# Nigel Biggar

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{{Short description|British Anglican priest and theologian (born 1955)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2025}}
{{Use British English|date=February 2020}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific_prefix = [The Reverend](/source/The_Reverend) [Canon](/source/Canon_(title)) and [Right Honourable](/source/The_Right_Honourable)
| name             = The Lord Biggar
| honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|CBE}}
| image            = Official portrait of Lord Biggar crop 2, 2025.jpg
| alt              = close-up of Nigel Biggar wearing a tan-coloured blazer and light blue shirt with a red patterned tie, looking directly at camera with serious gaze
| caption          = Biggar in 2025
| birth_name       = Nigel John Biggar
| birth_date       = {{birth date and age|df=y|14 March 1955}}
| birth_place      = [Castle Douglas](/source/Castle_Douglas), Scotland
| office           = [Regius Professor of Moral and Pastoral Theology](/source/Regius_Professor_of_Moral_and_Pastoral_Theology)
| term_start       = 1 October 2007
| term_end         = September 2022
| predecessor      = [Oliver O'Donovan](/source/Oliver_O'Donovan)
| successor        = [Luke Bretherton](/source/Luke_Bretherton)
| office1          = [Member of the House of Lords](/source/Member_of_the_House_of_Lords)
| status1          = [Lord Temporal](/source/Lord_Temporal)
| term_label1      = [Life peer](/source/Life_peer)age
| term_start1      = 21 January 2025
| term_end1        =
| party            = [Conservative](/source/Conservative_Party_(UK))
| spouse           = <!-- Use article title or common name -->
| children         = 
| parents          = 
| module           = {{Infobox clergy |child=yes
| religion          = Christianity
| church            = [Church of England](/source/Church_of_England)
| ordained          = 1990 (deacon)<br />1991 (priest)
| congregations     =
| offices_held      =
}}
| module2          = {{Infobox academic |child=yes
| alma_mater        = {{unbulleted list | [Worcester College, Oxford](/source/Worcester_College%2C_Oxford) ([MA](/source/Master_of_Arts_(Oxford%2C_Cambridge_and_Dublin))) | [Regent College](/source/Regent_College) ([MA](/source/Master_of_Arts))| [University of Chicago](/source/University_of_Chicago) (MA, [PhD](/source/PhD))}}
| thesis_title      =
| thesis_url        =
| thesis_year       =
| school_tradition  =
| doctoral_advisor  = [James Gustafson](/source/James_Gustafson)
| academic_advisors =
| influences        = {{hlist | [Karl Barth](/source/Karl_Barth)<ref>{{cite book |last=Biggar |first=Nigel |year=2010 |chapter=Karl Barth's Ethics Revisited |editor-last=Migliore |editor-first=Daniel L. |editor-link=Daniel L. Migliore |title=Commanding Grace: Studies in Karl Barth's Ethics |location=Grand Rapids, Michigan |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. |page=26 |isbn=978-0-8028-6570-0}}</ref> | [John Rawls](/source/John_Rawls)<ref>{{cite web |last=Jensen |first=David |date=17 August 2018 |title=Oxford's Nigel Biggar: Anglicanism Sustains Democracy & Religious Freedom |url=https://juicyecumenism.com/2018/08/17/oxfords-nigel-biggar-anglicanism/ |website=Juicy Ecumenism |location=Washington |publisher=Institute on Religion and Democracy |access-date=17 January 2019}}</ref>}}
| era               =
| discipline        = Theology
| sub_discipline    = <!--academic discipline specialist area – e.g. Sub-atomic research, 20th Century Danish specialist, Pauline research, Arcadian and Ugaritic specialist-->
| workplaces        = {{unbulleted list | [Oriel College, Oxford](/source/Oriel_College%2C_Oxford) | [University of Leeds](/source/University_of_Leeds) | [Trinity College Dublin](/source/Trinity_College_Dublin) | [Christ Church, Oxford](/source/Christ_Church%2C_Oxford)}}
| doctoral_students = <!--only those with WP articles-->
| notable_students  = <!--only those with WP articles-->
| main_interests    =
| notable_works     =
| notable_ideas     =
| influenced        = <!--must be referenced from a third party source-->
}}
| signature        = 
| signature_alt    = 
| website          = {{URL|nigelbiggar.uk}}
}}

'''Nigel John Biggar, Baron Biggar''' (born 14 March 1955) is a British [Anglican priest](/source/Anglican_priest), [theologian](/source/theologian), [ethicist](/source/ethicist), and [life peer](/source/life_peer). From 2007 to 2022, he was [Regius Professor of Moral and Pastoral Theology](/source/Regius_Professor_of_Moral_and_Pastoral_Theology) at the [University of Oxford](/source/University_of_Oxford).

==Early life and education==
Nigel John Biggar was born on 14 March 1955 in [Castle Douglas](/source/Castle_Douglas), Scotland.<ref name="WW 2020" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Biggar |first=Nigel |year=2014 |title=Review of ''Honey from the Lion: Christianity and the Ethics of Nationalism'', by Doug Gay |journal=[Scottish Journal of Theology](/source/Scottish_Journal_of_Theology)|volume=67 |issue=3 |page=365 |doi=10.1017/S0036930614000167 |s2cid=145516959 |issn=1475-3065|url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:2fed6598-f498-424b-81f6-dabba1a24318 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

He was educated at [Monkton Combe School](/source/Monkton_Combe_School), a [private school](/source/Private_schools_in_the_United_Kingdom) near [Bath, Somerset](/source/Bath%2C_Somerset). He studied modern history at [Worcester College, Oxford](/source/Worcester_College%2C_Oxford), graduating with a [Bachelor of Arts](/source/Bachelor_of_Arts) degree in 1976. As per tradition, his BA was promoted to a [Master of Arts](/source/Master_of_Arts_(Oxford%2C_Cambridge_and_Dublin)) degree in 1988.<ref name="WW 2020"/>

Biggar attended the [University of Chicago](/source/University_of_Chicago), graduating with a Master of Arts degree in religious studies in 1980; and the evangelical [Regent College](/source/Regent_College) in Vancouver, graduating with a Master of Christian Studies in 1981. He returned to the University of Chicago to study for his doctorate in [Christian theology](/source/Christian_theology) and completed a [Doctor of Philosophy](/source/Doctor_of_Philosophy) degree in 1986.<ref name="WW 2020">{{cite web |url=https://www.ukwhoswho.com/display/10.1093/ww/9780199540884.001.0001/ww-9780199540884-e-245063 |title=Biggar, Rev. Canon Prof. Nigel John, (born 14 March 1955), Regius Professor of Moral and Pastoral Theology, since 2007 and Director, McDonald Centre for Theology, Ethics and Public Life, since 2008, University of Oxford; Canon of Christ Church, Oxford, since 2007 |website=[Who's Who 2020](/source/Who's_Who_2020) |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.U245063 |date=1 December 2019}}</ref>

==Career==
On his return to Oxford in 1985, Biggar became librarian and research fellow at [Latimer House](/source/Latimer_Trust), a [conservative evangelical](/source/Conservative_evangelicalism_in_the_United_Kingdom) think tank in Oxford.<ref name="WW 2020" /> He additionally taught [Christian ethics](/source/Christian_ethics) at [Wycliffe Hall, Oxford](/source/Wycliffe_Hall%2C_Oxford), from 1987 to 1994.<ref name="WW 2020" />

He was [ordained](/source/ordained) in the [Church of England](/source/Church_of_England) as a [deacon](/source/Deacon) in 1990 and as a [priest](/source/Priest) in 1991,<ref name="Crockford" /> though he has never held a post in a parish church.<ref name="Crockford 25">{{Crockford| surname = Biggar | forenames = Nigel John | id = 20609 | accessed = 22 February 2025}}</ref> For most of the 1990s, he was chaplain and fellow of [Oriel College, Oxford](/source/Oriel_College%2C_Oxford). In 1999, he took the Chair of Theology at the [University of Leeds](/source/University_of_Leeds), and in 2004, he moved to the Chair of Theology and Ethics at [Trinity College Dublin](/source/Trinity_College_Dublin), where he became a fellow in 2005.<ref name="chch"/><ref>{{Cite web |date=10 May 2006 |title=Trinity Monday 2005 – Fellows and Scholars |url=https://www.tcd.ie/Secretary/FellowsScholars/2005/index.php |access-date=30 December 2025 |website=[Trinity College Dublin](/source/Trinity_College_Dublin)|archive-date=14 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414165706/https://www.tcd.ie/Secretary/FellowsScholars/2005/index.php |url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2007, he became [Regius Professor of Moral and Pastoral Theology](/source/Regius_Professor_of_Moral_and_Pastoral_Theology) at the University of Oxford.<ref name="chch">{{cite web|url=http://www.chch.ox.ac.uk/staff/professor-nigel-biggar|title=Professor Nigel Biggar – Christ Church, Oxford University|publisher=University of Oxford}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theology.ox.ac.uk/people/professor-nigel-biggar|title=Professor Nigel Biggar – Faculty of Theology and Religion|publisher=University of Oxford}}</ref> He also became a [canon](/source/Canon_(priest)) of [Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford](/source/Christ_Church_Cathedral%2C_Oxford).<ref name="Crockford">{{Crockford| surname = Biggar | forenames = Nigel John | id = 20609 | accessed = 25 October 2020}}</ref> He retired in September 2022.<ref>{{cite web |title=Professor Nigel Biggar |url=https://www.theology.ox.ac.uk/people/professor-nigel-biggar |website=Faculty of Theology and Religion |publisher=University of Oxford |access-date=13 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213231124/https://www.theology.ox.ac.uk/people/professor-nigel-biggar |archive-date=13 December 2022}}</ref>

===Ethics and Empire project===
thumb|At Scruton Veres Pálné, Budapest, Hungary

In 2017, Biggar initiated a five-year project at Oxford University, entitled "Ethics and Empire". Its stated aim was to scrutinise critiques against the historical facts of [Empire](/source/British_Empire).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.mcdonaldcentre.org.uk/ethics-and-empire|title=Ethics and Empire|website=mcdonaldcentre.org.uk}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Kennedy|first=Dominic|url=https://www.thetimes.com/uk/history/article/academics-accused-of-stirring-up-mob-against-nigel-biggar-in-free-speech-row-vzv6kxqnv|title=Academics accused of 'stirring up mob' against Nigel Biggar in free speech row|newspaper=[The Times](/source/The_Times)|date=28 December 2017|access-date=13 April 2019}}</ref> Historians and academics widely criticised the project, claiming that it was "attempting to balance out the violence committed in the name of empire with its supposed benefits".<ref>{{cite web|title = The History of Empire Isn't About Pride&nbsp;– or Guilt|url = https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/jan/03/history-empire-pride-guilt-truth-oxford-nigel-biggar|website = [The Guardian](/source/The_Guardian)|date = 3 January 2018|first = James|last = McDougall |author-link=James McDougall (academic)}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Adams|first=Richard|url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2017/dec/22/oxford-university-accused-of-backing-apologists-of-british-colonialism|title=Oxford University accused of backing apologists of British colonialism|work=[The Guardian](/source/The_Guardian)|access-date=13 April 2019}}</ref><ref name="CollectiveStatement">{{cite web|title = A Collective statement on 'Ethics and Empire'|url = https://medium.com/oxfordempireletter/a-collective-statement-on-ethics-and-empire-19c2477871a0|website = [Medium](/source/Medium_(website))|date = 22 November 2017|first = Jon|last = Wilson}}</ref> The project also received criticism for failing to engage with the wider scholarship on empire and not submitting itself to peer scrutiny and rigorous academic debate.<ref name="CollectiveStatement" />

Biggar addressed the ethics of colonialism in an op-ed for ''[The Times](/source/The_Times)'', arguing that the history of the British Empire was morally mixed and that guilt around Britain's colonial legacy may have gone too far. He also defended an article by [Bruce Gilley](/source/Bruce_Gilley), titled "The Case for Colonialism", asserting that Gilley's appeal for a balanced reappraisal of the colonial past was both courageous and a call for Britain to moderate its post-imperial guilt.<ref>{{cite web|title = Don't Feel Guilty About Our Colonial History|url = https://www.thetimes.com/comment/article/don-t-feel-guilty-about-our-colonial-history-ghvstdhmj|website = [The Times](/source/The_Times)|date = 30 November 2017|first = Nigel|last = Biggar |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

===''Colonialism: A Moral Reckoning''===
Biggar's 2023 book, ''Colonialism: A Moral Reckoning'', which examines the morality of colonialism, was initially accepted by [Bloomsbury](/source/Bloomsbury_Publishing), but it chose not to publish it, with the suggestion that "public feeling on the subject does not currently support the publication of the book".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cherwell.org/2023/02/04/biggar-colonialism-book/|title=Don in publisher row over "cancelled" colonialism book |first=Charlotte|last= Lai|date=4 February 2023|work=Cherwell}}</ref> It was eventually published by [HarperCollins](/source/HarperCollins), in 2023.<ref name="stanley">{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/books/what-to-read/colonialism-nigel-biggar-review-defending-british-empire-book/ |title=Colonialism by Nigel Biggar review: defending the British empire, this book is spoiling for a fight |newspaper=[The Daily Telegraph](/source/The_Daily_Telegraph)|first=Tim |last=Stanley|author-link=Tim Stanley|date=26 January 2023}}</ref>

The book has received both praise and criticism. [Kenan Malik](/source/Kenan_Malik) of ''[The Guardian](/source/The_Guardian)'' said that while ''Colonialism'' "claims to be a 'moral reckoning', moral questions are rarely taken seriously", and "in seeking to challenge what he regards as cartoonish views of imperial history, Biggar has produced something equally cartoonish, a politicised history that ill-serves his aim of defending '[western values](/source/western_values)'."<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2023/feb/20/colonialism-a-moral-reckoning-by-nigel-biggar-review-a-flawed-defence-of-empire |title= Colonialism by Nigel Biggar review – a flawed defence of empire |first=Kenan |last=Malik|author-link=Kenan Malik|date= 20 February 2023|newspaper=[The Guardian](/source/The_Guardian)}}</ref> [Rudrangshu Mukherjee](/source/Rudrangshu_Mukherjee) wrote in ''[The Wire](/source/The_Wire_(India))'' that ''Colonialism'' is an "immoral book" that ignores "the structural logic of empire" linking "the development of capitalism and prosperity in Britain with the political control, the economic exploitation and the impoverishment of the colonies", and that it fails "the most elementary test of scholarship".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://thewire.in/history/nigel-biggar-colonialism-review |title=An Immoral Defence of the British Empire|first=Rudrangshu |last=Mukherjee|work=[The Wire](/source/The_Wire_(India))|date=10 March 2023 |author-link=Rudrangshu Mukherjee }}</ref>

In contrast, [Trevor Phillips](/source/Trevor_Phillips) in ''[The Sunday Times](/source/The_Sunday_Times)'' said that it "carries the intellectual force of a [Javelin antitank missile](/source/FGM-148_Javelin)", stating that he "find[s] it hard to disagree" with Biggar's thesis.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Phillips |first=Trevor |title=Colonialism by Nigel Biggar: don't be ashamed of empire |newspaper=[The Times](/source/The_Times) |url=https://www.thetimes.com/article/colonialism-by-nigel-biggar-dont-be-ashamed-of-empire-lp83ptqtd |access-date=6 April 2023 |author-link=Trevor Phillips}}</ref> [Jonathan Sumption](/source/Jonathan_Sumption%2C_Lord_Sumption) in the ''[Literary Review](/source/Literary_Review)'' described it as "an important book as well as a courageous one" and said that "in general, [Biggar's] approach is objective and he fairly addresses the contrary arguments".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jonathan Sumption – Cruel Britannia? |url=https://literaryreview.co.uk/cruel-britannia |access-date=6 April 2023 |website=[Literary Review](/source/Literary_Review)}}</ref> In ''[The Daily Telegraph](/source/The_Daily_Telegraph)'', [Tim Stanley](/source/Tim_Stanley) considered the book "thoughtful" and "compelling", one that introduced facts, some of which he was unaware of, indicating that "much that is benign about our civilisation has been forgotten", but concluded that Biggar "is spoiling for a fight, and I fear he's going to get one".<ref name="stanley"/>

In a review for ''[The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History](/source/The_Journal_of_Imperial_and_Commonwealth_History)'', historian [Alan Lester](/source/Alan_Lester) criticised Biggar for giving a favourable image of colonialism, describing Biggar's argument that [anti-slavery](/source/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom) dominated British policy during the second half of the empire's existence as "absurd", and sees a "persistent [double standard](/source/double_standard)" in how Biggar judges British versus non-British actions that "are hard to justify morally".<ref>{{cite web |title=On Colonialism: A Response to Nigel Biggar's Reply|author=[Alan Lester](/source/Alan_Lester)|url=https://blogs.sussex.ac.uk/snapshotsofempire/2023/06/02/on-colonialism-a-response-to-nigel-biggars-reply/ |website=Snapshots of Empire |access-date=14 June 2023 |date=2 June 2023}}</ref> Biggar replied in the same journal, accusing Lester of "[political bias](/source/political_bias), smearing by association, the erection of [strawmen](/source/Straw_man), careless reading, misrepresentation, misunderstanding, unsupported assertions, a disappointing absence of open thoughtfulness, and a striking lack of critical self-awareness".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Biggar |first=Nigel |date=2 June 2023 |title=On ''Colonialism: A Moral Reckoning'': A Reply to Alan Lester |journal=[The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History](/source/The_Journal_of_Imperial_and_Commonwealth_History)|volume=51 |issue=4 |pages=796–824 |doi=10.1080/03086534.2023.2209948 |issn=0308-6534|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Honours==
Biggar was appointed [Commander of the Order of the British Empire](/source/Commander_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire) in the [2021 Birthday Honours](/source/2021_Birthday_Honours), for services to higher education.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=63377|supp=y|page=B8|date=12 June 2021}}</ref>

In late 2024, Biggar was nominated for a [life peer](/source/life_peer)age by [Kemi Badenoch](/source/Kemi_Badenoch), the leader of the Conservative Party.<ref>{{Cite press release |date=20 December 2024 |title=Political Peerages December 2024 |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/political-peerages-december-2024 |website=[gov.uk](/source/gov.uk) |publisher=[Prime Minister's Office, 10 Downing Street](/source/Prime_Minister's_Office_(United_Kingdom)) |access-date=20 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Pollock |first=Laura |date=20 December 2024 |title=See the 38 new lifetime peers announced by the UK Government |url=https://www.thenational.scot/news/24808667.see-new-lifetime-peers-announced-uk-government/ |work=[The National](/source/The_National_(Scotland)) |access-date=3 May 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Biggar |first1=Nigel |last2=Young |first2=Toby |date=28 January 2025 |title=Free speech matters to Kemi Badenoch and it should matter to you |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2025/01/28/free-speech-matters-to-kemi-badenoch-and-it-should-matter/ |work=[The Telegraph](/source/The_Daily_Telegraph) |access-date=28 January 2025}}</ref> On 21 January 2025, he was made "Baron Biggar" of Castle Douglas in the Stewartry of [Kirkcudbright](/source/Kirkcudbright)".<ref>{{London Gazette |date=27 January 2025 |issue=64640 |page=1282}}</ref> He was [introduced to the House of Lords](/source/Introduction_(House_of_Lords)) on 28 January,<ref>{{Cite Hansard |title=Introduction: Lord Biggar |url=https://hansard.parliament.uk/Lords/2025-01-28/debates/5BB79053-4BAB-49BF-837D-C0D663758955/IntroductionLordBiggar |date=28 January 2025 |jurisdiction=Parliament of the United Kingdom |house=House of Lords |volume=843 |column=115}}</ref> where he sits as a Conservative peer.<ref>{{cite web |title=Parliamentary career for Lord Biggar|url=https://members.parliament.uk/member/5380/career |website=members.parliament.uk |publisher=UK Parliament |access-date=22 February 2025}}</ref>

==Selected publications==
* ''The Hastening that Waits: Karl Barth's Ethics'' (1993) {{ISBN|978-0-19-826390-6}}
* ''Good Life: Reflections on What We Value Today'' (1997) {{ISBN|978-0-281-05023-9}}
* ''The Revival of Natural Law: Philosophical, Theological and Ethical Responses to the Finnes-Grisez School'', with [Rufus Black](/source/Rufus_Black) (2000) {{ISBN|978-1-138-25671-2}}
* ''Burying the Past: Making Peace and Doing Justice After Civil Conflict'' (2001) {{ISBN|978-0-87840-394-3}}
* ''Aiming to Kill: The Ethics of Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide'' (2003) {{ISBN|978-0-232-52406-2}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Biggar |editor1-first=Nigel |editor2-last=Hogan|editor1-mask=with|editor2-first=Linda |editor2-link=Linda Hogan (ethicist) |title=Religious Voices in Public Places |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-956662-4|ref=none}}
* ''Behaving in Public: How to Do Christian Ethics'' (2011) {{ISBN|978-0-8028-6400-0}}
* ''In Defence of War'' (2013) {{ISBN|978-0-19-872583-1}}
* ''Between Kin and Cosmopolis: An Ethic of the Nation'' (2014) {{ISBN|978-1-62032-513-1}}
* ''What's Wrong with Rights?'' (2020) {{ISBN|978-0-19-286727-8}}
* ''Colonialism: A Moral Reckoning'' (2023)<ref name="stanley" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Lester |first=Alan|author-link=Alan Lester|title=The British Empire in the Culture War: Nigel Biggar's ''Colonialism: A Moral Reckoning''|journal=[The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History](/source/The_Journal_of_Imperial_and_Commonwealth_History)|date=2023 |volume=51 |issue=4 |pages=763–795 |doi=10.1080/03086534.2023.2209947|doi-access=free}}</ref> {{ISBN|978-0-00-851163-0}}
* ''Reparations: The Tyranny of Imaginary Guilt'' (2025)<ref>{{cite web|title=''Reparations''|url=https://swiftpress.com/book/reparations/|website=swiftpress.com |access-date=19 June 2025}}</ref> {{ISBN|978-1-80075-651-9}}
* ''The New Dark Age: Why Liberals Must Win the Culture Wars'' (2026) {{ISBN|978-1-5095-6833-8}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* {{Official website|nigelbiggar.uk}}
{{UK Peer links
| parliament = 5380
| publicwhip = Lord_Biggar
| theywork   = 26658
}}

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{{s-ttl|title=[Regius Professor of Moral and Pastoral Theology](/source/Regius_Professor_of_Moral_and_Pastoral_Theology)<br />[University of Oxford](/source/University_of_Oxford)|years=2007–2022}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Biggar, Nigel}}
Category:1955 births
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Category:Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
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Category:People educated at Monkton Combe School
Category:Regent College alumni
Category:Regius Professors of Moral and Pastoral Theology
Category:University of Chicago Divinity School alumni
Category:People from Castle Douglas

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Nigel Biggar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigel_Biggar) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigel_Biggar?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.