Hall|location=New York, New York|year=1997|chapter=Pacific Salmon and Their Ecosystems: Status and Future Options}} Montgomery (2000) discusses the pattern of the fossil record as compared to [tectonic](/source/Tectonics) shifts in the plates of the [Pacific Northwest](/source/Pacific_Northwest) of America. The (potential) [divergence](/source/divergence) in ''Oncorhynchus'' lineages appear to follow the uprising of the [Pacific Rim](/source/Pacific_Rim). The climatic and habitat changes that would follow such a geologic event are discussed, in the context of potential stressors leading to adaptation and speciation.{{cite news |url=http://gis.ess.washington.edu/grg/publications/pdfs/salmonevolution.pdf |title=Coevolution of the Pacific Salmon and Pacific Rim Topography |last=Montgomery |first=David R. |year=2000 |publisher=Department of Geological Sciences, University of Washington |access-date=2011-07-11}} One interesting case involving speciation with salmon is that of the [kokanee salmon](/source/kokanee_salmon) (landlocked [sockeye salmon](/source/sockeye_salmon)). Kokanee sockeye evolve differently from [anadromous](/source/Fish_migration) sockeye—they reach the level of "biological species". Biological species—as opposed to [morphological](/source/Morphology_(biology)) species—are defined by the capacity to maintain themselves in [sympatry](/source/sympatry) as independent [genetic](/source/Genetics) entities. This definition can be vexing because it apparently applies only to sympatry, and this limitation makes the definition difficult to apply. Examples in [Washington State](/source/Washington_(state)), [Canada](/source/Canada), and elsewhere have two populations living in the same lake, but [spawn](/source/Spawn_(biology))ing in different substrates at different times, and eating different food sources.{{cite web|url=http://www.livinglandscapes.bc.ca/thomp-ok/kokanee-salmon/view-life.html|title=Kokanee Heritage Project}} There is no pressure to compete or interbreed (two responses when resources are short). These types of kokanee salmon show the principal attributes of a biological species: they are reproductively isolated and show strong resources partitioning. ==Decline of ''Oncorhynchus'' populations== A general decline in overall Pacific salmon populations began in the mid-19th century. As the result of western expansion and development in the U.S., experts estimate salmon populations in the [Columbia River](/source/Columbia_River) basin had been reduced to less than 20% of their pre-1850 levels by 1933.{{cite web |url=http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/staff/lackey/pubs/salmon2100.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061014054938/http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/staff/lackey/pubs/salmon2100.pdf |archive-date=October 14, 2006 |title=Pacific Northwest Salmon: Forecasting Their Status in 2100 |year=2003 |author=Robert T. Lackey |publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |access-date=2013-12-09}} In 2008, Lackey estimated that Pacific salmon stocks in the Pacific Northwest were less than 10% of their pre-1850 numbers.{{cite web |url=http://oregonstate.edu/dept/fw/lackey/ENCYCLOPEDIA-OF-EARTH-LACKEY-SALMON-HISTORY-MS-2008.pdf |title=Salmon Decline in Western North America: Historical Context |author=Robert T. Lackey |year=2008 |publisher=Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Oregon State University |access-date=2013-12-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110904221432/http://oregonstate.edu/dept/fw/lackey/ENCYCLOPEDIA-OF-EARTH-LACKEY-SALMON-HISTORY-MS-2008.pdf |archive-date=2011-09-04 }} Many of the remaining [salmon run](/source/salmon_run)s are dominated by [hatchery](/source/fish_hatchery)-raised salmon, not wild salmon. Many isolated subspecies of the Pacific trouts, particularly those of ''Oncorhynchus mykiss'' [rainbow trout](/source/rainbow_trout) and ''Oncorhynchus clarkii'' [cutthroat trout](/source/cutthroat_trout) have declined in their native ranges. Many local populations or [distinct population segment](/source/distinct_population_segment)s of anadromous forms of [steelhead](/source/Rainbow_trout) have declined in their native ranges. The resulting declines have resulted in a number of populations of ''Oncorhynchus'' species or subspecies being listed as either [endangered](/source/Endangered_species), [threatened](/source/Threatened_species) or as "Species of Special Concern" by state, federal or international authorities. Two ''Oncorhynchus clarkii'' subspecies are considered [extinct](/source/Extinction). Declines are attributed to a wide variety of causes—overfishing, habitat loss and degradation, artificial propagation, stocking, and hybridization with or competition with introduced, non-native species. For example, the [yellowfin cutthroat trout](/source/yellowfin_cutthroat_trout) (''Oncorhynchus clarkii macdonaldi'') is extinct as a result of the introduction of non-native rainbow trout into its native waters. [[File:Pacific salmon body size declines are significant and nonlinear.webp|thumb|200px|Measured recent declines in salmon body size.{{cite journal |last1=Oke |first1=K. B. |last2=Cunningham |first2=C. J. |last3=Westley |first3=P. a. H. |last4=Baskett |first4=M. L. |last5=Carlson |first5=S. M. |last6=Clark |first6=J. |last7=Hendry |first7=A. P. |last8=Karatayev |first8=V. A. |last9=Kendall |first9=N. W. |last10=Kibele |first10=J. |last11=Kindsvater |first11=H. K. |last12=Kobayashi |first12=K. M. |last13=Lewis |first13=B. |last14=Munch |first14=S. |last15=Reynolds |first15=J. D. |date=19 August 2020 |title=Recent declines in salmon body size impact ecosystems and fisheries |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |page=4155 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.4155O |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-17726-z |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=7438488 |pmid=32814776 |last16=Vick |first16=G. K. |last17=Palkovacs |first17=E. P.}} 50x50px Text and images are available under a [Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License](/source/creativecommons%3Aby%2F4.0%2F).]] thumb|200px|"Salmon body size declines over the past 30 years have negative consequences for a fecundity, b nutrient transport, c commercial fishery value, and d rural food security". Pacific salmon are facing a widespread decline in body size. The mean body mass of sockeye salmon (''O. nerka'') decreased by 10% between 2000 and 2010.{{Cite journal |last=Ohlberger |first=Jan |date=January 3, 2023 |title=Declines in body size of sockeye salmon associated with increased competition in the ocean |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B |volume=290|issue=1992 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2022.2248 |pmid=36750195 |pmc=9904942 |bibcode=2023RSPSB.29022248O }} The mean body length of ''Oncorhynchus'' species decreased by 2–8% between 1990 and 2010. Salmon body size is decreasing due to a variety of evolutionary forces, including dams,{{Cite journal |last=Waples |first=Robin |date=July 18, 2007 |title=Evolutionary responses by native species to major anthropogenic changes to their ecosystems: Pacific salmon in the Columbia River hydropower system |journal=Molecular Ecology |volume=17|issue=1 |pages=84–96 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-294x.2007.03510.x |pmid=18268786 |s2cid=24874492 }} fishing practices, climate change,{{Cite journal |last=Audzijonyte |first=Asta |date=June 2020 |title=Fish body sizes change with temperature but not all species shrink with warming |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-020-1171-0 |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |volume=4 |issue=6 |pages=809–814|doi=10.1038/s41559-020-1171-0 |pmid=32251381 |bibcode=2020NatEE...4..809A |hdl=2262/94726 |s2cid=214808910 |hdl-access=free }} and increased competition in the ocean. This trend in salmon size is expected to decrease nutrient cycling and salmon reproductive success while hurting the success of commercial fisheries and rural communities who rely on salmon for survival. ===Influence of hatcheries=== Declines in the abundance of wild salmon due to over fishing placed greater pressure on hatcheries to increase production and restore the wild salmon stock to supply fisheries.{{cite journal | last1 = Ricker | first1 = W. E. | year = 1981 | title = Changes in the average size and average age of Pacific salmon | journal = Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences | volume = 38 | issue = 12 | pages = 1636–1656 | doi = 10.1139/f81-213 | bibcode = 1981CJFAS..38.1636R }}{{cite book|author=Ricker, W. E. |year=1995|chapter= Trends in the average size of Pacific salmon in Canadian catches|title= Climate change and northern fish populations|pages= 563–602 |editor= R. J. Beamish|series= Canadian Special Publication of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences |number=121}} The problem is that hatcheries can never truly replicate the environment of [wild salmon](/source/salmon), an issue which often results in physiological and behavioral differences between wild salmon and those reared in hatcheries. These differences are often the product of genetic changes associated with [inbreeding](/source/inbreeding), [artificial selection](/source/artificial_selection), and [natural selection](/source/natural_selection), as well as different environmental pressures acting on hatchery fish than wild populations.{{cite iucn |author=Rand, P.S. |year=2011 |title=''Oncorhynchus nerka'' |volume=2011 |article-number=e.T135301A4071001 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-2.RLTS.T135301A4071001.en |access-date=28 April 2025}} Due to the size selective nature of fishing favoring larger fish, a reduction in average size of the adult salmon has been observed over time. The smaller salmon make a greater proportion of the remaining individuals continuing the population, and problems arise when these hatchery-reared fish are introduced into the wild populations. Unlike wild salmon, larger salmon are selected for in hatcheries and are typically much larger than wild salmon.{{cite journal|last1=Beamish|first1=R|title=Hatchery and wild production of Pacific salmon in relation to large-scale, natural shifts in the productivity of the marine environment|journal=ICES Journal of Marine Science|volume=54|issue=6|year=1997|pages=1200–1215|issn=1054-3139|doi=10.1016/S1054-3139(97)80027-6|bibcode=1997ICJMS..54.1200B|doi-access=free}} The result is that hatchery-produced salmon tend to out-compete wild salmon for space, food, and other resources. Some salmon species in hatcheries exhibit [predatory behavior](/source/predation) toward wild salmon because they grow to be much larger. Regardless of whether predation is observed, natural [social interactions](/source/sociobiology) are disturbed by the release of large numbers of hatchery-reared salmon where wild populations are low because salmon in hatcheries naturally have a higher propensity towards [aggressive behavior](/source/animal_aggression)."Risks to Wild Populations from Hatchery Fish - Salmon Hatchery Q & As." Northwest Fisheries Science Center. N.p., n.d. Web. Overall, natural salmon populations are put at risk when hatchery-reared salmon populations are introduced due to competition for resources, predation by larger individuals, and negative social interactions that upset the natural order observed in wild salmon populations. As a result, wild salmon populations are steadily dropping as the pressure to continue breeding salmon in hatcheries increases. [Conservation efforts](/source/salmon_conservation) that work to place limitations on hatcheries to increase the wild salmon populations are hindered by financial pressures because hatcheries effectively support many states [economically](/source/economy) by accounting for over 70% of the salmon harvested for [recreational](/source/recreational) and [commercial](/source/commercial_fishing) purposes."Salmon Hatcheries Overview | Washington Department of Fish & Wildlife." Washington Department of Fish & Wildlife. N.p., n.d. Web. ===Influence of overfishing=== Pacific salmon are harvested throughout the world as a source of food in countries ranging from the United States to South Korea.Groot, Cornelis, and Leo Margolis. (1991) Pacific salmon life histories. UBC press. Over the past century, Pacific salmon have been extensively fished through both [recreational](/source/Recreational_fishing), [artisan](/source/Artisan_fishing) and [commercial fishing](/source/commercial_fishing). In fact, since the 1970s there has been a nearly threefold increase in catch of Pacific salmon. As this catch has increased, a selection of reduced body size has been observed. In Japanese [chum salmon](/source/chum_salmon), for example, between 1970 and 1988 there has been a continuous decrease in body weight averaging between 11 and 32 percent.{{cite journal | last1 = IIshida | first1 = Y. | last2 = Ito | first2 = S. | last3 = Kaeriyama | first3 = M. | last4 = McKinnell | first4 = M. | last5 = Nagasawa | first5 = K. | year = 1993 | title = Recent changes in age and size of chum salmon (''Oncorhynchus keta'') in the North Pacific Ocean and possible causes | journal = Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences | volume = 50 | issue = 2 | pages = 290–295 | doi=10.1139/f93-033| bibcode = 1993CJFAS..50..290I }} In part, this decline in body weight has been related to the size selective effect of fishing gear used in the harvesting of salmon populations. Salmon of larger body weight are more apt to be caught during fishing efforts, causing lower body weight to be a beneficial character trait for survival. Thus, Pacific salmon have become continuously smaller in body size. However, studies have also shown that for Pacific salmon, a larger mean size at the time of reproduction increases the survival of [offspring](/source/offspring).{{cite journal | last1 = Bigler | first1 = B. S. | last2 = Welch | first2 = D. W. | last3 = Helle | first3 = J. H. | year = 1996 | title = A review of size trends among North Pacific salmon (''Oncorhynchus'' spp.) | journal = Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences | volume = 53 | issue = 2 | pages = 455–465 | doi=10.1139/cjfas-53-2-455}} The [life history](/source/Biological_life_cycle) of salmon favors delayed reproduction because [fecundity](/source/fecundity) increased with body size. Consequently, the smaller body size of salmon results in a negative impact on population growth by decreasing the survivability of progeny, and thus decreasing the growth rate of populations. This reduction of productivity in Pacific salmon is, in part, seeded in [overfishing](/source/overfishing) and has caused a reduction in population sizes throughout Pacific salmon species. Today, it seems that population numbers of Pacific salmon are on the rise; however, the consequences from the overfishing in the 70s and 80s are still being reflected, with the average body size of salmon being smaller than before the event of overfishing. ==Conservation== {{See also|Salmon conservation}} ===Canadian efforts=== {{See also|Conservation status of British Columbia salmonids}} There has been evidence that the sockeye salmon are affected by thermal conditions and their responses to temperature are relatively strong and tend to vary from region to region. Canada has also used the [Species at Risk Act](/source/Species_at_Risk_Act) to recognize the importance of biological diversity when it comes to the conservation of the salmon population.Regan, Geoff. (2005) Canada's Policy for Conservation of Wild Pacific Salmon. Fisheries and Oceans Canada. This means that multiple species of salmon would be looked at when it comes to conservation as well as multiple areas that each species live in. [COSEWIC](/source/Committee_on_the_Status_of_Endangered_Wildlife_in_Canada), a Canadian organization for the conservation of species, has named the Interior [Fraser River](/source/Fraser_River) Coho, the [Cultus Lake](/source/Cultus_Lake%2C_British_Columbia) Sockeye, and the [Sakinaw Lake](/source/Sakinaw_Lake) Sockeye to all be endangered. In [British Columbia](/source/British_Columbia) sockeye salmon in four different watersheds were certified by the [Marine Stewardship Council](/source/Marine_Stewardship_Council), or MSC, as sustainable fisheries in July 2010 and the certification is good for a period of five years.MSC Certification Requirements. Marine Stewardship Council. N.p., n.d. Web. In 2011 MSC also certified the Pink Salmon Fishery and as of 2012 The Chum Salmon Fisheries started their review under the MSC to become certified as a [sustainable fishery](/source/sustainable_fishery).Certification Status of Pacific Salmon Fisheries. State of the Salmon. N.p., n.d. Web. ===American efforts=== {{See also|Steelhead and salmon distinct population segments}} The US government has been working to develop a nationwide policy for the salmon populations. The Pacific Salmon Stronghold Conservation Act was re-submitted to congress and if passed will create geographic strongholds for salmon populations.The Salmon Stronghold Initiative. Wild Salmon Center. N.p., n.d. Web. Other policies include the Wild Salmon Policy which was enacted in 2005; its number one focus is the conservation of salmon off of the coasts. Even localized policies have begun, with one in Oregon which focuses on the southernmost watershed and was approved January 2013.Beyerlin et al. (2013) Conservation Plan for Fall Chinook Salmon in the Rogue Species Management Unit. Oregon Fish and Wildlife Commission. In the Alaskan efforts, there is evidence of eight known regional groups of survival. It is also seen that the emigration of smolts (young salmon) from freshwater to other areas such as marine areas have shown significant consequences on the survival of different salmon groups. [The Alaska Department of Fish and Game](/source/Alaska_Department_of_Fish_and_Game) first received MSC, Marine Stewardship Council, Certification in sustainable seafood back in 2000. Each certification is good for a period of five years, with yearly check ups to ensure that the fishery remains sustainable. It was renewed again in 2007, but in 2012 The ADFG left the program. The [Annette Island](/source/Annette_Island) Reserve salmon fishery is under the control of the [Metlakatla](/source/Metlakatla%2C_Alaska) Indian community and as such was not included in the previous assessments of the Alaskan fisheries. It received its sustainability certification in June 2011. The [Wild Salmon Center](/source/Wild_Salmon_Center) is a nonprofit organization that works on promoting conservation efforts for salmon worldwide and in the United States; it has helped secure protected watershed areas for Russian and west coast salmon. Other efforts of the Wild Salmon Center include combating [illegal fishing](/source/illegal_fishing), maintaining sustainable fisheries, and creating local watersheds as new habitats.Initiatives. Wild Salmon Center. N.p., n.d. Web. ===Russian efforts=== [Poaching](/source/Poaching) is a threat to ''Oncorhynchus'' salmon and steelhead populations in [Russia](/source/Russia). It is estimated that illegal catching of salmon is 1.5 times more than the reported catch. The Wild Salmon Center is working with Russian authorities to try to help improve traceability systems so that markets can distinguish between legal sustainable salmon and the illegal salmon.Sustainable Fisheries. Wild Salmon Center. N.p., n.d. Web. The Wild Salmon Center has secured some of its protected locations for the salmon populations. In efforts with the [WWF](/source/World_Wide_Fund_for_Nature), the Wild Salmon Center was also able to have a Sockeye Salmon fishery certified as completely sustainable in 2012.Brandon, H. (2012) Conserving Kamchatka Salmon Through Marine Stewardship Council Certification. World Wildlife Fund. The [Iturup Island](/source/Iturup) Pink and Chum Salmon Fishery was first certified in 2009 and was the first Russian salmon fishery to receive certification in sustainability by MSC. Other fisheries that were certified by MSC include the Northeast [Sakhalin Island](/source/Sakhalin_Island) Pink Salmon, certified in June 2012, and the [Ozernaya River](/source/Ozernaya_(river%2C_Sea_of_Okhotsk)) Sockeye Salmon, certified in September 2012. The [Aniva Bay](/source/Aniva_Bay) Pink Salmon and the Sakhalin Island Pink salmon are both under review by the MSC. ==Introductions and aquaculture== {{See also|Aquaculture of salmon}} Several species of ''Oncorhynchus'' have been successfully introduced into non-native waters, establishing self-sustaining wild populations. The [Rainbow Trout](/source/Rainbow_Trout) ''Oncorhynchus mykiss'' is the most widely introduced species of the genus. Rainbow Trout, [Chinook Salmon](/source/Chinook_Salmon) ''Oncorhynchus tshawytscha'' and [Coho Salmon](/source/Coho_Salmon) ''Oncorhynchus kisutch'' have established wild, self-sustaining populations in the [Great Lakes](/source/Great_Lakes)Spring, Barbara. ''The Dynamic Great Lakes'',(p. 48) {{ISBN|1-58851-731-4}}, Independence Books, 2001 and Chinook in [New Zealand](/source/New_Zealand) (known there as quinnat, king or spring salmon).McDowall, R. M. (1994). The origins of New Zealand's chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha. Marine Fisheries Review, 1/1/1994. [Aquaculture](/source/Fish_farming) of Chinook and Coho salmon and Rainbow Trout are major industries in [Chile](/source/Chile){{cite web |url=http://www.gaalliance.org/update/GOAL11/Tveteras_Nystoyl.pdf |title=Fish Production Estimates & Trends 2011-2012 |publisher=Global Aquaculture Alliance |author=Ragnar Tveteras |author2=Ragnar Nystoyl |access-date=2014-02-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222141608/http://www.gaalliance.org/update/GOAL11/Tveteras_Nystoyl.pdf |archive-date=2014-02-22 }} and [Australia](/source/Australia). Chinook from Chile were released into [Argentinean](/source/Argentina) rivers and there were stockings of Coho and Sockeye Salmon and Rainbow Trout in [Patagonia](/source/Patagonia).{{cite web |url=http://globalflyfisher.com/fish-better/patagonian-salmonids |title=Patagonian salmonids Brown trout Destinations Rainbow trout Salmon South America This is the history and present state of salmonid introduction in Patagonia |last=Schneider |first=Heiko |date=Aug 7, 2011 |access-date=April 23, 2016}} ==Species== Some of the species in this genus are highly variable and a number of now-obsolete taxa have been described. In 1989, morphological and genetic studies by Gerald Smith and Ralph Stearley indicated that trouts of the [Pacific basin](/source/Pacific_Ocean) were genetically closer to Pacific salmon (''Onchorhynchus'' species) than to the ''[Salmo](/source/Salmo)s'' – [brown trout](/source/brown_trout) (''Salmo trutta'') or [Atlantic salmon](/source/Atlantic_salmon) (''Salmo salar'') of the [Atlantic basin](/source/Atlantic_Ocean).{{cite journal |url=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/140998/1/fsh0004.pdf |title=The Classification and Scientific Names of Rainbow and Cutthroat Trouts |journal=Fisheries |author=Gerald R. Smith |author2=Ralph F. Stearley |volume=14 |number=1 |year=1989 |publisher=American Fisheries Society |pages=4–10 |doi=10.1577/1548-8446(1989)014<0004:tcasno>2.0.co;2|bibcode=1989Fish...14a...4S |hdl=2027.42/140998 |hdl-access=free }} Thus, in 1989, taxonomic authorities moved the Rainbow, Cutthroat and other Pacific basin trouts into the genus ''Oncorhynchus''.{{cite book |last=Behnke |first=Robert J. |author-link=Robert J. Behnke |others=Tomelleri, Joseph R. (illust.) |title=Trout and Salmon of North America |publisher=The Free Press |isbn=0-7432-2220-2 |year=2002 |pages=10–21 |chapter=Genus ''Oncorhynchus'' }} === Extant species === Currently, 16 species and numerous subspecies in this genus are recognized:{{FishBase genus | genus = Oncorhynchus| month = February | year = 2012}} Behnke (2002)Page, Lawrence M.; Bemis, Katherine E.; Espinosa-Pérez, Héctor S.; Findley, Lloyd T.; Gilbert, Carter R.; Hartel, Karsten E.; Lea, Robert N.; Mandrak, Nicholas E.; Neighbors, Margaret A. (2023). ''Common and scientific names of fishes from the United States, Canada, and Mexico''. Special publication (Eighth ed.). Bethesda: American Fisheries Society. {{ISBN|978-1-934874-69-1}}. and Fujioka ''et al''., (2025).{{cite journal |last1=Fujioka |first1=Yasuhiro |last2=Kuwahara |first2=Masayuki |last3=Tabata |first3=Ryoichi |last4=Fuke |first4=Yusuke |last5=Nakabo |first5=Tetsuji |title=The Biwa salmon, a new species of Oncorhynchus (Salmonidae) endemic to Lake Biwa, Japan |journal=Ichthyological Research |date=21 Jun 2025 |doi=10.1007/s10228-025-01032-z |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10228-025-01032-z |access-date=22 June 2025|url-access=subscription }} {| class="wikitable" |- ! Image !! Scientific name!! Common name(s) !! Subspecies !! Distribution |- |240x240px || ''Oncorhynchus apache'' ([R. R. Miller](/source/Robert_Rush_Miller), 1972) ||[Apache trout](/source/Apache_trout), Arizona trout | || the upper Salt River watershed (Black and White rivers) and the upper Little Colorado River watershed |- | || ''Oncorhynchus biwaensis'' (Fujioka ''et al''., 2025) ||[Biwa trout](/source/Biwa_trout), Biwamasu, Biwa salmon | || [Lake Biwa](/source/Lake_Biwa) |- | || ''Oncorhynchus chrysogaster'' ([Needham](/source/Paul_Robert_Needham) & [Gard](/source/Richard_Gard), 1964) ||[Mexican golden trout](/source/Mexican_golden_trout) || || the headwaters of the Fuerte River, Sinaloa River, and Culiacán River drainages in the Sierra Madre Occidental |- | |''Oncorhynchus clarkii'' (Richardson, 1836)Markle, Douglas F. (2018), Trotter; Bisson; Shultz; Roper (eds.), "An Interim Classification of the Cutthroat Trout Complex, Oncorhynchus clarkii Sensu Lato, with Comments on Nomenclaturet", ''Cutthroat Trout: Evolutionary Biology and Taxonomy'', American Fisheries Society,Page, L. M., Bemis, K. E., Dowling, T. E., Espinosa��Perez, H., Findley, L. T., Gilbert, K. E., et al. (2023). Common and scientific names of fishes from the United States, Canada, and Mexico (special publication 37, 8th ed.). American Fisheries Society. |[Coastal cutthroat trout](/source/Coastal_cutthroat_trout) | |The Pacific Northwest coast from Alaska through British Columbia into northern California, in the Cascade Range |- |frameless|239x239px | ''Oncorhynchus henshawi'' (Gill & Jordan, 1878)||[Lahontan cutthroat trout](/source/Lahontan_cutthroat_trout) || * ''O. h. alvordensis'' (Behnke, 2002) – [Alvord cutthroat trout](/source/Alvord_cutthroat_trout)† ([extinct](/source/extinct))Peacock, M.M., H.M. Neville and A.J. Finger. 2018. The Lahontan basin evolutionary lineage of cutthroat trout. Pages 231–259 in P. Trotter, P. Bisson, L. Schultz and B. Roper editors. Cutthroat trout: evolutionary biology and taxonomy. American Fisheries Society Special Publication 36. American Fisheries Society. Bethesda, Maryland.Peacock, M.M., H.M. Neville and A.J. Finger. 2018. The Lahontan basin evolutionary lineage of cutthroat trout. Pages 231–259 in P. Trotter, P. Bisson, L. Schultz and B. Roper editors. Cutthroat trout: evolutionary biology and taxonomy. American Fisheries Society Special Publication 36. American Fisheries Society. Bethesda, Maryland. * ''O. h. henshawi'' (Richardson, 1836) – [(Western Basin) Lahontan cutthroat trout](/source/Lahontan_cutthroat_trout) * ''O. h. humboldtensis'' (Trotter and Benke., 2008) Humboldt cutthroat trout (Eastern Basin)Trotter, Patrick C.; Behnke, Robert J. (2008). "The Case for Humboldtensis: A Subspecies Name for The Indigenous Cutthroat Trout, ''Oncorhynchus clarki'' of The Humboldt River, Upper Quinn River, and Coyote Basin Drainages, Nevada and Oregon". ''Western North American Naturalist''. '''68''' (1). Monte L. Bean Life Science Museum, Brigham Young University: 58–65. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):10.3398/1527-0904(2008)68[58:tcfhas]2.0.co;2. [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) 41717657. [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) 84316986. * ''O. c. seleniris'' (John O. Snyder, 1933) – [Paiute cutthroat trout](/source/Paiute_cutthroat_trout)"Species Profile-Paiute cutthroat trout (''Oncorhynchus clarkii seleniris'')". U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Archived from the original on 2013-12-26. Retrieved 2013-12-25. * ''O. henshawi ssp.,'' Quinn River cutthroat trout (Northwestern Basin) * ''O. h.'' ssp. [Willow-Whitehorse Basin cutthroat trout](/source/Whitehorse_Basin_cutthroat_trout), considered a separate subspecies by Behnke (2002)"Species Profile-Lahontan cutthroat trout (''Oncorhynchus clarkii henshawi'')". U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Archived from the original on 2013-11-13. Retrieved 2013-12-25. and others but not by Trotter and Behnke (2008).Trotter, Patrick; Bisson, Peter; Roper, Brett; Schultz, Luke; Ferraris, Carl; Smith, Gerald R.; Stearley, Ralph F. (2018), Trotter, Patrick; Bisson, Peter; Shultz, Luke; Roper, Brett (eds.), "A Special Workshop on the Taxonomy and Evolutionary Biology of Cutthroat Trout", ''Cutthroat Trout: Evolutionary Biology and Taxonomy'', American Fisheries Society, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):10.47886/9781934874509.ch1, {{ISBN|978-1-934874-50-9}}, retrieved 2024-08-12 || The Great Basin and eastern Sierra Nevada Mountains |- |frameless|239x239px |''Oncorhynchus virginalis'' (Girard, 1857) |[Rocky Mountain Cutthroat trout](/source/Rocky_Mountain_cutthroat_trout), Black-spotted Cutthroat trout |{{Bullet}}''O. v. bouvieri'' (Bendire, 1882) – [Yellowstone cutthroat trout](/source/Yellowstone_cutthroat_trout) * ''O. v. pleuriticus'' (Cope, 1872) – [Colorado River cutthroat trout](/source/Colorado_River_cutthroat_trout) * ''O. v. stomias'' (Cope, 1871) – [Greenback cutthroat trout](/source/Greenback_cutthroat_trout) * ''O. v. utah'' (Suckley, 1874) – [Bonneville cutthroat trout](/source/Bonneville_cutthroat_trout) * ''O. v. virginalis'' (Girard, 1856) – [Rio Grande cutthroat trout](/source/Rio_Grande_cutthroat_trout) |Distributed across various drainage basins in the Central and Southern Rocky Mountains, Eastern Great Basin, the Snake River Plain, and historically extended the Davis Mountains, TX. |- |frameless|239x239px |''Oncorhynchus lewisi'' (Girard, 1856) |[Westslope cutthroat trout](/source/Westslope_cutthroat_trout) | |Northern rocky mountains including the upper Columbia and Missouri Rivers drainages with unique isolated populations in Lake Chelan and Methow River, WA and the John Day River, OR |- |242x242px || ''Oncorhynchus gilae'' ([R. R. Miller](/source/Robert_Rush_Miller), 1950) ||[Gila trout](/source/Gila_trout) || || the Gila River in Arizona and New Mexico |- |frameless|241x241px frameless|242x242px | ''Oncorhynchus gorbuscha'' ([Walbaum](/source/Johann_Julius_Walbaum), 1792) ||[pink salmon](/source/pink_salmon), humpback salmon | || the Pacific and Arctic coastal waters and rivers, from the Sacramento River in northern California to the Mackenzie River in Canada; and in the west from the Lena River in Siberia to Korea and Honshu, Japan |- |242x242px || ''[Oncorhynchus kawamurae](/source/Oncorhynchus_kawamurae)'' ([D. S. Jordan](/source/David_Starr_Jordan) & [E. A. McGregor](/source/Ernest_Alexander_McGregor), 1925) ||kunimasu, black kokanee | || [Lake Saiko](/source/Saiko_Lake) |- |242x242px
242x242px || ''Oncorhynchus keta'' ([Walbaum](/source/Johann_Julius_Walbaum), 1792) ||[chum salmon](/source/chum_salmon), dog salmon, keta salmon, silverbrite salmon | || the [Yukon River](/source/Yukon_River) and deep into the Amur River basin in Asia. In lesser numbers they migrate thousands of kilometres up the Mackenzie River, the North Pacific, in the waters of Korea, Japan, and the Okhotsk and Bering Seas (Kamchatka, Chukotka, the Kuril Islands, Sakhalin, Khabarovsk Krai, Primorsky Krai), British Columbia in Canada, and from Alaska to California in the United States |- |239x239px
239x239px || ''Oncorhynchus kisutch'' ([Walbaum](/source/Johann_Julius_Walbaum), 1792) ||[coho salmon](/source/coho_salmon), silver salmon, silvers | ||both sides of the North Pacific Ocean, from Hokkaidō, Japan and eastern Russia, around the Bering Sea to mainland Alaska, and south to Monterey Bay, California |- |241x241px || ''[Oncorhynchus masou](/source/Oncorhynchus_masou)'' (Brevoort, 1856) ||masu salmon, cherry salmon, Japanese salmon, seema | * ''[O. m. masou](/source/Oncorhynchus_masou)'' (Brevoort, 1856) – masu salmon, cherry salmon, Japanese salmon * ''[O. m. formosanus](/source/Oncorhynchus_masou_formosanus)'' ([D. S. Jordan](/source/David_Starr_Jordan) & [Ōshima](/source/Masamitsu_%C5%8Cshima), 1919) – [Formosan landlocked salmon](/source/Formosan_landlocked_salmon), Taiwanese salmon * ''[O. m. macrostomus](/source/Oncorhynchus_masou_macrostomus)'' ([Günther](/source/Albert_G%C3%BCnther), 1877) – ''amago'', red-spotted masu salmon * ''[O. m. ishikawae](/source/Oncorhynchus_ishikawae)'' ([Brevoort](/source/James_Carson_Brevoort), 1856) – [Satsukimasu salmon](/source/Satsukimasu_salmon), masu salmon, ''yamame'' * ''O. m. rhodurus'' [D. S. Jordan](/source/David_Starr_Jordan) & [E. A. McGregor](/source/Ernest_Alexander_McGregor), 1925 – Previously identified as [Biwa trout](/source/Biwa_trout),{{Cite journal |last1=Fujioka |first1=Yasuhiro |last2=Kuwahara |first2=Masayuki |last3=Tabata |first3=Ryoichi |last4=Fuke |first4=Yusuke |last5=Nakabo |first5=Tetsuji |date=2025-06-21 |title=The Biwa salmon, a new species of Oncorhynchus (Salmonidae) endemic to Lake Biwa, Japan |journal=Ichthyological Research |language=en |doi=10.1007/s10228-025-01032-z |issn=1616-3915}} no common name{{Cite web |date=2025-06-27 |title=琵琶湖固有の新種としてビワマスに学名が付けられました｜滋賀県ホームページ |url=https://www.pref.shiga.lg.jp/kensei/koho/e-shinbun/oshirase/344912.html |access-date=2025-06-30 |website=滋賀県ホームページ |language=ja}} * ''O. m. var. iwame'' [Seiro Kimura](/source/Seiro_Kimura) & [M. Nakamura](/source/Morizumi_Nakamura), 1961 – [Iwame trout](/source/Iwame_trout), markless trout (intrapopoulation variant) || Kamchatka, the Kuril Islands, Sakhalin, and Primorsky Krai south through Korea, Taiwan, and Japan |- |frameless|239x239px frameless|240x240px | ''Oncorhynchus mykiss'' ([Walbaum](/source/Johann_Julius_Walbaum), 1792) ||[rainbow trout](/source/rainbow_trout), [steelhead](/source/steelhead), ocean trout, [redband trout](/source/redband_trout) | * ''O. m. mykiss'' ([Walbaum](/source/Johann_Julius_Walbaum), 1792) – [Kamchatkan rainbow trout](/source/Kamchatkan_rainbow_trout) * ''O. m. aguabonita'' ([D. S. Jordan](/source/David_Starr_Jordan), 1892) – [golden trout](/source/golden_trout) * ''O. m. irideus'' f. ''beardsleei'' – [Beardslee trout](/source/Beardslee_trout), (sometimes ''O. m. beardsleei'') * ''O. m. newberrii'' (Richardson, 1836) – [Great Basin redband trout](/source/Great_Basin_redband_trout) * ''O. m. irideus'' (Walbaum, 1792) – [coastal rainbow trout](/source/Rainbow_trout) * ''O. m. gairdneri'' ([Richardson](/source/John_Richardson_(naturalist)), 1836) – [Columbia River redband trout](/source/Redband_trout) * ''O. m. stonei'' – [McCloud River redband trout](/source/McCloud_River_redband_trout) * ''O. m. nelsoni'' (Evermann, 1908) – [Baja California rainbow trout](/source/Baja_California_rainbow_trout) * ''O. m. ssp.'' – [Mexican native trout](/source/Mexican_native_trout) * ''O. m. gilberti'' – [Kern River rainbow trout](/source/Kern_River_rainbow_trout) * ''O. m. whitei'' (Evermann, 1906) – [Little Kern golden trout](/source/Little_Kern_golden_trout) || the Pacific basin, from the [Kamchatka Peninsula](/source/Kamchatka_Peninsula) in Russia, east along the [Aleutian Islands](/source/Aleutian_Islands), throughout southwestern Alaska, the Pacific Coast of British Columbia and southeast Alaska, and south along the west coast of the U.S. to northern Mexico |- |frameless|242x242px frameless|242x242px | ''Oncorhynchus nerka'' ([Walbaum](/source/Johann_Julius_Walbaum), 1792) ||[sockeye salmon](/source/sockeye_salmon), red salmon, blueback salmon, kokanee | || the [Columbia River](/source/Columbia_River) in the eastern Pacific (although individuals have been spotted as far south as the [10 Mile River](/source/Ten_Mile_River_(California)) on the Mendocino Coast of California) and in northern [Hokkaidō Island](/source/Hokkaido) in Japan in the western Pacific |- |242x242px
241x241px || ''Oncorhynchus tshawytscha'' ([Walbaum](/source/Johann_Julius_Walbaum), 1792) ||[Chinook salmon](/source/Chinook_salmon), blackmouth, black salmon, chub salmon, Columbia River salmon, hookbill salmon, king salmon, Quinnat salmon, spring salmon, Tyee salmon, winter salmon | || the [Ventura River](/source/Ventura_River) in California in the south to [Kotzebue Sound](/source/Kotzebue_Sound) in Alaska in the north |- |} === Fossil species === [[File:Rhabdofario lacustris 01b.jpg|thumb|Fossil jaw of the extinct ''[Oncorhynchus lacustris](/source/Oncorhynchus_lacustris)'']] Based partly on Stearley & Smith:{{Cite journal |last1=Stearley |first1=Ralph F. |last2=Smith |first2=Gerald R. |date=2016-10-14 |title=FISHES OF THE MIO-PLIOCENE WESTERN SNAKE RIVER PLAIN AND VICINITY |url=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/handle/2027.42/134040 |journal=Miscellaneous Publications. Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan |language=en-US |volume=204 |issue=1 |hdl=2027.42/134040 |issn=0076-8405}} * †''[Oncorhynchus australis](/source/Oncorhynchus_australis)'' (Cavender & Miller, 1982) (=''Salmo australis'') - Pleistocene of [Jalisco, Mexico](/source/Jalisco) (Chapala Formation).{{Cite journal |last1=Cavender |first1=T. M. |last2=Miller |first2=R. R. |date=1982 |title=Salmo australis, A New Species of Fossil Salmonid from Southwestern Mexico |url=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/handle/2027.42/48509 |journal=Contributions |language=en-US |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=1–17|hdl=2027.42/48509 }}{{Cite journal |last1=Stearley |first1=R. F. |last2=Smith |first2=G. R. |date=1993-01-01 |title=Phylogeny of the Pacific Trouts and Salmons (Oncorhynchus) and Genera of the Family Salmonidae |url=https://academic.oup.com/tafs/article-abstract/122/1/1/7893175 |journal=Transactions of the American Fisheries Society |volume=122 |issue=1 |pages=1–33 |doi=10.1577/1548-8659(1993)122<0001:POTPTA>2.3.CO;2 |bibcode=1993TrAFS.122....1S |issn=0002-8487|hdl=2027.42/141723 |hdl-access=free }} * †''[Oncorhynchus belli](/source/Oncorhynchus_belli)'' Stearley & Smith, 2018 (Truckee trout) - late Miocene of Nevada ([Truckee Formation](/source/Truckee_Formation)). Potentially related to the [cutthroat trout](/source/cutthroat_trout). * †''[Oncorhynchus ketopsis](/source/Oncorhynchus_ketopsis)'' Eiting & Smith, 2007 - Miocene of Oregon ([Chalk Hills Formation](/source/Chalk_Hills_Formation)). Likely belonging to the Pacific salmon group. * †''[Oncorhynchus lacustris](/source/Oncorhynchus_lacustris)'' ([Cope](/source/Edward_Drinker_Cope), 1870) - late Miocene to late Pliocene of Idaho. Likely belonging to the [redband trout](/source/redband_trout) group. * †''[Oncorhynchus rastellus](/source/Oncorhynchus_rastellus)'' Stearley & Smith, 2018 (small spiketooth salmon) - Miocene of Idaho (Chalk Hills Formation). Belongs to the Pacific salmon group. * †''[Oncorhynchus rastrosus](/source/Oncorhynchus_rastrosus)'' (Cavender & Miller, 1972) (spike-toothed salmon) - middle Miocene to early Pliocene of western North America and Japan. Likely belonging to the Pacific salmon group. * †''[Oncorhynchus salax](/source/Oncorhynchus_salax)'' Smith, 1975 - Miocene/Pliocene of Idaho ([Glenns Ferry Formation](/source/Glenns_Ferry_Formation)). Likely belonging to the redband trout group.{{Cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Gerald R. |last2=Kimmel |first2=P. G. |date=1975 |title=Fishes of the Pliocene Glenns Ferry Formation, Southwest Idaho; Fishes of the Miocene - Pliocene Deer Butte Formation, Southeast Oregon Claude W. Hibbard Memorial Volume V |url=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/handle/2027.42/48614 |journal=Papers on Paleontology |language=en-US |issue=14 |pages=1–87|hdl=2027.42/48614 }} ==Notes== {{Reflist|30em}} ==References== * {{aut|[Behnke, Robert J.](/source/Robert_J._Behnke)}} (2002): ''Trout and Salmon of North America''. Free Press, 2002. * {{aut|Sepkoski, Jack}} (2002): Osteichthyes. ''In:'' A compendium of fossil marine animal genera. ''Bulletin of American Paleontology'' '''364''': 560. [http://strata.ummp.lsa.umich.edu/jack/showgenera.php?taxon=611&rank=class HTML fulltext] * {{aut|Stearley, R.F. & Smoth, G.R.}} (1993): Phylogeny of the Pacific trout and salmon (''Oncorhynchus'') and the genera of family Salmonidae. ''Transactions of the American Fisheries Society'' '''122'''(1): 1–33. {{doi|10.1577/1548-8659(1993)122<0001:POTPTA>2.3.CO;2}} [http://afs.allenpress.com/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1577%2F1548-8659(1993)122%3C0001:POTPTA%3E2.3.CO%3B2 HTML fulltext]{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * {{aut|Stephenson, S.A.}} (2005) ''The distribution of Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) in the Canadian western Arctic''. http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/Library/321160.pdf * {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/upstreamsalmonso0000nati |author=Committee on Protection and Management of Pacific Northwest Anadromous Salmonids |title=Upstream-Salmon and Society in the Pacific Northwest |publisher=National Academies Press |year=1996 |isbn=0-309-05325-0 |location=Washington, D.C. |url-access=registration }} * {{cite journal | pmc=3352430 | pmid=25567639 | doi=10.1111/j.1752-4571.2008.00020.x | volume=1 | title=Evolutionary consequences of fishing and their implications for salmon | year=2008 | journal=Evolutionary Applications | pages=388–408 | author = Hard, Jeffery | issue=2 | bibcode=2008EvApp...1..388H }} ==External links== {{Commons category}} * [http://www.salmonfarmers.org/ British Columbia Salmon Farmer's Association] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110423131022/http://www.salmonfarmers.org/ |date=2011-04-23 }} * [http://www.gaalliance.org/ Global Aquaculture Alliance] *[https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7327524.stm US mulls Pacific salmon fishing ban] *[http://www.watershed-watch.org/ Watershed Watch Salmon Society] A British Columbia advocacy group for wild salmon *[http://www.watershed-watch.org/sealice.html ''Wild Salmon in Trouble: The Link Between Farmed Salmon, Sea Lice and Wild Salmon''] - Watershed Watch Salmon Society. Animated short video based on peer-reviewed scientific research, with subject background article ''Watching out for Wild Salmon''. *[http://www.watershed-watch.org/programs/AquaculturalRevolution.html ''Aquacultural Revolution: The scientific case for changing salmon farming''] - Watershed Watch Salmon Society. Short video documentary. Prominent scientists and First Nation representatives speak their minds about the salmon farming industry and the effects of sea lice infestations on wild salmon populations. {{salmon}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q133325}} {{Authority control}} Category:Oncorhynchus Category:Taxa named by George Suckley Category:Actinopterygii genera Category:Extant Miocene first appearances Category:Biota of the Temperate Northern Pacific --- Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Oncorhynchus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oncorhynchus) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oncorhynchus?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.