# Nuclear engineering

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Applied science

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**Nuclear engineering** is the engineering discipline concerned with designing and applying systems that utilize the energy released by nuclear processes.[1][2] The most prominent application of nuclear engineering is the generation of electricity. Worldwide, some [439](/source/List_of_commercial_nuclear_reactors) nuclear reactors in [31 countries](/source/Nuclear_power_by_country) generate 10 percent of the world's energy through [nuclear fission](/source/Nuclear_fission).[3] In the future, it is expected that [nuclear fusion](/source/Nuclear_fusion) will add another nuclear means of generating energy.[4] Both reactions make use of the [nuclear binding energy](/source/Nuclear_binding_energy) released when atomic [nucleons](/source/Nucleon) are either separated (fission) or brought together (fusion). The energy available is given by the [binding energy curve](/source/Nuclear_binding_energy#Nuclear_binding_energy_curve), and the amount generated is much greater than that generated through chemical reactions. Fission of 1 gram of uranium yields as much energy as burning 3 tons of coal or 600 gallons of fuel oil,[5] without adding carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.[6]

## History

Nuclear engineering was born in 1938, with the discovery of nuclear fission.[7] The first *artificial* nuclear reactor, [CP-1](/source/Chicago_Pile-1), was designed by a team of physicists who were concerned that [Nazi Germany](/source/German_nuclear_weapons_program) might also be seeking to build a bomb based on nuclear fission. (The earliest known nuclear reaction on Earth occurred [naturally](/source/Natural_nuclear_fission_reactor), 1.7 billion years ago, in Oklo, Gabon, Africa.) The second artificial nuclear reactor, the [X-10 Graphite Reactor](/source/X-10_Graphite_Reactor), was also a part of the [Manhattan Project](/source/Manhattan_Project), as were the [plutonium](/source/Plutonium)-producing reactors of the [Hanford Engineer Works](/source/Hanford_Engineer_Works).

The first nuclear reactor to generate electricity was [Experimental Breeder Reactor I](/source/Experimental_Breeder_Reactor_I) (EBR-I), which did so near [Arco](/source/Arco%2C_Idaho), Idaho, in 1951 on December 20.[8] EBR-I was a standalone facility, not connected to a grid, but a later Idaho research reactor in the [BORAX](/source/BORAX_experiments) series did briefly supply power to the town of Arco in 1955.

The first commercial nuclear power plant, built to be connected to an electrical grid, is the [Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant](/source/Obninsk_Nuclear_Power_Plant), which began operation in 1954. The second is the [Shippingport Atomic Power Station](/source/Shippingport_Atomic_Power_Station), which produced electricity in 1957.

For a chronology, from the discovery of uranium to the current era, see [Outline History of Nuclear Energy](https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/outline-history-of-nuclear-energy.aspx) or [History of Nuclear Power](/source/History_of_nuclear_power). Also see [History of Nuclear Engineering Part 1: Radioactivity](https://www.thechemicalengineer.com/features/history-of-nuclear-engineering-part-1-radioactivity/), [Part 2: Building the Bomb](https://www.thechemicalengineer.com/features/history-of-nuclear-engineering-part-2-building-the-bomb/), and [Part 3: Atoms for Peace](https://www.thechemicalengineer.com/features/history-of-nuclear-engineering-part-3-atoms-for-peace/).

See [List of Commercial Nuclear Reactors](/source/List_of_commercial_nuclear_reactors) for a comprehensive listing of nuclear power reactors and [IAEA Power Reactor Information System (PRIS)](https://pris.iaea.org/PRIS/WorldStatistics/OperationalReactorsByCountry.aspx) for worldwide and country-level statistics on nuclear power generation.

## Sub-disciplines

Nuclear engineers work in such areas as the following:[9][10][11]

- [Nuclear reactor](/source/Nuclear_reactor) design, which has evolved from the Generation I, [proof-of concept](/source/Proof_of_concept), reactors of the 1950s and 1960s,[12] to [Generation II](/source/Generation_II_reactor), [Generation III](/source/Generation_III_reactor), and [Generation IV](/source/Generation_IV_reactor) concepts

- [Thermal hydraulics](/source/Thermal_hydraulics) and [heat transfer](/source/Heat_transfer). In a typical [nuclear power plant](/source/Nuclear_power_plant), heat generates steam that drives a [steam turbine](/source/Steam_turbine) and an [electric generator](/source/Electric_generator) that produces electricity

- [Materials science](/source/Materials_science) as it relates to nuclear power applications

- Managing the [nuclear fuel cycle](/source/Nuclear_fuel_cycle), in which [fissile material](/source/Fissile_material) is obtained, formed into [fuel](/source/Nuclear_fuel), removed when [depleted](/source/Spent_nuclear_fuel), and safely [stored](/source/Radioactive_waste) or [reprocessed](/source/Nuclear_reprocessing)

- [Nuclear propulsion](/source/Nuclear_propulsion), mainly for military naval vessels, but there have been concepts for [aircraft](/source/Nuclear-powered_aircraft) and [missiles](/source/Project_Pluto). [Nuclear power](/source/Nuclear_power_in_space) has been used in space since the 1960s

- [Plasma physics](/source/Plasma_(physics)), which is integral to the development of [fusion power](/source/Fusion_power)

- [Weapons](/source/Nuclear_weapon) development and management

- Generation of [radionuclides](/source/Radionuclide), which have applications in industry, medicine, and many [other areas](/source/Radionuclide#Uses)

- [Nuclear waste management](/source/Nuclear_waste_management)

- [Health physics](/source/Health_physics)

- [Nuclear medicine](/source/Nuclear_medicine) and [Medical Physics](/source/Medical_physics)

- [Health and safety](/source/Environment%2C_health_and_safety)

- [Instrumentation and control engineering](/source/Instrumentation_and_control_engineering)

- [Process engineering](/source/Process_engineering)

- [Project Management](/source/Project_manager)

- [Quality engineering](/source/Quality_engineering)

- Reactor operations[13]

- Nuclear security (detection of clandestine nuclear materials)[14]

- Nuclear engineering even has a role in criminal investigation,[15] and agriculture.[16]

Many [chemical](/source/Chemical_engineering), [electrical](/source/Electrical_engineering) and [mechanical](/source/Mechanical_engineering) and other types of engineers also work in the nuclear industry, as do many scientists and support staff. In the U.S., nearly 100,000 people directly work in the nuclear industry. Including [secondary sector](/source/Secondary_sector_of_the_economy) jobs, the number of people supported by the U.S. nuclear industry is 475,000.[17]

## Employment

In the United States, nuclear engineers are employed as follows:[18]

- Electric power generation 25%

- Federal government 18%

- Scientific research and development 15%

- Engineering services 5%

- Manufacturing 10%

- Other areas 27%

Job prospects for nuclear engineers worldwide are not available, but the IAEA estimates that nuclear energy capacity will grow by 40% (an additional 514 GW(e) ) to 2.5 times current capacity (an additional 950 GW(e)) by 2050.[19] Countries with existing nuclear energy capacity and those actively exploring nuclear energy are listed in the following.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

Country Nuclear capabilities Algeria See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Argentina See Nuclear Power in Argentina. Armenia See Nuclear Power in Armenia. Australia See nuclear sector and Australia's Uranium. Austria "Austria operates one central radioactive waste management and interim storage facility – Nuclear Engineering Seibersdorf GmbH (NES) for pre-disposal management including treatment, conditioning and interim storage of low- and intermediate level radioactive waste (LILW)."[20] Nuclear Engineering Seibersdorf GmbH (NES) collects, processes, conditions, and stores radioactive waste and does decontamination and decommissioning of nuclear facilities for the Republic of Austria.[21] Azerbaijan See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Bangladesh See WNA:Bangladesh and Nuclear Power in Bangladesh. Belarus See WNA:Belarus and Nuclear Power in Belarus. Belgium See Nuclear Power in Belgium and nuclear sector. Bolivia See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Botswana See WNA: Uranium in Africa and Uranium in Africa. Brazil See nuclear sector and Nuclear Power in Brazil. Bulgaria See nuclear sector and Nuclear Power in Bulgaria. Burundi See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Cambodia See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Canada WNA: Nuclear Power in Canada, nuclear sector, and Nuclear Power in Canada. Central African Republic See WNA: Uranium in Africa and Uranium in Africa. Chile See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. China See WNA:Nuclear Power in China, and Nuclear Power in China. Congo, Democratic Republic See WNA: Uranium in Africa and Uranium in Africa. Croatia See WNA:Nuclear Power in Slovenia and Nuclear Power in Croatia. Czech Republic See WNA: Nuclear Power in Czech Republic and Nuclear Power in the Czech Republic. Cuba See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Denmark See WNA:Nuclear Energy in Denmark and Nuclear Power in Denmark. Ecuador See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Egypt See Start of construction of Egypt's first nuclear power plant and El Dabaa Nuclear Power Plant. Equatorial Guinea See WNA: Uranium in Africa and Uranium in Africa. Estonia See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Ethiopia See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Finland See WPA:Nuclear Power in Finland and Nuclear Power in Finland. France See WPA:Nuclear Power in France and Nuclear Power in France. Gabon See WNA: Uranium in Africa and Uranium in Africa. Georgia See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Germany See WPA:Nuclear Power in Germany and Nuclear Power in Germany. Ghana See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Greece See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Guinea See WNA: Uranium in Africa and Uranium in Africa Guyana See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Hungary See WNA:Nuclear Power in Hungary and Nuclear Power in Hungary. India See WNA:Nuclear Power in India and Nuclear Power in India. Indonesia See WNPA:Nuclear Power in Indonesia and Nuclear Power in Indonesia. Iran See WNA:Nuclear Power in Iran and Nuclear Power in Iran. Israel See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Italy See WNA:Nuclear Power in Italy and Nuclear Power in Italy. Japan See WNA:Nuclear Power in Japan and Nuclear Power in Japan. Jordan See WNA:Nuclear Power in Jordan and Nuclear Power in Jordan. Kazakhstan See WNA:Uranium and Nuclear Power in Kazakhstan and Nuclear Power in Kazakhstan. Kenya See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Korea, North See Nuclear power in North Korea. Korea, South See WNA:Nuclear Power in South Korea and Nuclear Power in South Korea. Kyrgyzstan See WNA:Uranium in Kyrgyzstan. Laos See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Latvia See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Lithuania See WNA:Nuclear Power in Lithuania and Nuclear Power in Lithuania. Malawi See WNA: Uranium in Africa and Uranium in Africa. Malaysia See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Mali See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Mauritania See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Mexico See WNA:Nuclear Power in Mexico and Nuclear Power in Mexico. Mongolia See WNA:Uranium in Mongolia. Morocco See WNA: Uranium in Africa and Uranium in Africa. Myanmar See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Namibia See WNA:Uranium in Namibia. Netherlands See WNA:Nuclear Power in the Netherlands and Nuclear Power in the Netherlands. New Zealand See WNA:Nuclear Energy Prospects in New Zealand. Niger See WNA:Uranium in Niger. Nigeria See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Norway See Nuclear power in Norway. Oman See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Pakistan See WNA:Nuclear Power in Pakistan and Nuclear Power in Pakistan. Paraguay See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Peru See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Philippines See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Poland See WNA:Nuclear Power in Poland and Nuclear Power in Poland. Romania See WNA:Nuclear Power in Romania and Nuclear Power in Romania. Russia See WNA:Nuclear Power in Russia and Nuclear Power in Russia. Rwanda See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Saudi Arabia See WNA:Nuclear Power in Saudi Arabia and Nuclear Power in Saudi Arabia. Senegal See WNA: Uranium in Africa and Uranium in Africa. Serbia See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Singapore See Singapore is considering the nuclear option for its energy transition... again. Slovakia See WNA:Nuclear Power in Slovakia and Nuclear Power in Slovakia. Slovenia See WNA:Nuclear Power in Slovenia and Nuclear Power in Slovenia. South Africa See WNA:Nuclear Power in South Africa and Nuclear Power in South Africa. Spain See WNA:Nuclear Power in Spain and Nuclear Power in Spain. Sri Lanka See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Sudan See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Sweden See WNA:Nuclear Power in Sweden and Nuclear Power in Sweden. Switzerland See WNA:Nuclear Power in Switzerland and Nuclear Power in Switzerland. Syria See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Taiwan See WNA:Nuclear Power in Taiwan and Nuclear Power in Taiwan. Tajikistan See WNA:Uranium in Tajikistan. Tanzania See WNA:Uranium in Africa. Thailand See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Tunisia See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Turkey See WNA:Nuclear Power in Turkey and Nuclear Power in Turkey. Uganda See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Ukraine See WNA:Nuclear Power in Ukraine and Nuclear Power in Ukraine United Arab Emirates See WNA:Nuclear Power in the United Arab Emirates and Nuclear Power in the United Arab Emirates. United Kingdom See WNA:Nuclear Power in the United Kingdom and Nuclear Power in the United Kingdom. United States See WNA:Nuclear Power in the USA and Nuclear Power in the USA. Uzbekistan See WNA:Uranium in Uzbekistan. Venezuela See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Vietnam See WNA:Nuclear Power in Vietnam and Nuclear Power in Vietnam. Yemen See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Zambia See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries. Zimbabwe See WNA:Uranium in Africa.

## Education

Organizations that provide study and training in nuclear engineering include the following:

Region/Country Schools and Training Africa The IAEA has 45 Member States in Africa. "The IAEA's technical cooperation (TC) programme is the main mechanism for assisting Member States in the peaceful, safe and secure application of nuclear science and technology."[22] Education in nuclear and radiation safety is a component. Argentina [1] Armenia IAEA Technical Communication Program.[23] Asia Asian Network for Education in Nuclear Technology (ANENT).[24] Australia UNSW Nuclear Engineering.[25] Austria EU Science Hub.[26] Bangladesh University of Dhaka.[27] Belarus Belarusian State University.[28] Belgium EU Science Hub.[29] Brazil COPPE UFRJ. Brunei See https://www-pub.iaea.org/mtcd/publications/pdf/pub1626web-52229977.pdf Bulgaria EU Science Hub.[30] Cambodia See https://www.khmertimeskh.com/50896212/pride-of-cambodia-students-graduate-with-degrees-in-civil-nuclear-science/. Canada See Canadian-Universities.net. Chile [2] China Harbin Engineering University and Harbin Engineering University. North China Electric Power University and North China Electric Power University. Tsinghua University and Tsinghua University. Croatia EU Science Hub.[31] Cyprus EU Science Hub.[32] Czech Republic EU Science Hub.[33] Denmark EU Science Hub.[34] Estonia EU Science Hub.[35] Finland EU Science Hub.[36] France EU Science Hub.[37] Germany EU Science Hub.[38] Greece EU Science Hub.[39] Hungary EU Science Hub.[40] IAEA STAR-NET: Regional Network for Education and Training in Nuclear Technology, https://www.star-net.online/en/?page_id=16, universities: National Polytechnic University of Armenia Republic of Armenia Baku State University, Republic of Azerbaijan Belarusian State University of Informatics and Radioelectronics, Republic of Belarus Belarusian National Technical University, Republic of Belarus Belarusian State University, Republic of Belarus L.N. Gumilev Eurasian National University, Republic of Kazakhstan Sarsen Amanzholov East Kazakhstan State University, Republic of Kazakhstan D. Serikbayev East Kazakhstan Technical University (EKTU), Republic of Kazakhstan AGH University of Science and Technology (Akademia Górniczo-Hutnicza im. Stanisława Staszica w Krakowie), Republic of Poland National Research Nuclear University «MEPhI», Russian Federation Nizhny Novgorod State Technical University n.a. R.E. Alekseev, Russian Federation The National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University, Russian Federation Odessa National Polytechnic University (OPNU), Ukraine Samarkand State University, Republic of Uzbekistan The IAEA also provides guidance for nuclear engineering curricula: https://www-pub.iaea.org/mtcd/publications/pdf/pub1626web-52229977.pdf India https://www.iitk.ac.in/net/ and IIT Kanpur. Indonesia See https://tf.ugm.ac.id/2014/04/19/developing-nuclear-education-in-indonesia/ Iran 13 atomic energy primary schools /high schools, more schools being built,[41]Isfahan University of Technology,[42] See https://www.nti.org/education-center/facilities/amir-kabir-university-of-technology-2/ Ireland EU Science Hub.[43] Israel See https://in.bgu.ac.il/en/engn/nuclear/Pages/default.aspx Italy EU Science Hub.[44] Japan https://www.ne.t.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en https://www.nuclear.sci.waseda.ac.jp/index_en.html Jordan https://www.just.edu.jo/FacultiesandDepartments/FacultyofEngineering/Departments/NuclearEngineering/Pages/Nuclear%20Engineering.aspx Latin America Latin American Network for Education in Nuclear Technology (LANENT) https://www.iaea.org/services/networks/lanent Latvia EU Science Hub.[45] Lithuania EU Science Hub.[46] Luxembourg EU Science Hub.[47] Malaysia Universiti Teknologi Malaysia[48][49] Malta EU Science Hub.[50] Mexico https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/41/133/41133846.pdf Netherlands EU Science Hub.[51] New Zealand https://www.auckland.ac.nz/ Norway https://www.ntnu.edu/ Pakistan National University of Pakistan[citation needed] Philippines https://ansn.iaea.org/Common/topics/OpenTopic.aspx?ID=13280 Poland EU Science Hub.[52] Portugal EU Science Hub.[53] Romania EU Science Hub.[54] Russia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Research_Nuclear_University_MEPhI_(Moscow_Engineering_Physics_Institute) https://tpu.ru/en/about/department_links_and_administration/department/view/?id=7863 Saudi Arabia https://ne.kau.edu.sa/Default-135008-EN Serbia https://www.bg.ac.rs/en/members/institutes/Vinca.php Slovakia EU Science Hub.[55] Slovenia EU Science Hub.[56] South Korea TBA Spain EU Science Hub.[57] Sweden EU Science Hub.[58] Switzerland https://ethz.ch/en/studies/master/degree-programmes/engineering-sciences/nuclear-engineering.html Taiwan https://www.studyintaiwan.org/university/program/2565 Thailand https://www.eng.chula.ac.th/en/department/department-of-nuclear-technology Turkey https://nuke.hacettepe.edu.tr/en/department-69 http://nukbilimler.ankara.edu.tr/en/nuclear-research-and-technologies-department/ http://www.nuce.boun.edu.tr/ Ukraine https://www.uatom.org/en/training-of-nuclear-specialists United Arab Emirates https://www.ku.ac.ae/academics/college-of-engineering/department/department-of-nuclear-engineering#about United Kingdom[59] University of Birmingham University of Bristol University of Cambridge University of Central Lancashire University of Cumbria Defence Academy of the United Kingdom University of Dundee Imperial College London Lancaster University University of Leeds University of Liverpool The University of Manchester Nottingham Trent University Nuclear Technology Education Consortium (NTEC) The Open University University of Sheffield University of Surrey University of the West of Scotland United States[60] Air Force Institute of Technology Abilene Christian University Clemson University Colorado School of Mines Georgia Institute of Technology Idaho State University Kansas State University Louisiana State University Massachusetts Institute of Technology Missouri University of Science and Technology North Carolina State University Ohio State University Oregon State University Penn State University Purdue University Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute South Carolina State University Texas A&M University United States Military Academy at West Point University of California, Berkeley University of Florida University of Idaho University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign University of Maryland University of Massachusetts Lowell University of Michigan University of Missouri University of Nevada, Las Vegas University of New Mexico University of Pittsburgh University of Rhode Island University of South Carolina University of Tennessee University of Texas University of Utah University of Wisconsin-Madison Virginia Commonwealth University Virginia Tech

## Organizations

- [American Nuclear Society](/source/American_Nuclear_Society)

- Asian Network for Education in Nuclear Technology (ANENT) [https://www.iaea.org/services/networks/anent](https://www.iaea.org/services/networks/anent)

- [Canadian Nuclear Association](/source/Canadian_Nuclear_Association)

- [Chinese Nuclear Society](/source/Chinese_Nuclear_Society)

- [International Atomic Energy Agency](/source/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency)

- [International Energy Agency](/source/International_Energy_Agency) (IEA)

- [Japan Atomic Industrial Forum](/source/Japan_Atomic_Industrial_Forum) (JAIF)

- Korea Nuclear Energy Agency (KNEA)

- Latin American Network for Education in Nuclear Technology (LANENT) [https://www.iaea.org/services/networks/lanent](https://www.iaea.org/services/networks/lanent)

- [Minerals Council of Australia](/source/Minerals_Council_of_Australia)

- [Nucleareurope](/source/Nucleareurope)

- [Nuclear Institute](/source/Nuclear_Institute)

- [Nuclear Energy Institute](/source/Nuclear_Energy_Institute) (NEI)

- Nuclear Industry Association of South Africa (NIASA)

- Nuclear Technology Education Consortion [https://www.ntec.ac.uk/](https://www.ntec.ac.uk/)

- [OECD Nuclear Energy Agency](/source/OECD_Nuclear_Energy_Agency) (NEA)

- Regional Network for Education and Training in Nuclear Technology (STAR-NET) [https://www.iaea.org/services/networks/star-net](https://www.iaea.org/services/networks/star-net)

- [World Nuclear Association](/source/World_Nuclear_Association)

- [World Nuclear Transport Institute](/source/World_Nuclear_Transport_Institute)

## See also

- [Engineering portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Engineering)

- [Atomic physics](/source/Atomic_physics)

- [Chernobyl nuclear disaster](/source/Chernobyl_nuclear_disaster)

- [Fukushima nuclear disaster](/source/Fukushima_nuclear_disaster)

- [International Nuclear Event Scale](/source/International_Nuclear_Event_Scale)

- [List of books about nuclear issues](/source/List_of_books_about_nuclear_issues)

- [Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents](/source/Lists_of_nuclear_disasters_and_radioactive_incidents)

- [List of nuclear science journals](/source/List_of_nuclear_science_journals)

- [List of nuclear reactors](/source/List_of_nuclear_reactors)

- [List of nuclear power stations](/source/List_of_nuclear_power_stations)

- [Nuclear energy policy](/source/Nuclear_energy_policy)

- [Nuclear fuel](/source/Nuclear_fuel)

- [Nuclear criticality safety](/source/Nuclear_criticality_safety)

- [Nuclear material](/source/Nuclear_material)

- [Nuclear physics](/source/Nuclear_physics)

- [Nuclear power](/source/Nuclear_power)

- [Nuclear reactor technology](/source/Nuclear_reactor_technology)

- [Nuclear renaissance](/source/Nuclear_renaissance)

- [Safety engineering](/source/Safety_engineering)

- [Thermal hydraulics](/source/Thermal_hydraulics)

- [Waste Isolation Pilot Plant](/source/Waste_Isolation_Pilot_Plant)

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## Further reading

- Ash, Milton, "Nuclear reactor kinetics", McGraw-Hill, (1965)

- Cravens, Gwyneth. *Power to Save the World* (2007)

- Gowing, Margaret. *Britain and Atomic Energy, 1939–1945* (1964).

- Gowing, Margaret, and Lorna Arnold. *Independence and Deterrence: Britain and Atomic Energy, Vol. I: Policy Making, 1945–52*; *Vol. II: Policy Execution, 1945–52* (London, 1974)

- Johnston, Sean F. "Creating a Canadian Profession: The Nuclear Engineer, 1940–68," *Canadian Journal of History,* Winter 2009, Vol. 44 Issue 3, pp 435–466

- Johnston, Sean F. "Implanting a discipline: the academic trajectory of nuclear engineering in the USA and UK," *Minerva,* 47 (2009), pp. 51–73

## External links

Wikibooks has more on the topic of: ***[Nuclear engineering](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Nuclear_engineering)***

- [Electric Generation from Commercial Nuclear Power](http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/nuc_generation/gensum.html)

- [Hacettepe University Department of Nuclear Engineering](http://www.nuke.hacettepe.edu.tr)

- [Nuclear Engineering International magazine](http://www.neimagazine.com/)

- [Nuclear Safety Info Resources](http://nuclearsafety.info/resources)

- [Nuclear Science and Engineering technical journal](http://www.ans.org/pubs/journals/nse/)

- [Science and Technology of Nuclear Installation Open-Access Journal](http://www.hindawi.com/journals/stni/)

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