# Nottingham effect

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{{Short description|Thermal effect of field emission}}In [condensed matter physics](/source/condensed_matter_physics), the '''Nottingham effect''' is a surface cooling and heating mechanism that occurs during field and [thermionic electron emission](/source/Thermionic_emission). The effect is named after physicist [Wayne B. Nottingham](/source/Wayne_B._Nottingham) who explained it in a commentary to 1940 experiments by Gertrude M. Fleming and Joseph E. Henderson.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Charbonnier |first=F. M. |last2=Strayer |first2=R. W. |last3=Swanson |first3=L. W. |last4=Martin |first4=E. E. |date=1964-09-28 |title=Nottingham Effect in Field and T − F Emission: Heating and Cooling Domains, and Inversion Temperature |url=https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.397 |journal=Physical Review Letters |language=en |volume=13 |issue=13 |pages=397–401 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.397 |issn=0031-9007|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nottingham |first=W. B. |date=1941-06-01 |title=Remarks on Energy Losses Attending Thermionic Emission of Electrons from Metals |url=https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRev.59.906.2 |journal=Physical Review |language=en |volume=59 |issue=11 |pages=906–907 |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.59.906.2 |issn=0031-899X|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fleming |first=G. M. |last2=Henderson |first2=Joseph E. |date=1940-11-15 |title=The Energy Losses Attending Field Current and Thermionic Emission of Electrons from Metals |url=https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRev.58.887 |journal=Physical Review |language=en |volume=58 |issue=10 |pages=887–894 |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.58.887 |issn=0031-899X|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The temperature at which electron emission goes from heating to cooling is called the '''Nottingham inversion temperature'''.

== Description ==
Notably, the effect can be either heating or cooling of the surface emitting the electrons, depending upon the energy at which they are supplied.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Paulini |first=J |last2=Klein |first2=T |last3=Simon |first3=G |date=1993-08-14 |title=Thermo-field emission and the Nottingham effect |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0022-3727/26/8/024 |journal=Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics |volume=26 |issue=8 |pages=1310–1315 |doi=10.1088/0022-3727/26/8/024 |issn=0022-3727|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Above the Nottingham inversion temperature, the emission energy exceeds the [Fermi energy](/source/Fermi_energy) of the electron supply and the emitted electron carries more energy away from the surface than is returned by the supply of a replacement electron, and the net heat flux from the Nottingham effect switches from heating to cooling the cathode.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

Along with [Joule heating](/source/Joule_heating), the Nottingham effect contributes to the thermal equilibrium of electron emission systems, typically becoming the dominant contributor at very high emission current densities.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fursey |first=George N. |url=https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Field_Emission_in_Vacuum_Microelectronic/S5a4T1Oub4kC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=nottingham+effect+emission&pg=PA39&printsec=frontcover |title=Field Emission in Vacuum Microelectronics |date=2007-12-24 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-0-387-27419-5 |language=en}}</ref> It comes into play in the operation of [field emission array](/source/Field_emitter_array) cathodes and other devices that rely upon stimulating [Fowler-Nordheim electron emission](/source/Fowler-Nordheim_equation),<ref name=":0" /> usually at the apex of a sharp tip used to create a field enhancement effect.  In extreme cases, the Nottingham effect can heat the emitter tips to temperatures exceeding the melting point of the tip material, causing the tip to deform and emit material that may cause a vacuum arc; this is a significant failure mode for tip-based cathodes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kyritsakis |first=A. |date=November 21, 2016 |title=A general computational method for electron emission and thermal effects in field emitting nanotips |journal=Computational Materials Science |volume=128 |pages=15–21 |doi=10.1016/j.commatsci.2016.11.010 |arxiv=1609.02364 }}</ref>

== References ==

{{reflist}}

Category:Electrical phenomena
Category:Physics

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Nottingham effect](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nottingham_effect) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nottingham_effect?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.