# Neobodo

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Genus of protists

Neobodo Neobodo designis (A) Schematic drawing; (B) Photo, where the arrow indicates the apical flagellar pocket. Scale of 5 µm Scientific classification Domain: Eukaryota Clade: Discoba Phylum: Euglenozoa Class: Kinetoplastea Order: Neobodonida Family: Neobodonidae Genus: Neobodo Vickerman, 2004 Species Neobodo alexeieffii (Lemmermann, 1913)[1] Neobodo amoebinus (Lemmermann, 1908)[1] Neobodo borokensis [2] Neobodo caudatus (Dujardin, 1841)[1] Neobodo celer (Klebs, 1892)[1] Neobodo compressus (Moroff, 1903)[1] Neobodo cruzi (Hartmann & Chagas, 1910)[1] Neobodo curvifilus [2] Neobodo designis (Skuja) Moreira, Lopez-Garcia & Vickerman, 2004[1][2] Neobodo cf. designis [2] Neobodo fusiformis (Stokes, 1890)[1] Neobodo globosus (Stein, 1878)[1] Neobodo sp. KL [2] Neobodo minimus (Klebs, 1892)[1] Neobodo mutabilis (Klebs, 1892)[1] Neobodo ovatus (Dujardin, 1841)[1] Neobodo putrinus (Stokes, 1881)[1] Neobodo repens (Klebs, 1892)[1] Neobodo saliens [2] Neobodo underboolensis (Ruinen, 1938)[1] Synonyms[1] Alphamonas

***Neobodo*** are diverse [protists](/source/Protist) belonging to the eukaryotic supergroup [Excavata](/source/Excavata). They are [Kinetoplastids](/source/Kinetoplastids) in the subclass [Bodonidae](/source/Bodonida). They are small, free-living, [heterotrophic](/source/Heterotrophic) flagellates with two [flagella](/source/Flagella) of unequal length used to create a propulsive current for feeding.[3] As members of Kinetoplastids, they have an evident [kinetoplast](/source/Kinetoplast)[4] There was much confusion and debate within the class Kinetoplastid and subclass Bodonidae regarding the classification of the organism, but finally the new genera *Neobodo* was proposed by [Keith Vickerman](/source/Keith_Vickerman).[5] Although they are one of the most common flagellates found in freshwater, they are also able to tolerate saltwater[6] Their ability to alternate between both marine and freshwater environments in many parts of the world give them a “cosmopolitan” character.[6] Due to their relatively microscopic size ranging between 4–12 microns, they are further distinguished as heterotrophic nanoflagellates.[3] This small size ratio limits them as bacterivores that swim around feeding on bacteria attached to surfaces or in aggregates.[3]

## Etymology

The prefix ‘Neo-’ comes from the ancient Greek word for ‘*neos*’ which signifies 'young'. Attaching the prefix to the original bodonid species, *neobodo* literally means a “new” bodonid species.[5]

## History of Knowledge

The order Neobodonida was proposed by a researcher, Keith Vickerman, based on significant characteristics that differed from the original bodonid species.[5] Differing characteristics included: being [phagotrophic](/source/Phagotrophic), Polykinetoplastic/eukinetoplastic, biflagellate with usually both flagella lacking hairs, having a posterior flagellum attached to the body or free of it, and having an [apical cytostome](/source/Cytostome).[5] Many *Neobodo* species derived from *Bodo* species, and by recognizing these differences, they were tentatively assigned to the new genus *Neobodo* by adding the ‘neo’ prefix.[5] Through studies on the ultrastructure of *Bodo designis*, researchers discovered the possession of a ‘microtubular prism’ supporting the cytostome–cytopharynx, as well as a significantly different feeding apparatus from other bodonids, thus proposing the new species as *Neobodo designis*.[5] Through this discovery, they were proposed as the type species of the new genus *Neobodo*.[5] *Neobodo* have very close connections with Kinetoplastid protists. Kinetoplastid protists belong together with [euglenids](/source/Euglenids) and [diplonemids](/source/Diplonemid), to the phylum [Euglenozoa](/source/Euglenozoa), and are grouped in the class Kinetoplastea.[5] The name of kinetoplastid is derived from the presence of a characteristic structure called the kinetoplast which is a mass of concentrated extranuclear DNA within a mitochondrion.[5] In the past, kinetoplastids were classified into two major suborder groups via morphology-based taxonomic criteria: either as parasitic uniflagellate [trypanosomatids](/source/Trypanosomatid), or biflagellate bodonids.[5] Originally, Vickerman proposed two families, [Bodonidae](/source/Bodonida) and Cryptobiidae, but later on re-unified all bodonids within the single family, Bodonidae.[5] Based on comparisons of RNA sequences and molecular phylogenetic analyses, it was suggested that the trypanosomatids also emerged from within the bodonids.[5] Moreover, recent research of deep-sea hydrothermal vent samples at the [Mid-Atlantic Ridge](/source/Mid-Atlantic_Ridge) and analysis via [PCR amplification](/source/PCR_amplification) reported several new kinetoplastid-like sequences.[5] Researchers David Moreira, Purificacion Lopez-Garcıa, and Keith Vickerman analyzed the phylogeny of these kinetoplastids and found a much more stable phylogeny that supported the [monophyly](/source/Monophyly) of groups that typically emerged as [polyphyletic](/source/Polyphyletic) in the trees rooted using the traditional, distant outgroup sequences.[5] As a result, the classification of the class Kinetoplastea was divided as two new subclasses:

- [Prokinetoplastina](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prokinetoplastina&action=edit&redlink=1) -containing various [bodonid](/source/Bodonid) species, and

- [Metakinetoplastina](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metakinetoplastina&action=edit&redlink=1) -including the [Trypanosomatida](/source/Trypanosomatida) and three additional new orders: - [Eubodonida](/source/Eubodonida) - [Parabodonida](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parabodonida&action=edit&redlink=1) - [Neobodonida](/source/Neobodonida)

Through this process, *Neobodo* was created as a new genus, along with the revision of the classification of species formerly included in the genus *[Bodo](/source/Bodo_(excavate))* and the amendment of the genus *[Parabodo](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parabodo&action=edit&redlink=1)*.[5]

## Description

The new genus *Neobodo* is characterized as solitary [phagotrophic](/source/Phagotrophic) flagellates with a single discrete eukinetoplast. They are known for having an [apical cytostome](/source/Cytostome) and [cytopharynx](/source/Cytopharynx) supported by a prismatic rod of [microtubules](/source/Microtubule).[5]

*Neobodo* cells are usually elongate and [elliptical](/source/Ellipse) in shape and somewhat inflexible.[4] They range from 4 to 12 microns long, but are mostly 6 to 9 microns.[4] They have a nucleus near the middle of the cell and two unequal, heterodynamic flagella emerging from a shallow, [subapical](/source/Subapical) pocket.[4] The anterior flagellum appears inactive and just wraps around the anterior part of the cell. It is about the same length or slightly shorter than the cell.[4] It is held forward with a single anterior curve that is held perpendicular to the substrate and curves back over the [rostrum](/source/Rostrum_(anatomy)).[4] The acronematic posterior flagellum is trailed and sometimes forms an undulating membrane.[4] It is typically directed straight behind the cell and is about 2 to 4 times the length of the cell.[4] The [proximal](/source/Proximal) part of the posterior flagellum is accompanied with a paraxial rod and sometimes non-tubular [mastigonemes](/source/Mastigoneme).[5] The cells use their posterior flagellum and rotate around their [longitudinal axes](/source/Anatomical_terms_of_location#Axes) to swim and glide along in rapid darts of straight lines.[7]

Along with their two flagella, they have two nearly parallel [basal bodies](/source/Basal_bodies).[4] They also house discoid shaped [mitochondrial cristae](/source/Cristae) and a compact kinetoplast (a DNA-containing granule located within a single mitochondrion) that is associated with the flagellar bases.[4] The kinetoplasts are naked, but the [cytoskeletal](/source/Cytoskeletal) microtubules beneath the [cell membrane](/source/Cell_membrane) are developed.[4] They have a [cytoplasm](/source/Cytoplasm) usually filled with [symbiotic bacteria](/source/Symbiotic_bacteria) and small [glycosomes](/source/Glycosome) that possess [glycolytic](/source/Glycolytic) [enzymes](/source/Enzyme).[4] Although [sexual reproduction](/source/Sexual_reproduction) is unknown and [cysts](/source/Cyst) have not been found to date, they are able to reproduce [asexually](/source/Asexual_reproduction) by means of [binary fission](/source/Binary_fission).[4]

## Habitat and Ecology

Bodonid flagellates (class Kinetoplastea) are abundant, free-living [bacterivores](/source/Bacterivore) that occur in a wide variety of environments including freshwater, soil and marine habitats ranging from the [tropics](/source/Tropics) to the [Arctic](/source/Arctic).[6] Neobodo is one of the most common flagellates in freshwater environments, but can also tolerate marine environments with low salinities of 3–4 ppt.[4] Strains of *Neobodo* species isolated from different environments fall exclusively into marine and freshwater lineages.[6] Studies show that *Neobodo* is a complex and ancient species with a major marine clade nested among older freshwater clades.[7] This suggests that these lineages were constrained physiologically from moving between these environments for most of their long history.[7] Their broad physiological tolerance enables them to easily interchange between marine and freshwater environments, which gives them a cosmopolitan characteristic and a wide ecological tolerance.[6] Recent evidence for *Neobodo designis* suggested notable divergence between freshwater and marine strains and all strains exhibited extensive [genetic diversity](/source/Genetic_diversity).[7] [Epifluorescent microscopy](/source/Epifluorescence) studies reported the abundance of several heterotrophic nanoflagellate groups (including bodonids) in the [euphotic zone](/source/Euphotic_zone) of different marine areas.[3] Areas include the [Mediterranean Sea](/source/Mediterranean_Sea), [Norwegian Sea](/source/Norwegian_Sea), the [Indian Ocean](/source/Indian_Ocean) and around the [Antarctic Peninsula](/source/Antarctic_Peninsula).[3] Throughout the numerous oceans, large fractions of small heterotrophic flagellates with few morphological features remain unidentified.[3] Therefore there is a high possibility that there are many bodonids among the unidentified that have not yet been studied.[3]

Although *Neobodo* are surface organisms, typically found in surface waters, studies have shown their ability to tolerate deep water conditions.[6] Due to [advection](/source/Advection) or attachment to sinking particles, [microbes](/source/Microbes) from the surface of the ocean are continuously transported to deeper areas.[6] The vast majority of the marine environment consists of dark, cold, high-pressure environments, which increases with depth.[6] When cultures of *Neobodo* were isolated from surface waters and were put in different deep-sea temperatures and pressures, the abundance of protists declined in all treatments, with a significantly greater rate of mortality under combined cold temperature and high pressure conditions than in the cold temperature-only conditions.[6] However, an average of 6.1% of *N. designis* cells survived in the high pressure treatments, indicating that some fraction of sinking protists can survive transport to the deep ocean.[6] In addition, after a period of acclimation, positive growth rates were measured in some cases.[6] This suggests that surface-adapted flagellates can not only survive under deep-sea conditions but are able to reproduce and potentially provide seed populations in cold, high-pressure environments.[6] Although *Neobodo* are not abundant in the deep oceans, they are capable of surviving in the deep waters, tolerating high pressure and low temperature conditions.[6]

## Feeding

*Neobodo* are free-living and active microbial predators that swim around and feed on prey in aquatic ecosystems.[7] As free-living flagellates, they are the most important bacterivorous forms in aquatic environments.[4] *Neobodo*, like other bodonids, are heterotrophic flagellates (HF) which are a very diverse and heterogeneous group of protists with a size range between 1 and 450 microns.[3] They play an essential role in aquatic and terrestrial food webs as major consumers of bacterial biomass.[3] The predator to prey size ratio limits the maximal size difference between bacteria and their predator: *Neobodo*.[3] The marine environment presents additional constraints, imposed by the typical small size and low abundance of bacteria.[3] In these conditions, physical and [hydrodynamic](/source/Hydrodynamic) considerations theoretically restrict Neobodo’s feeding to graze on small bacteria, typically within the [nanoplankton](/source/Nanoplankton).[3] Most bacterivorous protists in the marine [pelagic zone](/source/Pelagic_zone) are generally in the size range of 2–5 microns and are classified as a functional group called heterotrophic nanoflagellates.[3] The predominance of heterotrophic nanoflagellates as marine bacterivores has been confirmed by manipulations with size-fractionated natural assemblages and by direct observation of protists with ingested fluorescent bacteria.[3] More specifically, *Neobodo* are interception feeders, meaning they feed on bacteria attached to surfaces/biofilms or in aggregates. They press their mouth against food and are often aided by a [pseudopod](/source/Pseudopod)-like structure (pharynx) to detach bacteria.[3] Within this feeding mechanism, further variability in terms of feeding behavior and selection strategies can be observed among different species.[3]

## Practical importance

Despite the [ecological](/source/Ecological) and [evolutionary](/source/Evolutionary) significance of these organisms, many of their biological and [pathological](/source/Pathological) features are currently unknown. Through [metatranscriptomics](/source/Metatranscriptomics) using [RNA-seq technology](/source/RNA-Seq) combined with [field-emission microscopy](/source/Field-emission_microscopy) the [virulence](/source/Virulence) factors of a recently described genus of Neobodonida that is considered to be responsible for Ascidian Soft Tunic Syndrome (AsSTS) was revealed.[8] AsSTS is a disease of the edible [ascidian](/source/Ascidian), *[Halocynthia roretzi](/source/Halocynthia_roretzi)*, which has done enormous damage to the Korean and Japanese [aquaculture](/source/Aquaculture).[8] AsSTS is characterized by changes in the tunic (the outermost barrier against the environment), including [elasticity](/source/Elasticity_(physics)) loss and subsequent rupture leading to thinner bundled tunic [fibers](/source/Fibers) and coarser tunic [matrices](/source/Matrix_(biology)).[8] However, the [pathogenesis](/source/Pathogenesis) is unclear and is still an area of research.[8]

## List of species (or of lower taxonomic units)

Despite the considerable interest in free-living bodonids, their true [biodiversity](/source/Biodiversity) has most likely been grossly underestimated by simple [light microscopy](/source/Light_microscopy), as it does not differentiate most ‘species’ very well.[7] [rRNA gene primers](/source/RNA_primers) were used to test *Neobodo*’s global [distribution](/source/Species_distribution) and [genetic diversity](/source/Genetic_diversity).[7] The non-overlap between [environmental DNA](/source/Environmental_DNA) sequences and those from cultures suggests that there are hundreds, possibly thousands, of different rRNA gene sequences of free-living *Neobodo* species globally.[7] Some of the species identified to date are:

- *[Neobodo designis](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neobodo_designis&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Neobodo cf. designis](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neobodo_cf._designis&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Neobodo curvifilus](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neobodo_curvifilus&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Neobodo saliens](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neobodo_saliens&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Neobodo sp. KL](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neobodo_sp._KL&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Neobodo borokensis](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neobodo_borokensis&action=edit&redlink=1)*

## References

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Mor_5-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Mor_5-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Mor_5-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Mor_5-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Mor_5-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Mor_5-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-Mor_5-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-Mor_5-7) [***i***](#cite_ref-Mor_5-8) [***j***](#cite_ref-Mor_5-9) [***k***](#cite_ref-Mor_5-10) [***l***](#cite_ref-Mor_5-11) [***m***](#cite_ref-Mor_5-12) [***n***](#cite_ref-Mor_5-13) [***o***](#cite_ref-Mor_5-14) [***p***](#cite_ref-Mor_5-15) [***q***](#cite_ref-Mor_5-16) Moreira, David, et al. 2004: An Updated View of Kinetoplastid Phylogeny Using Environmental Sequences and a Closer Outgroup: Proposal for a New Classification of the Class Kinetoplastea. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology, 54: 1861–75. DOI:10.1099/ijs.0.63081-0

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Von_7-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Von_7-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Von_7-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Von_7-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Von_7-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Von_7-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-Von_7-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-Von_7-7) Von Der Heyden, S., and Cavalier-Smith, T. 2005: Culturing and Environmental DNA Sequencing Uncover Hidden Kinetoplastid Biodiversity and a Major Marine Clade within Ancestrally Freshwater Neobodo Designis. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology, 55: 2605–2621. DOI: 10.1099/ijs.0.63606-0

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Jang_8-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Jang_8-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Jang_8-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Jang_8-3) Jang, H.B., Kim, Y. K., Del Castillo, C. S., Nho, S. W., Cha, I. S., and Park, S. B. 2012: RNA-Seq-Based Metatranscriptomic and Microscopic Investigation Reveals Novel Metalloproteases of Neobodo sp. as Potential Virulence Factors for Soft Tunic Syndrome in Halocynthia roretzi. PLoS ONE, 7(12): e52379. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0052379

v t e Discoba classification Domain Archaea Bacteria Eukaryota (major groups Metamonada Discoba Diaphoretickes Hacrobia Cryptista Rhizaria Alveolata Stramenopiles Plants Amorphea Amoebozoa Opisthokonta Animalia Fungi Mesomycetozoea) Eolouka* Tsukubea Tsukubamonadidae Tsukubamonas Jakobea Ophirinina Agogonidae Agogonia Ophirinidae Ophirina Andalucina Andaluciidae Andalucia Stygiellidae Stygiella Velundella Histionina Histionidae Histiona Reclinomonas Jakobidae Jakoba Moramonadidae Moramonas Seculamonas Discicristata Euglenozoa Euglenida Petalomonadida Scytomonadidae Atraktomonas Biundula Calycimonas Dolium Dylakosoma Notosolenus Pentamonas Petalomonas Scytomonas Tropidoscyphus Sphenomonadidae Sphenomonas Ploeotiida* Entosiphonidae Entosiphon Gaulosia Chelandium Olkasia Alistosa Ploeotiidae Ploeotia Serpenomonas Decastava Keelungia Lentomonas Karavia Hemiolia Liburna Spirocuta Anisonemia Anisonemida Anisonemidae Anisonema Dinema Heteronema Natomonadida Metanemina Neometanemidae Neometanema Aphagea Astasiidae Astasia Rhabdomonas Gyropaigne Menoidium Parmidium Distigma Peranemida Peranemidae Chasmostoma Jenningsia Peranema Teloprocta Urceolus Euglenophyceae Rapazida Rapazidae Rapaza Eutreptiales Eutreptiaceae Eutreptia Eutreptiella Euglenales Euglenaceae Colacium Cryptoglena Euglena Euglenaformis Euglenaria Monomorphina Strombomonas Trachelomonas Phacaceae Discoplastis Flexiglena Lepocinclis Phacus incertae sedis Ascoglena Euglenamorpha Euglenopsis Glenoclosterium Hegneria Klebsina Euglenocapsa incertae sedis Peranemopsis Tropidoscyphus Michajlowastasia Parastasiella Dinemula Paradinemula Mononema Ovicola Naupliicola Embryocola Copromonas Symbiontida Bihospites Calkinsia Postgaardi Glycomonada Diplonemea Diplonemidae Diplonema Rhynchopus Lacrimia Sulcionema Flectonema Hemistasiidae Hemistasia Eupelagonemidae Eupelagonema Kinetoplastea Prokinetoplastina Ichthyobodonidae Ichthyobodo Perkinsela Metakinetoplastina Allobodonidae Allobodo Novijibodo Neobodonida Neobodonidae Actuariola Avlakibodo Azumiobodo Cruzella Cryptaulaxella Klosteria Neobodo Phanerobia Rhynchobodo Rhynchomonadidae Rhynchomonas Dimastigella Parabodonida Cryptobiidae Cryptobia Jarrellia Procryptobia Trypanoplasma Parabodonidae Parabodo Eubodonida Bodonidae Bodo Trypanosomatida Trypanosomatinae Trypanosoma Leishmaniinae Borovskyia Crithidia Leptomonas Lotmaria Novymonas Porcisia Zelonia Endotrypanum Leishmania Herpetomonadinae Herpetomonas Lafontella Phytomonas Strigomonadinae Angomonas Kentomonas Strigomonas Blastocrithidiinae Blastocrithidia Obscuromonas Blechomonadinae Blechomonas Paratrypanosomatinae Paratrypanosoma Jaenimonas Vickermania Sergeia Wallacemonas Cercoplasma Malacozoomonas Nematodomonas Rhynchoidomonas incertae sedis Bordnamonas Cephalothamnium Rhynchoidomonas Heterolobosea Pharyngomonada Pharyngomonadea Pharyngomonadida Pharyngomonadidae Pharyngomonas Tetramitia Orodruinidae? Orodruina Gruberella Stachyamoeba Selenaionea Selenaionida Selenaionidae Selenaion Neovahlkampfiida Neovahlkampfiidae Neovahlkampfia Eutetramitea Euplaesiobystra Fumarolamoeba Heteramoeba Parafumarolamoeba Paravahlkampfia Oramoeba Vrihiamoeba Naegleriida Aurem Marinamoeba Acrasidae Acrasis Allovahlkampfia Pocheina Naegleriidae Naegleria Willaertia Trimastigamoeba? Tulamoebidae Pleurostomum Tulamoeba Vahlkampfiidae Tetramitus Vahlkampfia Pseudovahlkampfia? Tetramastigamoeba? Percolomonadida Barbeliidae Barbelia Nonamonas Lulaidae Lula Percolomonadidae Percolomonas Pseudociliatida Stephanopogonidae Stephanopogon Creneida Creneidae Creneis Lyromonadida Psalteriomonadidae Harpagon Psalteriomonas Monopylocystis Pseudoharpagon Sawyeria Lyromonas *paraphyletic or polyphyletic groups ?uncertain position

Taxon identifiers Neobodo Wikidata: Q25412463 Wikispecies: Neobodo AlgaeBase: 52356 BioLib: 510897 CoL: 5YTK GBIF: 9171551 iNaturalist: 966690 IRMNG: 1475566 NCBI: 312470 NZOR: cfe83fda-905d-4148-b6fb-262965047130

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Neobodo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neobodo) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neobodo?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.