# NASA

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American space and aeronautics agency

For other uses, see [NASA (disambiguation)](/source/NASA_(disambiguation)).

NASA NASA seal NASA insignia Mary W. Jackson NASA Headquarters building in Washington, D.C. Agency overview Abbreviation NASA Formed July 29, 1958; 67 years ago (1958-07-29) Preceding agency National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (1915–1958)[1] Type Space agency Aeronautics research agency Jurisdiction United States federal government Headquarters Mary W. Jackson NASA Headquarters Washington, D.C. 38°52′59″N 77°0′59″W / 38.88306°N 77.01639°W / 38.88306; -77.01639 Administrator Jared Isaacman[2] Deputy Administrator Matt Anderson Associate Administrator Amit Kshatriya Primary spaceports Kennedy Space Center Cape Canaveral Space Force Station Vandenberg Space Force Base Wallops Flight Facility Marshall Space Flight Center Employees 17,960 (2022)[3] Annual budget US$24.4 billion (2026) Website nasa.gov

Part of a series on the United States space program NASA U.S. Space Force Human spaceflight programs Mercury Gemini Apollo Manned Orbiting Laboratory Skylab Space Shuttle Shuttle–Mir International Space Station Commercial Crew Constellation Artemis Robotic spaceflight programs CRS Explorers GLS Large Strategic Lunar Orbiter Lunar Precursor Mariner Mars Exploration New Millennium Pioneer Planetary Missions Discovery New Frontiers Solar System Exploration Planetary Observer Ranger Surveyor Vanguard Viking Voyager X-37 NASA Astronaut Corps Mercury Gemini Apollo Space Shuttle Artemis Spaceports Eastern Range Cape Canaveral Space Force Station Kennedy Space Center Wallops Flight Facility Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport Pacific Spaceport Complex – Alaska Western Range Vandenberg Space Force Base Space launch vehicles Alpha Antares Atlas V Electron Falcon 9 Falcon Heavy LauncherOne Minotaur I III IV V C New Glenn New Shepard Pegasus Shuttle-Centaur Space Launch System Starship Vulcan Centaur National security space United States Space Force National Reconnaissance Office United States Space Command Civil space Department of Energy national laboratories Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service Office of Space Commerce Space Weather Prediction Center Department of State Office of Space Affairs Office of Science and Technology Policy Commercial space industry Astra Ball Aerospace Bigelow Aerospace Blue Origin Boeing Firefly Aerospace Lockheed Martin Raytheon Rocket Lab Northrop Grumman Sierra Nevada Corporation SpaceX SSL United Launch Alliance Virgin Galactic Virgin Orbit v t e

The **National Aeronautics and Space Administration** (**NASA** [/ˈnæsə/](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English)) is an [independent agency](/source/Independent_agencies_of_the_United_States_government) of the [U.S. federal government](/source/U.S._federal_government) responsible for the United States' civil [space program](/source/List_of_government_space_agencies) and for research in [aeronautics](/source/Aeronautics) and [space](/source/Outer_space). Headquartered in [Washington, D.C.](/source/Washington%2C_D.C.), NASA operates [ten field centers](/source/NASA_facilities) across the U.S. and is organized into three mission directorates: [Human Spaceflight](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_Spaceflight_Mission_Directorate&action=edit&redlink=1), [Research and Technology](/source/Research_and_Technology_Mission_Directorate), and [Science](/source/Science_Mission_Directorate). [Established in 1958](/source/National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Act), NASA succeeded the [National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics](/source/National_Advisory_Committee_for_Aeronautics) (NACA) to give the U.S. space program a distinct civilian orientation focused on peaceful applications. Since then, it has led most American spaceflight programs, including [Project Mercury](/source/Project_Mercury), [Project Gemini](/source/Project_Gemini), the [Apollo program](/source/Apollo_program), [Skylab](/source/Skylab), the [Space Shuttle](/source/Space_Shuttle), the [International Space Station](/source/International_Space_Station) (ISS) and the ongoing multi-national [Artemis program](/source/Artemis_program).

NASA maintains extensive ground and communications infrastructure, including the [Deep Space Network](/source/NASA_Deep_Space_Network) and the [Near Earth Network](/source/Near_Earth_Network). Its science programs focus on Earth observation through the [Earth Observing System](/source/Earth_Observing_System), [heliophysics](/source/Heliophysics) research, [Solar System](/source/Solar_System) exploration with [robotic missions](/source/Uncrewed_spacecraft) such as *[New Horizons](/source/New_Horizons)* and the [*Perseverance* rover](/source/Perseverance_(rover)), and astrophysics investigations using [space-based observatories](/source/Great_Observatories_program) including the [James Webb Space Telescope](/source/James_Webb_Space_Telescope) and the [Hubble Space Telescope](/source/Hubble_Space_Telescope). The [Launch Services Program](/source/NASA_Launch_Services_Program) oversees launch operations for [uncrewed launches](/source/Uncrewed_NASA_missions).

The agency supports the ISS through partnerships and commercial programs such as the [Commercial Crew Program](/source/Commercial_Crew_Program) and [Commercial Resupply Services](/source/Commercial_Resupply_Services), and leads development of the [Orion spacecraft](/source/Orion_(spacecraft)) and the [Space Launch System](/source/Space_Launch_System) rocket for Artemis. NASA collaborates internationally with organizations including the [European Space Agency](/source/European_Space_Agency) (ESA), the [Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency](/source/JAXA) (JAXA), the [Canadian Space Agency](/source/Canadian_Space_Agency) (CSA) and Russia's [Roscosmos](/source/Roscosmos) (for ISS operations), as well as with U.S. agencies such as the [National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration](/source/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration), the [United States Geological Survey](/source/United_States_Geological_Survey), and the [United States Space Force](/source/United_States_Space_Force). NASA's missions and media initiatives, including the [NASA+](/source/NASA%2B) streaming service, contribute to its public visibility and outreach. The agency has also had a lasting influence on popular culture since the [Apollo 11](/source/Apollo_11) Moon landing in 1969. For fiscal year 2026, NASA was authorized a budget of $24.4 billion and employs approximately 18,400 civil servants; since December 2025, its administrator has been [Jared Isaacman](/source/Jared_Isaacman).

## History

### Creation

A US Air Force [Bell X-1](/source/Bell_X-1) test flight

Main article: [Creation of NASA](/source/Creation_of_NASA)

NASA traces its roots to the [National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics](/source/National_Advisory_Committee_for_Aeronautics) (NACA). Despite [Dayton, Ohio, being the birthplace of aviation](/source/Dayton%2C_Ohio#Birthplace_of_aviation), by 1914 the United States recognized that it was far behind Europe in aviation capability. Determined to regain American leadership in aviation, the [US Congress](/source/United_States_Congress) created the [Aviation Section](/source/Aviation_Section%2C_U.S._Signal_Corps) of the [US Army Signal Corps](/source/US_Army_Signal_Corps) in 1914 and established NACA in 1915 to foster aeronautical research and development. Over the next forty years, NACA would conduct aeronautical research in support of the [US Air Force](/source/US_Air_Force), [US Army](/source/US_Army), [US Navy](/source/US_Navy), and the civil aviation sector. After the end of [World War II](/source/World_War_II), NACA became interested in the possibilities of guided missiles and supersonic aircraft, developing and testing the [Bell X-1](/source/Bell_X-1) in a joint program with the US Air Force. NACA's interest in space grew out of its rocketry program at the Pilotless Aircraft Research Division.[4]

Launch of the [Army Ballistic Missile Agency](/source/Army_Ballistic_Missile_Agency)'s [Explorer 1](/source/Explorer_1), America's first satellite

The [Soviet Union](/source/Soviet_Union)'s launch of [Sputnik 1](/source/Sputnik_1) ushered in the [Space Age](/source/Space_Age) and kicked off the [Space Race](/source/Space_Race). Despite NACA's early rocketry program, the responsibility for launching the first American satellite fell to the [Naval Research Laboratory](/source/Naval_Research_Laboratory)'s [Project Vanguard](/source/Project_Vanguard), whose operational issues ensured the [Army Ballistic Missile Agency](/source/Army_Ballistic_Missile_Agency) would launch [Explorer 1](/source/Explorer_1), America's first satellite, on February 1, 1958.

The [Eisenhower Administration](/source/Eisenhower_Administration) decided to split the US's military and civil spaceflight programs, which were organized together under the [Department of Defense](/source/Department_of_Defense)'s [Advanced Research Projects Agency](/source/Advanced_Research_Projects_Agency). NASA was established on July 29, 1958, with the signing of the [National Aeronautics and Space Act](/source/National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Act) and it began operations on October 1, 1958.[4]

As the American's premier aeronautics agency, NACA formed the core of NASA's new structure by reassigning 8,000 employees and three major research laboratories. NASA also proceeded to absorb the Naval Research Laboratory's Project Vanguard, the Army's [Jet Propulsion Laboratory](/source/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory) (JPL), and the [Army Ballistic Missile Agency](/source/Army_Ballistic_Missile_Agency) under [Wernher von Braun](/source/Wernher_von_Braun). This left NASA firmly as the US's civil space lead and the Air Force as the military space lead.[4]

### First orbital and hypersonic flights

Main article: [Project Mercury](/source/Project_Mercury)

Launch of *[Friendship 7](/source/Friendship_7)*, NASA's first crewed orbital flight, February 20, 1962

Plans for human spaceflight began in the US Armed Forces prior to NASA's creation. The Air Force's [Man in Space Soonest](/source/Man_in_Space_Soonest) project formed in 1956,[5] coupled with the Army's Project Adam, served as the foundation for [Project Mercury](/source/Project_Mercury). NASA established the [Space Task Group](/source/Space_Task_Group) to manage the program,[6] which would conduct crewed sub-orbital flights with the Army's [Redstone](/source/Mercury-Redstone_Launch_Vehicle) rockets and orbital flights with the Air Force's [Atlas](/source/Mercury-Atlas) launch vehicles. While NASA intended for its first astronauts to be civilians, President Eisenhower directed that they be selected from the military. The [Mercury 7](/source/Mercury_7) astronauts included three Air Force pilots, three Navy aviators, and one Marine Corps pilot.[4]

The NASA-Air Force [X-15](/source/North_American_X-15) hypersonic aircraft

On May 5, 1961, [Alan Shepard](/source/Alan_Shepard) became the first American to enter space, performing a suborbital spaceflight in the [*Freedom 7*](/source/Mercury-Redstone_3).[7] This flight occurred 23 days after the Soviet [Yuri Gagarin](/source/Yuri_Gagarin) became the first human in space, executing a full orbital spaceflight. NASA's first orbital spaceflight was conducted by [John Glenn](/source/John_Glenn) on February 20, 1962, in the [*Friendship 7*](/source/Mercury-Atlas_6), making three full orbits before reentering. Glenn had to fly parts of his final two orbits manually due to an autopilot malfunction.[8] The sixth and final Mercury mission was flown by [Gordon Cooper](/source/Gordon_Cooper) in May 1963, performing 22 orbits over 34 hours in the [*Faith 7*](/source/Mercury-Atlas_9).[9] The Mercury program was widely recognized as a resounding success, achieving its objectives to orbit a human in space, develop tracking and control systems, and identify other issues associated with human spaceflight.[4]

While much of NASA's attention turned to space, it did not put aside its aeronautics mission. Early aeronautics research attempted to build upon the X-1's [supersonic flight](/source/Supersonic_flight) to build an aircraft capable of [hypersonic flight](/source/Hypersonic_flight). The [North American X-15](/source/North_American_X-15) was a joint NASA–US Air Force program,[10] with the hypersonic test aircraft becoming the first non-dedicated spacecraft to cross from the atmosphere to outer space. The X-15 also served as a testbed for Apollo program technologies, as well as [ramjet](/source/Ramjet) and [scramjet](/source/Scramjet) propulsion.[4]

### Moon landing

Main articles: [Project Gemini](/source/Project_Gemini) and [Apollo program](/source/Apollo_program)

[Gemini 6](/source/Gemini_6) and [Gemini 7](/source/Gemini_7) conduct an orbital rendezvous

Escalations in the [Cold War](/source/Cold_War) between the US and Soviet Union prompted President [John F. Kennedy](/source/John_F._Kennedy) to charge NASA with landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to Earth by the end of the 1960s and installed [James E. Webb](/source/James_E._Webb) as NASA administrator to achieve this goal.[11] On May 25, 1961, Kennedy openly declared this goal in his "Urgent National Needs" speech to Congress, declaring:

I believe this Nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish.

Kennedy gave his "[We choose to go to the Moon](/source/We_choose_to_go_to_the_Moon)" speech the next year, on September 12, 1962 at [Rice University](/source/Rice_University), where he addressed the nation hoping to reinforce public support for the Apollo program.[12]

Despite attacks on the goal of landing astronauts on the Moon from the former president Dwight Eisenhower and 1964 presidential candidate [Barry Goldwater](/source/Barry_Goldwater), President Kennedy was able to protect NASA's growing budget, of which 50% went directly to human spaceflight and it was later estimated that, at its height, 5% of Americans worked on some aspect of the Apollo program.[4]

Launch of the 1969 [Apollo 11](/source/Apollo_11) mission

Mirroring the Department of Defense's program management concept using redundant systems in building the first intercontinental ballistic missiles, NASA requested the Air Force assign Major General [Samuel C. Phillips](/source/Samuel_C._Phillips) to the space agency where he would serve as the director of the Apollo program. Development of the [Saturn V](/source/Saturn_V) rocket was led by Wernher von Braun and his team at the [Marshall Space Flight Center](/source/Marshall_Space_Flight_Center), derived from the Army Ballistic Missile Agency's original [Saturn I](/source/Saturn_I). The [Apollo spacecraft](/source/Apollo_command_and_service_module) was designed and built by [North American Aviation](/source/North_American_Aviation), while the [Apollo Lunar Module](/source/Apollo_Lunar_Module) was designed and built by [Grumman](/source/Grumman).[4]

To develop the spaceflight skills and equipment required for a lunar mission, NASA initiated [Project Gemini](/source/Project_Gemini).[13] Using a modified Air Force [Titan II](/source/Titan_II_GLV) launch vehicle, the Gemini capsule could hold two astronauts for flights of over two weeks. Gemini pioneered the use of [fuel cells](/source/Fuel_cells) instead of batteries, and conducted the first American [spacewalks](/source/Spacewalks) and [rendezvous operations](/source/Space_rendezvous).

[Buzz Aldrin](/source/Buzz_Aldrin) salutes the [US flag](/source/US_flag) on the [lunar surface](/source/Lunar_surface)

The [Ranger Program](/source/Ranger_Program) was started in the 1950s as a response to Soviet lunar exploration, however most missions ended in failure. The [Lunar Orbiter program](/source/Lunar_Orbiter_program) had greater success, mapping the surface in preparation for Apollo landings, conducting meteoroid detection, and measuring radiation levels. The [Surveyor program](/source/Surveyor_program) conducted uncrewed lunar landings and takeoffs, as well as taking surface and regolith observations.[4] Despite the setback caused by the [Apollo 1](/source/Apollo_1) fire, which killed three astronauts, the program proceeded.

[Apollo 8](/source/Apollo_8) was the first crewed [spacecraft](/source/Spacecraft) to leave [low Earth orbit](/source/Low_Earth_orbit) and the first [human spaceflight](/source/Human_spaceflight) to reach the [Moon](/source/Moon). The crew orbited the Moon ten times on December 24 and 25, 1968, and then traveled safely back to [Earth](/source/Earth).[14][15][16] The three Apollo 8 astronauts—[Frank Borman](/source/Frank_Borman), [James Lovell](/source/Jim_Lovell), and [William Anders](/source/William_Anders)—were the first humans to see the Earth as a globe in space, the first to witness an [Earthrise](/source/Earthrise), and the first to see and manually photograph the far side of the Moon.

The first lunar landing was conducted by Apollo 11. Commanded by [Neil Armstrong](/source/Neil_Armstrong) with astronauts [Buzz Aldrin](/source/Buzz_Aldrin) and [Michael Collins](/source/Michael_Collins_(astronaut)), Apollo 11 was one of the most significant missions in NASA's history, marking the end of the [Space Race](/source/Space_Race) when the Soviet Union gave up its lunar ambitions. As the first human to step on the surface of the Moon, Neil Armstrong uttered [the now famous words](/source/One_small_step):

That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind.

NASA would conduct six total lunar landings as part of the Apollo program, with [Apollo 17](/source/Apollo_17) concluding the program in 1972.[4]

#### End of Apollo

[Apollo 15](/source/Apollo_15) [CSM](/source/Apollo_command_and_service_module) *Endeavour* in lunar orbit

Wernher von Braun had advocated for NASA to develop a space station since the agency was created. In 1973, following the end of the Apollo lunar missions, NASA launched its first space station, [Skylab](/source/Skylab), on the final launch of the Saturn V. Skylab reused a significant amount of Apollo and Saturn hardware, with a repurposed Saturn V third stage serving as the primary module for the space station. Damage to Skylab during its launch required spacewalks to be performed by the first crew to make it habitable and operational. Skylab hosted nine missions and was decommissioned in 1974 and deorbited in 1979, two years prior to the first launch of the [Space Shuttle](/source/Space_Shuttle) and any possibility of boosting its orbit.[4]

In 1975, the [Apollo–Soyuz](/source/Apollo%E2%80%93Soyuz) mission was the first ever international spaceflight and a major diplomatic accomplishment between the Cold War rivals, which also marked the last flight of the Apollo capsule.[4] Flown in 1975, a US Apollo spacecraft docked with a Soviet [Soyuz](/source/Soyuz_(spacecraft)) capsule.

### Interplanetary exploration and space science

Image from Mars taken by the *Viking 2* lander

During the 1960s, NASA started its [space science](/source/Space_science) and interplanetary probe program. The [Mariner program](/source/Mariner_program) was its flagship program, launching probes to [Venus](/source/Venus), [Mars](/source/Mars), and [Mercury](/source/Mercury_(planet)) in the 1960s.[17][18] The Jet Propulsion Laboratory was the lead NASA center for robotic interplanetary exploration, making significant discoveries about the [inner planets](/source/Inner_planets). Despite these successes, Congress was unwilling to fund further interplanetary missions and NASA Administrator James Webb suspended all future interplanetary probes to focus resources on the Apollo program.[4]

Following the conclusion of the Apollo program, NASA resumed launching interplanetary probes and expanded its [space science](/source/Space_science) program. The first planet tagged for exploration was [Venus](/source/Venus), sharing many similar characteristics to Earth. First visited by American [Mariner 2](/source/Mariner_2) spacecraft,[19] Venus was observed to be a hot and inhospitable planet. Follow-on missions included the [Pioneer Venus project](/source/Pioneer_Venus_project) in the 1970s and [Magellan](/source/Magellan_(spacecraft)), which performed radar mapping of Venus' surface in the 1980s and 1990s. Future missions were flybys of Venus, on their way to other destinations in the Solar System.[4]

[Mars](/source/Mars) has long been a planet of intense fascination for NASA, being suspected of potentially having harbored life. [Mariner 5](/source/Mariner_5) was the first NASA spacecraft to flyby Mars,[20] followed by [Mariner 6](/source/Mariner_6) and [Mariner 7](/source/Mariner_7). [Mariner 9](/source/Mariner_9) was the first orbital mission to Mars. Launched in 1975, [Viking program](/source/Viking_program) consisted of two landings on Mars in 1976. Follow-on missions would not be launched until 1996, with the [Mars Global Surveyor](/source/Mars_Global_Surveyor) orbiter and [Mars Pathfinder](/source/Mars_Pathfinder), deploying the first Mars rover, [Sojourner](/source/Sojourner_(rover)).[21] During the early 2000s, the [2001 Mars Odyssey](/source/2001_Mars_Odyssey) orbiter reached the planet and in 2004 the *[Sprit](/source/Spirit_(rover))* and *[Opportunity](/source/Opportunity_(rover))* rovers landed on the Red Planet. This was followed in 2005 by the [Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter](/source/Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter) and 2007 *[Phoenix](/source/Phoenix_(spacecraft))* Mars lander. The 2012 landing of *[Curiosity](/source/Curiosity_(rover))* discovered that the radiation levels on Mars were equal to those on the [International Space Station](/source/International_Space_Station) (ISS), greatly increasing the possibility of Human exploration, and observed the key chemical ingredients for life to occur. In 2013, the Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution ([MAVEN](/source/MAVEN)) mission observed the Martian upper atmosphere and space environment and in 2018, the Interior exploration using Seismic Investigations Geodesy, and Heat Transport ([InSight](/source/InSight)) studied the Martian interior. The 2021 *[Perseverance](/source/Perseverance_(rover))* rover carried the first extraplanetary aircraft, a helicopter named *[Ingenuity](/source/Ingenuity_(helicopter))*.[4]

NASA also launched missions to [Mercury](/source/Mercury_(planet)) in 2004, with the *[MESSENGER](/source/MESSENGER)* probe demonstrating as the first use of a [solar sail](/source/Solar_sail).[22] NASA also launched probes to the [outer Solar System](/source/Outer_Solar_System) starting in the 1960s. *[Pioneer 10](/source/Pioneer_10)* was the first probe to the outer planets, flying by [Jupiter](/source/Jupiter), while *[Pioneer 11](/source/Pioneer_11)* provided the first close up view of the planet. Both probes became the first objects to leave the Solar System. The [Voyager program](/source/Voyager_program) launched in 1977, conducting flybys of [Jupiter](/source/Jupiter) and [Saturn](/source/Saturn), [Neptune](/source/Neptune), and [Uranus](/source/Uranus) on a trajectory to leave the Solar System.[23] The *[Galileo](/source/Galileo_(spacecraft))* spacecraft, deployed from the Space Shuttle flight [STS-34](/source/STS-34), was the first spacecraft to orbit Jupiter, discovering evidence of subsurface oceans on the [Europa](/source/Europa_(moon)) and observed that the moon may hold ice or liquid water.[24] A joint NASA-[European Space Agency](/source/European_Space_Agency)-[Italian Space Agency](/source/Italian_Space_Agency) mission, [Cassini–Huygens](/source/Cassini%E2%80%93Huygens), was sent to [Saturn](/source/Saturn)'s moon [Titan](/source/Titan_(moon)), which, along with Mars and Europa, are the only celestial bodies in the Solar System suspected of being capable of harboring life.[25] Cassini discovered three new moons of Saturn and the [Huygens](/source/Huygens_(spacecraft)) probe entered Titan's atmosphere. The mission discovered evidence of liquid hydrocarbon lakes on Titan and subsurface water oceans on the moon of [Enceladus](/source/Enceladus), which could harbor life. Finally launched in 2006, the [New Horizons](/source/New_Horizons) mission was the first spacecraft to visit [Pluto](/source/Pluto) and the [Kuiper belt](/source/Kuiper_belt).[4]

Beyond interplanetary probes, NASA has launched many [space telescopes](/source/Space_telescopes). Launched in the 1960s, the [Orbiting Astronomical Observatory](/source/Orbiting_Astronomical_Observatory) were NASA's first orbital telescopes,[26] providing ultraviolet, gamma-ray, x-ray, and infrared observations. NASA launched the [Orbiting Geophysical Observatory](/source/Orbiting_Geophysical_Observatory) in the 1960s and 1970s to look down at Earth and observe its interactions with the Sun. The [Uhuru](/source/Uhuru_(satellite)) satellite was the first dedicated x-ray telescope, mapping 85% of the sky and discovering a large number of [black holes](/source/Black_holes).[4]

The [Hubble Space Telescope](/source/Hubble_Space_Telescope) in Low Earth Orbit

Launched in the 1990s and early 2000s, the [Great Observatories program](/source/Great_Observatories_program) are among NASA's most powerful telescopes. The [Hubble Space Telescope](/source/Hubble_Space_Telescope) was launched in 1990 on [STS-31](/source/STS-31) from the *Discovery* and could view galaxies 15 billion light years away.[27] A major defect in the telescope's mirror could have crippled the program, had NASA not used computer enhancement to compensate for the imperfection and launched five Space Shuttle servicing flights to replace the damaged components. The [Compton Gamma Ray Observatory](/source/Compton_Gamma_Ray_Observatory) was launched from the *Atlantis* on [STS-37](/source/STS-37) in 1991, discovering a possible source of [antimatter](/source/Antimatter) at the center of the [Milky Way](/source/Milky_Way) and observing that the majority of gamma-ray bursts occur outside of the Milky Way galaxy. The [Chandra X-ray Observatory](/source/Chandra_X-ray_Observatory) was launched from the *Columbia* on [STS-93](/source/STS-93) in 1999, observing black holes, [quasars](/source/Quasars), [supernova](/source/Supernova), and [dark matter](/source/Dark_matter). It provided critical observations on the [Sagittarius A*](/source/Sagittarius_A*) black hole at the center of the Milky Way galaxy and the separation of dark and regular matter during galactic collisions. Finally, the [Spitzer Space Telescope](/source/Spitzer_Space_Telescope) is an infrared telescope launched in 2003 from a [Delta II](/source/Delta_II) rocket. It is in a trailing orbit around the Sun, following the Earth and discovered the existence of [brown dwarf stars](/source/Brown_dwarf_star).[4]

Other telescopes, such as the [Cosmic Background Explorer](/source/Cosmic_Background_Explorer) and the [Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe](/source/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe), provided evidence to support the [Big Bang](/source/Big_Bang).[28] The [James Webb Space Telescope](/source/James_Webb_Space_Telescope), named after the NASA administrator who lead the Apollo program, is an infrared observatory launched in 2021. The James Webb Space Telescope is a direct successor to the Hubble Space Telescope, intended to observe the formation of the first galaxies.[29] Other space telescopes include the [Kepler space telescope](/source/Kepler_space_telescope), launched in 2009 to identify planets orbiting extrasolar stars that may be Terran and possibly harbor life. The first exoplanet that the Kepler space telescope confirmed was [Kepler-22b](/source/Kepler-22b), orbiting within the habitable zone of its star.[4]

NASA also launched a number of different satellites to study Earth, such as [Television Infrared Observation Satellite](/source/Television_Infrared_Observation_Satellite) (TIROS) in 1960, which was the first weather satellite.[30] NASA and the [US Weather Bureau](/source/US_Weather_Bureau) cooperated on future TIROS and the second generation [Nimbus program](/source/Nimbus_program) of weather satellites. It also worked with the [Environmental Science Services Administration](/source/Environmental_Science_Services_Administration) on a series of weather satellites and the agency launched its experimental [Applications Technology Satellites](/source/Applications_Technology_Satellites) into geosynchronous orbit. NASA's first dedicated Earth observation satellite, [Landsat](/source/Landsat), was launched in 1972. This led to NASA and the [National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration](/source/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration) jointly developing the [Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite](/source/Geostationary_Operational_Environmental_Satellite) and discovering [Ozone depletion](/source/Ozone_depletion).[4]

### Space Shuttle

Main article: [Space Shuttle](/source/Space_Shuttle)

Launch of the [Space Shuttle *Discovery*](/source/Space_Shuttle_Discovery) on [STS-120](/source/STS-120)

NASA had been pursuing [spaceplane](/source/Spaceplane) development since the 1960s, blending the administration's dual aeronautics and space missions. NASA viewed a spaceplane as part of a larger program, providing routine and economical logistical support to a [space station](/source/Space_station) in Earth orbit that would be used as a hub for lunar and Mars missions. A reusable launch vehicle would then have ended the need for expensive and expendable boosters like the [Saturn V](/source/Saturn_V).[4]

In 1969, NASA designated the [Johnson Space Center](/source/Johnson_Space_Center) as the lead center for the design, development, and manufacturing of the [Space Shuttle orbiter](/source/Space_Shuttle_orbiter), while the [Marshall Space Flight Center](/source/Marshall_Space_Flight_Center) would lead the development of the launch system. NASA's series of [lifting body](/source/Lifting_body) aircraft, culminating in the joint NASA-US Air Force [Martin Marietta X-24](/source/Martin_Marietta_X-24), directly informed the development of the Space Shuttle and future hypersonic flight aircraft. Official development of the [Space Shuttle](/source/Space_Shuttle) began in 1972, with [Rockwell International](/source/Rockwell_International) contracted to design the orbiter and engines, [Martin Marietta](/source/Martin_Marietta) for the [external fuel tank](/source/Space_Shuttle_external_tank), and [Morton Thiokol](/source/Morton_Thiokol) for the [solid rocket boosters](/source/Space_Shuttle_Solid_Rocket_Booster).[31] NASA acquired six orbiters: the *[Enterprise](/source/Space_Shuttle_Enterprise)*, *[Columbia](/source/Space_Shuttle_Columbia)*, *[Challenger](/source/Space_Shuttle_Challenger)*, *[Discovery](/source/Space_Shuttle_Discovery)*, *[Atlantis](/source/Space_Shuttle_Atlantis)*, and *[Endeavour](/source/Space_Shuttle_Endeavour)*.[4]

The Space Shuttle program also allowed NASA to make major changes to its [Astronaut Corps](/source/NASA_Astronaut_Corps). While almost all previous astronauts were Air Force or Naval test pilots, the Space Shuttle allowed NASA to begin recruiting more non-military scientific and technical experts. A prime example is [Sally Ride](/source/Sally_Ride), who became the first American woman to fly in space on [STS-7](/source/STS-7). This new astronaut selection process also allowed NASA to accept exchange astronauts from US allies and partners for the first time.[4]

The first Space Shuttle flight occurred in 1981, when the *Columbia* launched on the [STS-1](/source/STS-1) mission, designed to serve as a flight test for the new spaceplane.[32] NASA intended for the Space Shuttle to replace expendable launch systems like the Air Force's [Atlas](/source/Atlas_(rocket_family)), [Delta](/source/Delta_(rocket_family)), and [Titan](/source/Titan_(rocket_family)) and the [European Space Agency](/source/European_Space_Agency)'s [Ariane](/source/Ariane_(rocket_family)). The Space Shuttle's [Spacelab](/source/Spacelab) payload, developed by the European Space Agency, increased the scientific capabilities of shuttle missions over anything NASA was able to previously accomplish.[4]

[Space Shuttle *Discovery*](/source/Space_Shuttle_Discovery) in Low Earth Orbit on [STS-120](/source/STS-120)

NASA launched its first commercial satellites on the [STS-5](/source/STS-5) mission and in 1984, the [STS-41-C](/source/STS-41-C) mission conducted the world's first [on-orbit satellite servicing](/source/On-orbit_satellite_servicing) mission when the *Challenger* captured and repaired the malfunctioning [Solar Maximum Mission](/source/Solar_Maximum_Mission) satellite. It also had the capability to return malfunctioning satellite to Earth, like it did with the [Palapa B2](/source/Palapa_B2) and [Westar 6](/source/Westar_6) satellites. Once returned to Earth, the satellites were repaired and relaunched.[4]

Despite ushering in a new era of spaceflight, where NASA was contracting launch services to commercial companies, the Space Shuttle was criticized for not being as reusable and cost-effective as advertised. In 1986, [*Challenger* disaster](/source/Space_Shuttle_Challenger_disaster) on the [STS-51L](/source/STS-51L) mission resulted in the loss of the spacecraft and all seven astronauts on launch, grounding the entire space shuttle fleet for 36 months and forced the 44 commercial companies that contracted with NASA to deploy their satellites to return to expendable launch vehicles.[33] When the Space Shuttle returned to flight with the [STS-26](/source/STS-26) mission, it had undergone significant modifications to improve its reliability and safety.[4]

An [Air Force Space Command](/source/Air_Force_Space_Command) [Defense Support Program](/source/Defense_Support_Program) missile warning spacecraft deploys from the [Space Shuttle *Atlantis*](/source/Space_Shuttle_Atlantis) on the [STS-44](/source/STS-44) mission

Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Russian Federation and United States initiated the [Shuttle-*Mir* program](/source/Shuttle%E2%80%93Mir_program).[34] The first Russian cosmonaut flew on the [STS-60](/source/STS-60) mission in 1994 and the *Discovery* rendezvoused, but did not dock with, the Russian *[Mir](/source/Mir)* in the [STS-63](/source/STS-63) mission. This was followed by *Atlantis*'s [STS-71](/source/STS-71) mission where it accomplished the initial intended mission for the Space Shuttle, docking with a space station and transferring supplies and personnel. The Shuttle-*Mir* program would continue until 1998, when a series of orbital accidents on the space station spelled an end to the program.[4]

In 2003, a second space shuttle was destroyed when the *Columbia* was [destroyed](/source/Space_Shuttle_Columbia_disaster) upon reentry during the [STS-107](/source/STS-107) mission, resulting in the loss of the spacecraft and all seven astronauts.[35] This accident marked the beginning of the retiring of the Space Shuttle program, with President [George W. Bush](/source/George_W._Bush) directing that upon the completion of the ISS, the space shuttle be retired. In 2006, the Space Shuttle returned to flight, conducting several missions to service the [Hubble Space Telescope](/source/Hubble_Space_Telescope), but was retired following the [STS-135](/source/STS-135) resupply mission to the ISS in 2011.

### Space stations

Main articles: [Space Station Freedom](/source/Space_Station_Freedom) and [International Space Station](/source/International_Space_Station)

[Skylab](/source/Skylab) seen on the [Skylab 4](/source/Skylab_4) mission

NASA never gave up on the idea of a space station after Skylab's reentry in 1979. The agency began lobbying politicians to support building a larger space station as soon as the Space Shuttle began flying, selling it as an orbital laboratory, repair station, and a jumping off point for lunar and Mars missions. NASA found a strong advocate in President [Ronald Reagan](/source/Ronald_Reagan), who declared in a 1984 speech:

America has always been greatest when we dared to be great. We can reach for greatness again. We can follow our dreams to distant stars, living and working in space for peaceful, economic, and scientific gain. Tonight I am directing NASA to develop a permanently manned space station and to do it within a decade.

In 1985, NASA proposed the [Space Station *Freedom*](/source/Space_Station_Freedom), which both the agency and President Reagan intended to be an international program.[36] While this would add legitimacy to the program, there were concerns within NASA that the international component would dilute its authority within the project, having never been willing to work with domestic or international partners as true equals. There was also a concern with sharing sensitive space technologies with the Europeans, which had the potential to dilute America's technical lead. Ultimately, an international agreement to develop the Space Station *Freedom* program would be signed with thirteen countries in 1985, including the [European Space Agency](/source/European_Space_Agency) (ESA) member states, [Canada](/source/Canada), and [Japan](/source/Japan).[4]

Despite its status as the first international space program, the Space Station *Freedom* was controversial, with much of the debate centering on cost. Several redesigns to reduce cost were conducted in the early 1990s, stripping away much of its functions. Despite calls for Congress to terminate the program, it continued, in large part because by 1992 it had created 75,000 jobs across 39 states. By 1993, President [Bill Clinton](/source/Bill_Clinton) attempted to significantly reduce NASA's budget and directed costs be significantly reduced, aerospace industry jobs were not lost, and the Russians be included.[4]

The [International Space Station](/source/International_Space_Station) (ISS) seen from the [Space Shuttle *Atlantis*](/source/Space_Shuttle_Atlantis) on the [STS-132](/source/STS-132) mission

In 1993, the Clinton Administration announced that the Space Station *Freedom* would become the ISS in an agreement with the Russian Federation.[37] This allowed the Russians to maintain their space program through an infusion of American currency to maintain their status as one of the two premier space programs. While the US built and launched the majority of the ISS, Russia, Canada, Japan, and the ESA all contributed components. Despite NASA's insistence that costs would be kept at a budget of $17.4, they kept rising and NASA had to transfer funds from other programs to keep the International Space Station solvent. Ultimately, the total cost of the station was $150 billion, with the US paying for two-thirds. Following the Space Shuttle *Columbia* disaster in 2003, NASA was forced to rely on Russian [Soyuz](/source/Soyuz_(spacecraft)) launches for its astronauts and the 2011 retirement of the Space Shuttle accelerated the station's completion.[4]

In the 1980s, right after the first flight of the Space Shuttle, NASA started a joint program with the Department of Defense to develop the [Rockwell X-30](/source/Rockwell_X-30) National Aerospace Plane. NASA realized that the Space Shuttle, while a massive technological accomplishment, would not be able to live up to all its promises. Designed to be a [single-stage-to-orbit](/source/Single-stage-to-orbit) spaceplane, the X-30 had both civil and military applications. With the end of the [Cold War](/source/Cold_War), the X-30 was canceled in 1992 before reaching flight status.[4]

### Unleashing commercial space and return to the Moon

Main articles: [Commercial Crew Program](/source/Commercial_Crew_Program) and [Artemis program](/source/Artemis_program)

Following the [Space Shuttle *Columbia* disaster](/source/Space_Shuttle_Columbia_disaster) in 2003, President Bush started the [Constellation program](/source/Constellation_program) to smoothly replace the Space Shuttle and expand space exploration beyond low Earth orbit.[38] Constellation was intended to use a significant amount of former Space Shuttle equipment and return astronauts to the Moon. This program was canceled by the [Obama Administration](/source/Obama_Administration). Former astronauts [Neil Armstrong](/source/Neil_Armstrong), [Gene Cernan](/source/Gene_Cernan), and [Jim Lovell](/source/Jim_Lovell) sent a letter to President [Barack Obama](/source/Barack_Obama) to warn him that if the US did not get new human spaceflight ability, the US risked becoming a second or third-rate space power.[4]

As early as the Reagan Administration, there had been calls for NASA to expand private sector involvement in space exploration rather than do it all in-house. In the 1990s, NASA and Lockheed Martin entered into an agreement to develop the [Lockheed Martin X-33](/source/Lockheed_Martin_X-33) demonstrator of the [VentureStar](/source/VentureStar) spaceplane, which was intended to replace the Space Shuttle.[39] Due to technical challenges, the spacecraft was cancelled in 2001. Despite this, it was the first time a commercial space company directly expended a significant amount of its resources into spacecraft development. The advent of [space tourism](/source/Space_tourism) also forced NASA to challenge its assumption that only governments would have people in space. The first space tourist was [Dennis Tito](/source/Dennis_Tito), an American investment manager and former aerospace engineer who contracted with the Russians to fly to the International Space Station for four days, despite the opposition of NASA to the idea.[4]

Advocates of this new commercial approach for NASA included former astronaut [Buzz Aldrin](/source/Buzz_Aldrin), who remarked that it would return NASA to its roots as a research and development agency, with commercial entities actually operating the space systems. Having corporations take over orbital operations would also allow NASA to focus all its efforts on deep space exploration and returning humans to the Moon and going to Mars. Embracing this approach, NASA's [Commercial Crew Program](/source/Commercial_Crew_Program) started by contracting cargo delivery to the International Space Station and flew its first operational contracted mission on [SpaceX Crew-1](/source/SpaceX_Crew-1). This marked the first time since the retirement of the Space Shuttle that NASA was able to launch its own astronauts on an American spacecraft from the US, ending a decade of reliance on the Russians.[4]

In 2019, NASA announced the [Artemis program](/source/Artemis_program), intending to return to the Moon and establish a permanent human presence.[40] This was paired with the [Artemis Accords](/source/Artemis_Accords) with partner nations to establish rules of behavior and norms of space commercialization on the Moon.[41]

In 2023, NASA established the Moon to Mars Program office. The office is designed to oversee the various projects, mission architectures and associated timelines relevant to lunar and Mars exploration and science.[42]

## Active programs

### Human spaceflight

#### International Space Station (1993–present)

Further information: [International Space Station](/source/International_Space_Station)

The International Space Station as seen from [Space Shuttle](/source/Space_Shuttle) [*Endeavour*](/source/Space_Shuttle_Endeavour) during [STS-134](/source/STS-134)

The [International Space Station](/source/International_Space_Station) (ISS) combines NASA's [Space Station *Freedom*](/source/Space_Station_Freedom) project with the Russian *[Mir-2](/source/Mir-2)* station, the European *[Columbus](/source/Columbus_(ISS_module))* station, and the Japanese [Kibō](/source/Japanese_Experiment_Module) laboratory module.[43] NASA originally planned in the 1980s to develop *Freedom* alone, but US budget constraints led to the merger of these projects into a single multi-national program in 1993, managed by NASA, the [Russian Federal Space Agency](/source/Russian_Federal_Space_Agency) (RKA), the [Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency](/source/JAXA) (JAXA), the [European Space Agency](/source/European_Space_Agency) (ESA), and the [Canadian Space Agency](/source/Canadian_Space_Agency) (CSA).[44][45] The station consists of pressurized modules, external [trusses](/source/Integrated_Truss_Structure), [solar arrays](/source/Solar_arrays) and other components, which were [manufactured](/source/Manufacturing_of_the_International_Space_Station) in various factories around the world and launched by Russian [Proton](/source/Proton_(rocket)) and [Soyuz](/source/Soyuz_(rocket_family)) rockets, and the American Space Shuttle.[43] The on-orbit assembly began in 1998, the completion of the [US Orbital Segment](/source/US_Orbital_Segment) occurred in 2009 and the completion of the [Russian Orbital Segment](/source/Russian_Orbital_Segment) occurred in 2010. The ownership and use of the space station is established in intergovernmental treaties and agreements,[46] which divide the station into two areas and allow [Russia](/source/Russian_Federation) to retain full ownership of the Russian Orbital Segment (with the exception of *[Zarya](/source/Zarya_(ISS_module))*),[47][48] with the US Orbital Segment allocated between the other international partners.[46]

Long-duration missions to the ISS are referred to as [ISS Expeditions](/source/List_of_International_Space_Station_expeditions). Expedition crew members typically spend approximately six months on the ISS.[49] The initial expedition crew size was three, temporarily decreased to two following the *Columbia* disaster. Between May 2009 and until the retirement of the Space Shuttle, the expedition crew size has been six crew members.[50] As of 2024, though the Commercial Program's crew capsules can allow a crew of up to seven, expeditions using them typically consist of a crew of four. The ISS has been continuously occupied for the past 25 years and 236 days, having exceeded the previous record held by *[Mir](/source/Mir)*; and has been visited by astronauts and cosmonauts from [15 different nations](/source/List_of_International_Space_Station_visitors).[51][52]

The station can be seen from the Earth with the naked eye and, as of 2026, is the largest artificial satellite in Earth orbit with a mass and volume greater than that of any previous space station.[53] The Russian [Soyuz](/source/Soyuz_(spacecraft)) and American [Dragon](/source/SpaceX_Dragon_2) and [Starliner](/source/Boeing_Starliner) spacecraft are used to send astronauts to and from the ISS. Several uncrewed cargo spacecraft provide service to the ISS; they are the Russian [Progress spacecraft](/source/Progress_(spacecraft)) which has done so since 2000, the European [Automated Transfer Vehicle](/source/Automated_Transfer_Vehicle) (ATV) since 2008, the Japanese [H-II Transfer Vehicle](/source/H-II_Transfer_Vehicle) (HTV) since 2009, the (uncrewed) [Dragon](/source/SpaceX_Dragon) since 2012, and the American [Cygnus spacecraft](/source/Cygnus_(spacecraft)) since 2013.[54][55] The Space Shuttle, before its retirement, was also used for cargo transfer and would often switch out expedition crew members, although it did not have the capability to remain docked for the duration of their stay. Between the retirement of the Shuttle in 2011 and the commencement of crewed Dragon flights in 2020, American astronauts exclusively used the Soyuz for crew transport to and from the ISS.[56] The highest number of people occupying the ISS has been thirteen; this occurred three times during the late Shuttle ISS assembly missions.[57]

The ISS program is expected to continue until 2030,[58] after which the space station will be retired and destroyed in a controlled de-orbit.[59]

#### Commercial Resupply Services (2008–present)

[Dragon 2](/source/SpaceX_Dragon_2) (left) and [Cygnus XL](/source/Cygnus_(spacecraft)) (right), the two active Commercial Resupply Services spacecraft

Further information: [Commercial Resupply Services](/source/Commercial_Resupply_Services)

Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) are a contract solution to deliver cargo and supplies to the International Space Station on a commercial basis by private companies.[60] NASA signed its first CRS contracts in 2008 and awarded $1.6 billion to [SpaceX](/source/SpaceX) for twelve cargo [Dragon](/source/Dragon_(spacecraft)) and $1.9 billion to [Orbital Sciences](/source/Orbital_Sciences)[note 1] for eight [Cygnus](/source/Cygnus_(spacecraft)) flights, covering deliveries until 2016. Both companies evolved or created their launch vehicle products to launch the spacecrafts (SpaceX with The [Falcon 9](/source/Falcon_9) and Orbital with the [Antares](/source/Antares_(rocket))).

SpaceX flew its first operational resupply mission ([SpaceX CRS-1](/source/SpaceX_CRS-1)) in 2012.[61] Orbital Sciences followed in 2014 ([Cygnus CRS Orb-1](/source/Cygnus_CRS_Orb-1)).[62] In 2015, NASA extended CRS-1 to twenty flights for SpaceX and twelve flights for [Orbital ATK](/source/Orbital_ATK).[note 1][63][64]

A second phase of contracts (known as CRS-2) was solicited in 2014; contracts were awarded in January 2016 to Orbital ATK[note 1] [Cygnus](/source/Cygnus_(spacecraft)), [Sierra Nevada Corporation](/source/Sierra_Nevada_Corporation) *[Dream Chaser](/source/Dream_Chaser)*, and SpaceX *[Dragon 2](/source/SpaceX_Dragon_2)*, for cargo transport flights beginning in 2019 and expected to last through 2024. In March 2022, NASA awarded an additional six CRS-2 missions each to both SpaceX and Northrop Grumman (formerly Orbital).[65]

[Northrop Grumman](/source/Northrop_Grumman) successfully delivered [Cygnus NG-17](/source/Cygnus_NG-17) to the ISS in February 2022.[66] In July 2022, SpaceX launched its 25th CRS flight ([SpaceX CRS-25](/source/SpaceX_CRS-25)) and successfully delivered its cargo to the ISS.[67] The Dream Chaser spacecraft is currently scheduled for its Demo-1 launch in the first half of 2024.[68]

#### Commercial Crew Program (2011–present)

Further information: [Commercial Crew Program](/source/Commercial_Crew_Program)

The Crew Dragon (left) and Starliner (right) approaching the [ISS](/source/International_Space_Station) on their respective missions

The Commercial Crew Program (CCP) provides [commercially operated](/source/Private_spaceflight) [crew transportation service](/source/Human_spaceflight) to and from the International Space Station (ISS) under contract to NASA, conducting crew rotations between the [expeditions](/source/List_of_International_Space_Station_expeditions) of the [International Space Station program](/source/International_Space_Station_program). American [space manufacturer](/source/Space_industry) [SpaceX](/source/SpaceX) began providing service in 2020, using the [Crew Dragon](/source/SpaceX_Dragon_2) spacecraft,[69] while [Boeing](/source/Boeing_Defense%2C_Space_%26_Security)'s [Starliner](/source/Boeing_Starliner) spacecraft provided service in 2024. It was on contract for 6 missions, but after the first mission nearly ended in disaster and left the two astronauts stranded on the ISS for six months, NASA froze its contract with Boeing.[70][71][72][73] NASA has contracted for six operational missions from Boeing and fourteen from SpaceX, ensuring sufficient support for ISS through 2030.[74]

The spacecraft are owned and operated by the vendor, and crew transportation is provided to NASA as a commercial service.[75] Each mission sends up to four astronauts to the ISS, with an option for a fifth passenger available. Operational flights occur approximately once every six months for missions that last for approximately six months. A spacecraft remains docked to the ISS during its mission, and missions usually overlap by at least a few days. Between the retirement of the [Space Shuttle](/source/Space_Shuttle) in 2011 and the first operational CCP mission in 2020, NASA relied on the [Soyuz program](/source/Soyuz_program) to transport its astronauts to the ISS.

A Crew Dragon spacecraft is launched to space atop a [Falcon 9 Block 5](/source/Falcon_9_Block_5) launch vehicle and the capsule returns to Earth via [splashdown](/source/Splashdown) in the ocean near Florida. The program's first operational mission, [SpaceX Crew-1](/source/SpaceX_Crew-1), launched on November 16, 2020.[76] [Boeing Starliner](/source/Boeing_Starliner) operational flights will now commence with [Boeing Starliner-1](/source/Boeing_Starliner-1) which will launched atop an [Atlas V](/source/Atlas_V) N22 launch vehicle. Instead of a splashdown, Starliner capsules return on land with [airbags](/source/Airbag) at one of four designated sites in the western US.[77]

#### Artemis (2017–present)

Further information: [Artemis program](/source/Artemis_program)

Launch of [Artemis I](/source/Artemis_I)

Since 2017, NASA's [crewed spaceflight program](/source/List_of_human_spaceflight_programs) has been the [Artemis program](/source/Artemis_program), which involves the help of US [commercial spaceflight companies](/source/Private_spaceflight) and international partners such as ESA, JAXA, and Canadian Space Agency.[78] Artemis would be the first step towards the long-term goal of establishing a sustainable presence on the Moon, laying the foundation for companies to build a lunar economy, and eventually sending humans to [Mars](/source/Mars).

The [Orion](/source/Orion_(spacecraft)) Crew Exploration Vehicle was held over from the canceled Constellation program for Artemis. [Artemis I](/source/Artemis_I) was the uncrewed initial launch of [Space Launch System](/source/Space_Launch_System) (SLS) that would also send an Orion spacecraft on a [Distant Retrograde Orbit](/source/Distant_Retrograde_Orbit).[79]

The first step toward returning astronauts to the Moon, [Artemis II](/source/Artemis_II), briefly placed a crew of four into a [lunar flyby](/source/Free-return_trajectory) in April 2026.[80] [Artemis III](/source/Artemis_III), planned for mid-2027, was originally planned to conduct the first crewed lunar landing since [Apollo 17](/source/Apollo_17); in February 2026, the mission was changed to a [low Earth orbit](/source/Low_Earth_orbit) docking test of Orion. The landing was pushed to [Artemis IV](/source/Artemis_IV), planned for early 2028.[81][82]

In support of the Artemis missions, NASA has been funding private companies to land robotic probes on the lunar surface in a program known as the [Commercial Lunar Payload Services](/source/Commercial_Lunar_Payload_Services). As of March 2022, NASA has awarded contracts for robotic lunar probes to companies such as [Intuitive Machines](/source/Intuitive_Machines), [Firefly Space Systems](/source/Firefly_Space_Systems), and [Astrobotic](/source/Astrobotic).[83]

On April 16, 2021, NASA announced they had selected the [SpaceX Lunar Starship](/source/Starship_HLS) as its Human Landing System. The agency's Space Launch System rocket will launch four astronauts aboard the Orion spacecraft for their multi-day journey to lunar orbit where they will transfer to SpaceX's Starship for the final leg of their journey to the surface of the Moon.[84]

Until 2026, NASA additionally planned the construction of the [Lunar Gateway](/source/Lunar_Gateway), a small space station in [lunar orbit](/source/Lunar_orbit) designed primarily for non-continuous human habitation.[85] In March 2026, NASA canceled the project in favor of a [Moon Base](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moon_Base&action=edit&redlink=1).[86]

In 2017, NASA was directed by the congressional NASA Transition Authorization Act of 2017 to get humans to Mars-orbit (or to the Martian surface) by the 2030s.[87][88]

#### Commercial LEO Development (2021–present)

Further information: [Commercial LEO Destinations program](/source/Commercial_LEO_Destinations_program)

The Commercial Low Earth Orbit Destinations program is an initiative by NASA to support work on commercial space stations that the agency hopes to have in place by the end of the current decade to replace the "International Space Station". The three selected companies are: [Blue Origin](/source/Blue_Origin) (et al.) with their [Orbital Reef](/source/Orbital_Reef) station concept, [Nanoracks](/source/Nanoracks) (et al.) with their [Starlab Space Station](/source/Starlab_Space_Station) concept, and [Northrop Grumman](/source/Northrop_Grumman) with a station concept based on the HALO-module for the Gateway station.[89]

### Robotic exploration

Further information: [List of NASA missions](/source/List_of_NASA_missions) and [List of uncrewed NASA missions](/source/List_of_uncrewed_NASA_missions)

Video of many of the uncrewed missions used to explore the outer reaches of space

NASA has conducted many uncrewed and robotic spaceflight programs throughout its history. More than 1,000 uncrewed missions have been designed to explore the Earth and the Solar System.[90]

#### Mission selection process

NASA executes a mission development framework to plan, select, develop, and operate robotic missions. This framework defines cost, schedule and technical risk parameters to enable competitive selection of missions involving mission candidates that have been developed by principal investigators and their teams from across NASA, the broader US Government research and development stakeholders, and industry. The mission development construct is defined by four umbrella programs.[91]

#### Explorer program

Main article: [Explorers Program](/source/Explorers_Program)

The Explorer program derives its origin from the earliest days of the US Space program. In current form, the program consists of three classes of systems: Small, Medium, and University-Class Explorers missions. The NASA Explorer program office provides frequent flight opportunities for moderate cost innovative solutions from the heliophysics and astrophysics science areas. The Small Explorer missions are required to limit cost to NASA to below $150M (2022 dollars). Medium class explorer missions have typically involved NASA cost caps of $350M. The Explorer program office is based at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.[92]

#### Discovery program

Main article: [Discovery Program](/source/Discovery_Program)

The NASA Discovery program develops and delivers robotic spacecraft solutions in the planetary science domain. Discovery enables scientists and engineers to assemble a team to deliver a solution against a defined set of objectives and competitively bid that solution against other candidate programs. Cost caps vary but recent mission selection processes were accomplished using a $500M cost cap for NASA. The Planetary Mission Program Office is based at the NASA Marshall Space Flight Center and manages both the Discovery and New Frontiers missions. The office is part of the Science Mission Directorate.[93]

NASA Administrator Bill Nelson announced on June 2, 2021, that the *[DAVINCI](/source/DAVINCI)+* and *[VERITAS](/source/VERITAS_(spacecraft))* missions were selected to launch to Venus in the late 2020s, having beat out competing proposals for missions to Jupiter's volcanic moon Io and Neptune's large moon [Triton](/source/Triton_(moon)) that were also selected as Discovery program finalists in early 2020. Each mission has an estimated cost of $500 million, with launches expected between 2028 and 2030. Launch contracts will be awarded later in each mission's development.[94]

#### New Frontiers program

Further information: [New Frontiers program](/source/New_Frontiers_program)

The New Frontiers program focuses on specific [Solar System](/source/Solar_System) exploration goals identified as top priorities by the planetary science community. Primary objectives include Solar System exploration employing medium class spacecraft missions to conduct high-science-return investigations. New Frontiers builds on the development approach employed by the Discovery program but provides for higher cost caps and schedule durations than are available with Discovery. Cost caps vary by opportunity; recent missions have been awarded based on a defined cap of $1 billion. The higher cost cap and projected longer mission durations result in a lower frequency of new opportunities for the program – typically one every several years. *[OSIRIS-REx](/source/OSIRIS-REx)* and *[New Horizons](/source/New_Horizons)* are examples of New Frontiers missions.[95]

NASA has determined that the next opportunity to propose for the fifth round of New Frontiers missions will occur no later than the fall of 2024. Missions in NASA's New Frontiers Program tackle specific Solar System exploration goals identified as top priorities by the planetary science community. Exploring the Solar System with medium-class spacecraft missions that conduct high-science-return investigations is NASA's strategy to further understand the Solar System.[96]

#### Large strategic missions

Further information: [Large strategic science missions](/source/Large_strategic_science_missions)

Large strategic missions (formerly called Flagship missions) are strategic missions that are typically developed and managed by large teams that may span several NASA centers. The individual missions become the program as opposed to being part of a larger effort (see Discovery, New Frontiers, etc.). The [James Webb Space Telescope](/source/James_Webb_Space_Telescope) is a strategic mission that was developed over a period of more than 20 years. Strategic missions are developed on an ad-hoc basis as program objectives and priorities are established. Missions like Voyager, had they been developed today, would have been strategic missions. Three of the Great Observatories were strategic missions (the [Chandra X-ray Observatory](/source/Chandra_X-ray_Observatory), the [Compton Gamma Ray Observatory](/source/Compton_Gamma_Ray_Observatory), and the [Hubble Space Telescope](/source/Hubble_Space_Telescope)). *[Europa Clipper](/source/Europa_Clipper)* is the next large strategic mission in development by NASA.[97]

#### Planetary science missions

*[Curiosity](/source/Curiosity_(rover))* on the surface of Mars

NASA continues to play a material role in exploration of the Solar System as it has for decades. Ongoing missions have current science objectives with respect to more than five extraterrestrial bodies within the Solar System – Moon ([Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter](/source/Lunar_Reconnaissance_Orbiter)), Mars (*[Perseverance](/source/Perseverance_(rover))* rover), Jupiter (*[Juno](/source/Juno_(spacecraft))*), asteroid [Bennu](/source/101955_Bennu) (*[OSIRIS-REx](/source/OSIRIS-REx)*), and Kuiper Belt Objects (*[New Horizons](/source/New_Horizons)*). The *Juno* extended mission will make multiple flybys of the Jovian moon Io in 2023 and 2024 after flybys of [Ganymede](/source/Ganymede_(moon)) in 2021 and [Europa](/source/Europa_(moon)) in 2022. *[Voyager 1](/source/Voyager_1)* and *[Voyager 2](/source/Voyager_2)* continue to provide science data back to Earth while continuing on their outward journeys into interstellar space.

On November 26, 2011, NASA's [Mars Science Laboratory](/source/Mars_Science_Laboratory) mission was successfully launched for Mars. The *[Curiosity](/source/Curiosity_(rover))* rover successfully landed on Mars on August 6, 2012, and subsequently began its search for evidence of past or present life on Mars.[98][99][100]

In September 2014, NASA's *[MAVEN](/source/MAVEN)* spacecraft, which is part of the [Mars Scout Program](/source/Mars_Scout_Program), successfully entered Mars orbit and, as of October 2022, continues its study of the [atmosphere of Mars](/source/Atmosphere_of_Mars).[101][102] NASA's ongoing Mars investigations include in-depth surveys of Mars by the *Perseverance* rover.

NASA's *[Europa Clipper](/source/Europa_Clipper)*, launched in October 2024, will study the Galilean moon Europa through a series of flybys while in orbit around Jupiter. *[Dragonfly](/source/Dragonfly_(Titan_space_probe))* will send a mobile robotic [rotorcraft](/source/Rotorcraft) to Saturn's biggest moon, [Titan](/source/Titan_(moon)).[103] As of May 2021, *Dragonfly* is scheduled for launch in June 2027.[104][105]

#### Astrophysics missions

NASA astrophysics spacecraft fleet, credit [NASA GSFC](/source/Goddard_Space_Flight_Center), 2022

The NASA Science Mission Directorate Astrophysics division manages the agency's astrophysics science portfolio. NASA has invested significant resources in the development, delivery, and operations of various forms of space telescopes. These telescopes have provided the means to study the cosmos over a large range of the electromagnetic spectrum.[106]

The Great Observatories that were launched in the 1980s and 1990s have provided a wealth of observations for study by physicists across the planet. The first of them, the [Hubble Space Telescope](/source/Hubble_Space_Telescope), was delivered to orbit in 1990 and continues to function, in part due to prior servicing missions performed by the Space Shuttle.[107][108] The other remaining active great observatories include the [Chandra X-ray Observatory](/source/Chandra_X-ray_Observatory) (CXO), launched by [STS-93](/source/STS-93) in July 1999 and is now in a 64-hour [elliptical orbit](/source/Elliptical_orbit) studying X-ray sources that are not readily viewable from terrestrial observatories.[109]

[Chandra X-ray Observatory](/source/Chandra_X-ray_Observatory) (rendering), 2015

The [Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer](/source/Imaging_X-ray_Polarimetry_Explorer) (IXPE) is a space observatory designed to improve the understanding of X-ray production in objects such as neutron stars and pulsar wind nebulae, as well as stellar and supermassive black holes.[110] IXPE launched in December 2021 and is an international collaboration between NASA and the [Italian Space Agency](/source/Italian_Space_Agency) (ASI). It is part of the NASA Small Explorers program, which designs low-cost spacecraft to study heliophysics and astrophysics.[111]

The [Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory](/source/Neil_Gehrels_Swift_Observatory) was launched in November 2004 and is a gamma-ray burst observatory that also monitors the afterglow in X-ray, and UV/Visible light at the location of a burst.[112] The mission was developed in a joint partnership between [Goddard Space Flight Center](/source/Goddard_Space_Flight_Center) (GSFC) and an international consortium from the United States, United Kingdom, and Italy. [Pennsylvania State University](/source/Pennsylvania_State_University) operates the mission as part of NASA's Medium Explorer program.[113]

The [Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope](/source/Fermi_Gamma-ray_Space_Telescope) (FGST) is another gamma-ray focused space observatory that was launched to [low Earth orbit](/source/Low_Earth_orbit) in June 2008 and is being used to perform [gamma-ray astronomy](/source/Gamma-ray_astronomy) observations.[114] In addition to NASA, the mission involves the [US Department of Energy](/source/US_Department_of_Energy), and government agencies in France, Germany, Italy, Japan, and Sweden.[115]

The [James Webb Space Telescope](/source/James_Webb_Space_Telescope) (JWST), launched in December 2021 on an [Ariane 5](/source/Ariane_5) rocket, operates in a [halo orbit](/source/Halo_orbit) circling the Sun-Earth [L2](/source/Lagrange_point#L2) point.[116][117][118] JWST's high sensitivity in the infrared spectrum and its imaging resolution will allow it to view more distant, faint, or older objects than its predecessors, including Hubble.[119]

#### Earth Sciences Program missions (1965–present)

Further information: [NASA Earth Science](/source/NASA_Earth_Science)

Schematic of NASA Earth Science Division operating satellite missions as of February 2015

NASA Earth Science is a large, umbrella program comprising a range of terrestrial and space-based collection systems in order to better understand the Earth system and its response to natural and human-caused changes. Numerous systems have been developed and fielded over several decades to provide improved prediction for weather, climate, and other changes in the natural environment. Several of the current operating spacecraft programs include: [Aqua](/source/Aqua_(satellite)),[120] [Aura](/source/Aura_(satellite)),[121] [Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2](/source/Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory_2) (OCO-2),[122] [Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Follow-on (GRACE FO)](/source/GRACE_and_GRACE-FO#GRACE_Follow-On),[123] and [Ice, Cloud, and land Elevation Satellite 2 (ICESat-2)](/source/ICESat-2).[124]

In addition to systems already in orbit, NASA is designing a new set of Earth Observing Systems to study, assess, and generate responses for climate change, natural hazards, forest fires, and real-time agricultural processes.[125] The GOES-T satellite (designated [GOES-18](/source/GOES-18) after launch) joined the fleet of US geostationary weather monitoring satellites in March 2022.[126]

NASA also maintains the Earth Science Data Systems (ESDS) program to oversee the life cycle of NASA's Earth science data – from acquisition through processing and distribution. The primary goal of ESDS is to maximize the scientific return from NASA's missions and experiments for research and applied scientists, decision makers, and society at large.[127]

The Earth Science program is managed by the Earth Science Division of the NASA Science Mission Directorate.

### Space operations architecture

NASA invests in various ground and space-based infrastructures to support its science and exploration mandate. The agency maintains access to suborbital and orbital space launch capabilities and sustains ground station solutions to support its evolving fleet of spacecraft and remote systems.

#### Deep Space Network (1963–present)

Further information: [NASA Deep Space Network](/source/NASA_Deep_Space_Network)

The *NASA Deep Space Network* (*DSN*) serves as the primary ground station solution for NASA's interplanetary spacecraft and select Earth-orbiting missions.[128] The system employs ground station complexes near Barstow, California, in Spain near Madrid, and in Australia near Canberra. The placement of these ground stations approximately 120 degrees apart around the planet provides the ability for communications to spacecraft throughout the [Solar System](/source/Solar_System) even as the Earth rotates about its axis on a daily basis. The system is controlled at a 24x7 operations center at JPL in Pasadena, California, which manages recurring communications linkages with up to 40 spacecraft.[129] The system is managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.[128]

#### Near Space Network (1983–present)

Further information: [Near Earth Network](/source/Near_Earth_Network) and [Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System](/source/Tracking_and_Data_Relay_Satellite_System)

Near Earth Network Ground Stations, 2021

The Near Space Network (NSN) provides telemetry, commanding, ground-based tracking, data and communications services to a wide range of customers with satellites in low earth orbit (LEO), geosynchronous orbit (GEO), highly elliptical orbits (HEO), and lunar orbits. The NSN accumulates ground station and antenna assets from the Near-Earth Network and the *[Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System](/source/Tracking_and_Data_Relay_Satellite_System)* (*TDRS*) which operates in geosynchronous orbit providing continuous real-time coverage for launch vehicles and low earth orbit NASA missions.[130]

The NSN consists of 19 ground stations worldwide operated by the US Government and by contractors including Kongsberg Satellite Services (KSAT), Swedish Space Corporation (SSC), and South African National Space Agency (SANSA).[131] The ground network averages between 120 and 150 spacecraft contacts a day with TDRS engaging with systems on a near-continuous basis as needed; the system is managed and operated by the Goddard Space Flight Center.[132]

#### Sounding Rocket Program (1959–present)

Further information: [NASA Sounding Rocket Program](/source/NASA_Sounding_Rocket_Program)

NASA [sounding rocket](/source/Sounding_rocket) launch from the [Wallops Flight Facility](/source/Wallops_Flight_Facility)

The *NASA Sounding Rocket Program* (*NSRP*) is located at the [Wallops Flight Facility](/source/Wallops_Flight_Facility) and provides launch capability, payload development and integration, and field operations support to execute suborbital missions.[133] The program has been in operation since 1959 and is managed by the Goddard Space Flight Center using a combined US Government and contractor team.[134] The NSRP team conducts approximately 20 missions per year from both Wallops and other launch locations worldwide to allow scientists to collect data "where it occurs". The program supports the strategic vision of the Science Mission Directorate collecting important scientific data for earth science, heliophysics, and astrophysics programs.[133]

In June 2022, NASA conducted its first rocket launch from a commercial spaceport outside the US. It launched a [Black Brant IX](/source/Black_Brant_IX) from the [Arnhem Space Centre](/source/Arnhem_Space_Centre) in Australia.[135]

#### Launch Services Program (1990–present)

Further information: [NASA Launch Services Program](/source/NASA_Launch_Services_Program)

The NASA Launch Services Program (LSP) is responsible for procurement of launch services for NASA uncrewed missions and oversight of launch integration and launch preparation activity, providing added quality and mission assurance to meet program objectives.[136] Since 1990, NASA has purchased [expendable launch vehicle launch services](/source/Expendable_launch_system) directly from commercial providers, whenever possible, for its scientific and applications missions. Expendable launch vehicles can accommodate all types of orbit inclinations and altitudes and are ideal vehicles for launching Earth-orbit and interplanetary missions. LSP operates from Kennedy Space Center and falls under the NASA Space Operations Mission Directorate (SOMD).[137][138]

### Aeronautics Research

Further information: [NASA research](/source/NASA_research) and [Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate](/source/Aeronautics_Research_Mission_Directorate)

The *Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate* (*ARMD*) is one of five mission [directorates](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/directorate) within NASA, the other four being the Exploration Systems Development Mission Directorate, the Space Operations Mission Directorate, the [Science Mission Directorate](/source/Science_Mission_Directorate), and the Space Technology Mission Directorate.[139] The ARMD is responsible for NASA's [aeronautical](/source/Aeronautics) research, which benefits the [commercial](/source/Commercial_aviation), [military](/source/Military_aviation), and [general aviation](/source/General_aviation) sectors. ARMD performs its aeronautics research at four NASA facilities: [Ames Research Center](/source/Ames_Research_Center) and [Armstrong Flight Research Center](/source/Armstrong_Flight_Research_Center) in California, [Glenn Research Center](/source/Glenn_Research_Center) in Ohio, and [Langley Research Center](/source/Langley_Research_Center) in Virginia.[140]

#### NASA X-57 Maxwell aircraft (2016–present)

Further information: [NASA X-57 Maxwell](/source/NASA_X-57_Maxwell)

The *NASA X-57 Maxwell* is an experimental aircraft being developed by NASA to demonstrate the technologies required to deliver a highly efficient all-electric aircraft.[141] The primary goal of the program is to develop and deliver all-electric technology solutions that can also achieve airworthiness certification with regulators. The program involves development of the system in several phases, or modifications, to incrementally grow the capability and operability of the system. The initial configuration of the aircraft has now completed ground testing as it approaches its first flights. In mid-2022, the X-57 was scheduled to fly before the end of the year.[142] The development team includes staff from the NASA Armstrong, Glenn, and Langley centers along with a number of industry partners from the US and Italy.[143]

#### Next Generation Air Transportation System (2007–present)

Further information: [Next Generation Air Transportation System](/source/Next_Generation_Air_Transportation_System)

NASA is collaborating with the [Federal Aviation Administration](/source/Federal_Aviation_Administration) and industry stakeholders to modernize the US [National Airspace System](/source/National_Airspace_System) (NAS). Efforts began in 2007 with a goal to deliver major modernization components by 2025.[144] The modernization effort intends to increase the safety, efficiency, capacity, access, flexibility, predictability, and resilience of the NAS while reducing the [environmental impact of aviation](/source/Environmental_impact_of_aviation).[145] The Aviation Systems Division of NASA Ames operates the joint NASA/FAA North Texas Research Station. The station supports all phases of NextGen research, from concept development to prototype system field evaluation. This facility has already transitioned advanced NextGen concepts and technologies to use through technology transfers to the FAA.[144] NASA contributions also include development of advanced automation concepts and tools that provide air traffic controllers, pilots, and other airspace users with more accurate real-time information about the nation's traffic flow, weather, and routing. Ames' advanced airspace modeling and simulation tools have been used extensively to model the flow of air traffic flow across the US, and to evaluate new concepts in airspace design, traffic flow management, and optimization.[146]

### Technology research

For technologies funded or otherwise supported by NASA, see [NASA spinoff technologies](/source/NASA_spinoff_technologies).

#### Nuclear in-space power and propulsion (ongoing)

NASA has made use of technologies such as the [multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator](/source/Multi-mission_radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator) (MMRTG), which is a type of [radioisotope thermoelectric generator](/source/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator) used to power spacecraft.[147] Shortages of the required [plutonium-238](/source/Plutonium-238) have curtailed deep space missions since the turn of the millennium.[148] An example of a spacecraft that was not developed because of a shortage of this material was *[New Horizons 2](/source/New_Horizons_2)*.[148]

In July 2021, NASA announced contract awards for development of [nuclear thermal propulsion](/source/Nuclear_thermal_rocket) reactors. Three contractors will develop individual designs over 12 months for later evaluation by NASA and the [US Department of Energy](/source/United_States_Department_of_Energy).[149] NASA's space nuclear technologies portfolio are led and funded by its Space Technology Mission Directorate.

In January 2023, NASA announced a partnership with Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency ([DARPA](/source/DARPA)) on the [Demonstration Rocket for Agile Cislunar Operations](/source/Demonstration_Rocket_for_Agile_Cislunar_Operations) (DRACO) program to demonstrate a NTR engine in space, an enabling capability for NASA missions to Mars.[150] In July 2023, NASA and DARPA jointly announced the award of $499 million to Lockheed Martin to design and build an experimental NTR rocket to be launched in 2027.[151]

In July 2025, Acting NASA Administrator Sean Duffy issued a directive to fast-track plans for placing a nuclear reactor on the Moon to support the agency's Artemis program and maintain U.S. leadership in space exploration. The directive, prompted by concerns that China and Russia may deploy a joint lunar reactor by the mid-2030s, emphasizes the need for a 100-kilowatt system to power long-term lunar missions. Duffy warned that if another nation establishes a reactor first, it could create "keep-out zones" limiting U.S. access.[152]

#### Other initiatives

*Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center* (SEDAC), founded in 1994, "focuses on archiving and distributing data related to human interactions in the environment. SEDAC synthesizes Earth science and socioeconomic data and information" in [Palisades, NY](/source/Palisades%2C_NY),[153] with partner *Center for Integrated Earth System Information*, [Columbia University](/source/Columbia_University).[154] SEDAC has extensive [geospatial data](/source/Geospatial_data) holdings.[153][155]

*Free Space Optics*: NASA contracted a third party to study the probability of using Free Space Optics (FSO) to communicate with Optical ([laser](/source/Laser)) Stations on the Ground (OGS) called laser-com [RF](/source/Radio_frequency) networks for satellite communications.[156]

*Water Extraction from Lunar Soil*. On July 29, 2020, NASA requested American universities to propose new technologies for extracting water from the [lunar soil](/source/Lunar_soil) and developing power systems. The idea will help the space agency conduct [sustainable](/source/Sustainable) exploration of the Moon.[157]

In 2024, NASA was tasked by the [US Government](/source/Federal_government_of_the_United_States) to create a [Time standard](/source/Time_standard) for the [Moon](/source/Moon). The standard is to be called [Coordinated Lunar Time](/source/Coordinated_Lunar_Time) and is expected to be finalized in 2026.[158]

### Human Spaceflight Research (2005–present)

SpaceX Crew-4 astronaut [Samantha Cristoforetti](/source/Samantha_Cristoforetti) operating the rHEALTH ONE on the [ISS](/source/International_Space_Station) during a technology demonstration

NASA's [Human Research Program](/source/Human_Research_Program) (HRP) is designed to study the effects of space on human health and also to provide countermeasures and technologies for human space exploration.[159] The medical effects of space exploration are reasonably limited in low Earth orbit or in travel to the Moon. Travel to Mars is significantly longer and deeper into space, significant medical issues can result. These include [bone density](/source/Bone_density) loss, [radiation exposure](/source/Radiation_exposure), vision changes, [circadian rhythm](/source/Circadian_rhythm) disturbances, heart remodeling, and immune alterations. In order to study and diagnose these ill-effects, HRP has been tasked with identifying or developing small portable instrumentation with low mass, volume, and power to monitor the health of astronauts.[160] As part of the effort to achieve this aim, on May 13, 2022, NASA and SpaceX Crew-4 astronauts successfully tested the rHEALTH ONE, a miniature [cytometry](/source/Flow_cytometry)-based biomedical analyzer, for its ability to identify and analyze [biomarkers](/source/Biomarker), [cells](/source/Cell_(biology)), [microorganisms](/source/Microorganism), and [proteins](/source/Protein) in a spaceflight environment.[161][162]

### Planetary Defense (2016–present)

Further information: [Planetary Defense Coordination Office](/source/Planetary_Defense_Coordination_Office) and [Near Earth Objects](/source/Near_Earth_Objects)

NASA established the Planetary Defense Coordination Office (PDCO) in 2016 to catalog and track potentially hazardous [near-Earth objects](/source/Near-Earth_object) (NEO), such as [asteroids](/source/Asteroid) and [comets](/source/Comet) and develop potential responses and defenses against these threats.[163] The PDCO is chartered to provide timely and accurate information to the government and the public on close approaches by [Potentially hazardous objects](/source/Potentially_hazardous_objects) (PHOs) and any potential for impact. The office functions within the Science Mission Directorate [Planetary Science Division](/source/Planetary_Science_Division).[164]

The PDCO augmented prior cooperative actions between the US, the [European Union](/source/European_Union), and other nations which had been scanning the sky for NEOs since 1998 in an effort called [Spaceguard](/source/Spaceguard).[165]

#### Near Earth object detection (1998–present)

From the 1990s NASA has run many NEO detection programs from Earth bases observatories, greatly increasing the number of objects that have been detected. Many asteroids are very dark and those near the Sun are much harder to detect from Earth-based telescopes which observe at night, and thus face away from the Sun. NEOs inside Earth orbit only reflect a part of light also rather than potentially a "full Moon" when they are behind the Earth and fully lit by the Sun.[166]

In 1998, the US Congress gave NASA a mandate to detect 90% of near-Earth asteroids over 1 km (0.62 mi) diameter (that threaten global devastation) by 2008.[167] This initial mandate was met by 2011.[168] In 2005, the original USA Spaceguard mandate was extended by the [George E. Brown, Jr.](/source/George_E._Brown%2C_Jr.) Near-Earth Object Survey Act, which calls for NASA to detect 90% of NEOs with diameters of 140 m (460 ft) or greater, by 2020 (compare to the 20-meter [Chelyabinsk meteor](/source/Chelyabinsk_meteor) that hit Russia in 2013).[169] As of January 2020[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NASA&action=edit), it is estimated that less than half of these have been found, but objects of this size hit the Earth only about once in 2,000 years.[170]

In January 2020, NASA officials estimated it would take 30 years to find all objects meeting the 140 m (460 ft) size criteria, more than twice the timeframe that was built into the 2005 mandate.[171] In June 2021, NASA authorized the development of the [NEO Surveyor](/source/NEO_Surveyor) spacecraft to reduce that projected duration to achieve the mandate down to 10 years.[172][173]

#### Involvement in current robotic missions

NASA has incorporated planetary defense objectives into several ongoing missions.

In 1999, NASA visited [433 Eros](/source/433_Eros) with the *[NEAR Shoemaker](/source/NEAR_Shoemaker)* spacecraft which entered its orbit in 2000, closely imaging the asteroid with various instruments at that time.[174] *NEAR Shoemaker* became the first spacecraft to successfully orbit and land on an asteroid, improving our understanding of these bodies and demonstrating our capacity to study them in greater detail.[175]

[OSIRIS-REx](/source/OSIRIS-REx) used its suite of instruments to transmit radio tracking signals and capture optical images of [Bennu](/source/101955_Bennu) during its study of the asteroid that will help NASA scientists determine its precise position in the solar system and its exact orbital path. As Bennu has the potential for recurring approaches to the Earth-Moon system in the next 100–200 years, the precision gained from OSIRIS-REx will enable scientists to better predict the future gravitational interactions between Bennu and our planet and resultant changes in Bennu's onward flight path.[176][177]

The [WISE/NEOWISE](/source/Wide-field_Infrared_Survey_Explorer) mission was launched by NASA JPL in 2009 as an infrared-wavelength astronomical space telescope. In 2013, NASA repurposed it as the NEOWISE mission to find potentially hazardous near-Earth asteroids and comets; its mission has been extended into 2023.[178][179]

NASA and [Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory](/source/Johns_Hopkins_Applied_Physics_Laboratory) (JHAPL) jointly developed the first planetary defense purpose-built satellite, the [Double Asteroid Redirection Test](/source/Double_Asteroid_Redirection_Test) (DART) to test possible planetary defense concepts.[180] DART was launched in November 2021 by a SpaceX Falcon 9 from California on a trajectory designed to impact the [Dimorphos](/source/Dimorphos) asteroid. Scientists were seeking to determine whether an impact could alter the subsequent path of the asteroid; a concept that could be applied to future planetary defense.[181] On September 26, 2022, DART hit its target. In the weeks following impact, NASA declared DART a success, confirming it had shortened Dimorphos' orbital period around Didymos by about 32 minutes, surpassing the pre-defined success threshold of 73 seconds.[182][183]

[NEO Surveyor](/source/NEO_Surveyor), formerly called the Near-Earth Object Camera (NEOCam) mission, is a space-based [infrared telescope](/source/Infrared_telescope) under development to survey the [Solar System](/source/Solar_System) for [potentially hazardous asteroids](/source/Potentially_hazardous_object).[184] The spacecraft is scheduled to launch in 2026.

### Study of Unidentified Aerial Phenomena (2022–present)

In June 2022, the head of the NASA [Science Mission Directorate](/source/Science_Mission_Directorate), [Thomas Zurbuchen](/source/Thomas_Zurbuchen), confirmed the start of [NASA's UAP independent study team](/source/NASA's_UAP_independent_study_team).[185] At a speech before the National Academies of Science, Engineering and Medicine, Zurbuchen said the space agency would bring a scientific perspective to efforts already underway by the Pentagon and intelligence agencies to make sense of dozens of such sightings. He said it was "high-risk, high-impact" research that the space agency should not shy away from, even if it is a controversial field of study.[186]

## Collaboration

### NASA Advisory Council

In response to the [Apollo 1](/source/Apollo_1) accident, which killed three astronauts in 1967, Congress directed NASA to form an Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel (ASAP) to advise the NASA Administrator on safety issues and hazards in NASA's air and space programs. In the aftermath of the [Shuttle *Columbia* disaster](/source/Space_Shuttle_Columbia_disaster), Congress required that the ASAP submit an annual report to the NASA Administrator and to Congress.[187] By 1971, NASA had also established the Space Program Advisory Council and the Research and Technology Advisory Council to provide the administrator with advisory committee support. In 1977, the latter two were combined to form the NASA Advisory Council (NAC).[188] The [NASA Authorization Act of 2014](/source/NASA_Authorization_Act_of_2014) reaffirmed the importance of ASAP.

### National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

Further information: [National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration](/source/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration)

NASA and NOAA have cooperated for decades on the development, delivery and operation of polar and geosynchronous weather satellites.[189] The relationship typically involves NASA developing the space systems, launch solutions, and ground control technology for the satellites and NOAA operating the systems and delivering weather forecasting products to users. Multiple generations of NOAA Polar orbiting platforms have operated to provide detailed imaging of weather from low altitude.[190] [Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites](/source/Geostationary_Operational_Environmental_Satellites) (GOES) provide near-real-time coverage of the western hemisphere to ensure accurate and timely understanding of developing weather phenomenon.[191]

### United States Space Force

Further information: [United States Space Force](/source/United_States_Space_Force)

The [United States Space Force](/source/United_States_Space_Force) (USSF) is the space service branch of the US Armed Forces, while NASA is an independent agency of the US government responsible for civil spaceflight. NASA and the Space Force's predecessors in the Air Force have a long-standing cooperative relationship, with the Space Force supporting NASA launches out of [Kennedy Space Center](/source/Kennedy_Space_Center), [Cape Canaveral Space Force Station](/source/Cape_Canaveral_Space_Force_Station), and [Vandenberg Space Force Base](/source/Vandenberg_Space_Force_Base), to include range support and rescue operations from Task Force 45.[192] NASA and the Space Force also partner on matters such as defending Earth from asteroids.[193] Space Force members can be NASA astronauts, with Colonel [Michael S. Hopkins](/source/Michael_S._Hopkins), the commander of [SpaceX Crew-1](/source/SpaceX_Crew-1), commissioned into the Space Force from the [International Space Station](/source/International_Space_Station) on December 18, 2020.[194][195][196] In September 2020, the Space Force and NASA signed a [memorandum of understanding](/source/Memorandum_of_understanding) formally acknowledging the joint role of both agencies. This new memorandum replaced a similar document signed in 2006 between NASA and Air Force Space Command.[197][198]

### US Geological Survey

Further information: [United States Geological Survey](/source/United_States_Geological_Survey) and [Landsat 9](/source/Landsat_9)

The [Landsat program](/source/Landsat_program) is the longest-running enterprise for acquisition of [satellite imagery](/source/Satellite_imagery) of Earth. It is a joint NASA / [USGS](/source/United_States_Geological_Survey) program.[199] On July 23, 1972, the *[Earth Resources Technology Satellite](/source/Landsat_1)* was launched. This was eventually renamed to *[Landsat 1](/source/Landsat_1)* in 1975.[200] The most recent satellite in the series, *[Landsat 9](/source/Landsat_9)*, was launched on September 27, 2021.[201]

The instruments on the Landsat satellites have acquired millions of images. The images, archived in the US and at Landsat receiving stations around the world, are a unique resource for global change research and applications in [agriculture](/source/Agriculture), [cartography](/source/Cartography), [geology](/source/Geology), [forestry](/source/Forestry), [regional planning](/source/Regional_planning), [surveillance](/source/Surveillance) and [education](/source/Education), and can be viewed through the US Geological Survey (USGS) "EarthExplorer" website. The collaboration between NASA and USGS involves NASA designing and delivering the space system (satellite) solution, launching the satellite into orbit with the USGS operating the system once in orbit.[199] As of October 2022, nine satellites have been built with eight of them successfully operating in orbit.

### European Space Agency (ESA)

Further information: [European Space Agency](/source/European_Space_Agency)

NASA collaborates with the European Space Agency on a wide range of scientific and exploration requirements.[202] From participation with the Space Shuttle (the Spacelab missions) to major roles on the Artemis program (the Orion Service Module), ESA and NASA have supported the science and exploration missions of each agency. There are NASA payloads on ESA spacecraft and ESA payloads on NASA spacecraft. The agencies have developed joint missions in areas including heliophysics (e.g. [Solar Orbiter](/source/Solar_Orbiter))[203] and astronomy ([Hubble Space Telescope](/source/Hubble_Space_Telescope), [James Webb Space Telescope](/source/James_Webb_Space_Telescope)).[204]

Under the Artemis Gateway partnership, ESA will contribute habitation and refueling modules, along with enhanced lunar communications, to the Gateway.[205][206] NASA and ESA continue to advance cooperation in relation to Earth Science including climate change with agreements to cooperate on various missions including the [Sentinel-6](/source/Sentinel-6_Michael_Freilich) series of spacecraft[207]

### Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)

Further information: [ISRO](/source/ISRO)

In September 2014, NASA and the [Indian Space Research Organisation](/source/ISRO) (ISRO) signed a partnership to collaborate on and launch a joint radar mission, the *[NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperature Radar](/source/NISAR_(satellite))* (*NISAR*) mission. The mission was launched on July 30, 2025.[208] NASA has provided the mission's [L-band](/source/L_band) synthetic aperture radar, a high-rate communication subsystem for science data, GPS receivers, a solid-state recorder and payload data subsystem. ISRO has provided the spacecraft bus, the [S-band](/source/S_band) radar, the launch vehicle and associated launch services.[209][210]

### Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)

Further information: [JAXA](/source/JAXA)

NASA and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) cooperate on a range of space projects. JAXA is a direct participant in the Artemis program, including the Lunar Gateway effort. JAXA's planned contributions to Gateway include I-Hab's environmental control and life support system, batteries, thermal control, and imagery components, which will be integrated into the module by the European Space Agency (ESA) prior to launch. These capabilities are critical for sustained Gateway operations during crewed and uncrewed time periods.[211][212]

JAXA and NASA have collaborated on numerous satellite programs, especially in areas of Earth science. NASA has contributed to JAXA satellites and vice versa. Japanese instruments are flying on NASA's [Terra](/source/Terra_(satellite)) and [Aqua](/source/Aqua_(satellite)) satellites, and NASA sensors have flown on previous Japanese Earth-observation missions. The NASA-JAXA [Global Precipitation Measurement](/source/Global_Precipitation_Measurement) mission was launched in 2014 and includes both NASA- and JAXA-supplied sensors on a NASA satellite launched on a JAXA rocket. The mission provides the frequent, accurate measurements of rainfall over the entire globe for use by scientists and weather forecasters.[213]

### Roscosmos

Further information: [Roscosmos](/source/Roscosmos)

NASA and Roscosmos have cooperated on the development and operation of the International Space Station since September 1993.[214] The agencies have used launch systems from both countries to deliver station elements to orbit. Astronauts and Cosmonauts jointly maintain various elements of the station. Both countries provide access to the station via launch systems noting Russia's unique role as the sole provider of delivery of crew and cargo upon retirement of the space shuttle in 2011 and prior to commencement of NASA COTS and crew flights. In July 2022, NASA and Roscosmos signed a deal to share space station flights enabling crew from each country to ride on the systems provided by the other.[215] Current geopolitical conditions in late 2022 make it unlikely that cooperation will be extended to other programs such as Artemis or lunar exploration.[216]

### Artemis Accords

Further information: [Artemis Accords](/source/Artemis_Accords)

The [Artemis Accords](/source/Artemis_Accords) have been established to define a framework for cooperating in the peaceful exploration and exploitation of the [Moon](/source/Moon), [Mars](/source/Mars), [asteroids](/source/Asteroid), and [comets](/source/Comet). The accords were drafted by NASA and the US State Department and are executed as a series of bilateral agreements between the US and the participating countries.[217][218] As of June 2023, 22 countries have signed the accords. They are Australia, Bahrain, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, France, India, Israel, Italy, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Luxembourg, Mexico, New Zealand, Poland, Romania, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Ukraine, the United Arab Emirates, the UK, and the US.[219][220]

### China National Space Administration

Further information: [Wolf Amendment](/source/Wolf_Amendment)

The Wolf Amendment was passed by the US Congress into law in 2011 and prevents NASA from engaging in direct, bilateral cooperation with the Chinese government and China-affiliated organizations such as the [China National Space Administration](/source/China_National_Space_Administration) without the explicit authorization from Congress and the Federal Bureau of Investigation. The law has been renewed annually since by inclusion in annual appropriations bills.[221]

## Management

### Leadership

Administrator [Jared Isaacman](/source/Jared_Isaacman) (2025–present)

The agency's administration is located at [NASA Headquarters](/source/NASA_Headquarters) in Washington, DC, and provides overall guidance and direction.[222] Except under exceptional circumstances, NASA civil service employees are required to be [US citizens](/source/US_citizens).[223] NASA's administrator is nominated by the US president subject to Senate approval[224] and serves at the president's pleasure as a senior space science advisor.

[Jared Isaacman](/source/Jared_Isaacman) is the administrator of NASA since December 2025. His first nomination was withdrawn by President [Donald Trump](/source/Donald_Trump) on May 31, 2025.[225] He was renominated on November 4, 2025,[226] and confirmed by the Senate on December 17.[227]

### Strategic plan

NASA operates with four FY2022 strategic goals.[228]

- Expand human knowledge through new scientific discoveries

- Extend human presence to the Moon and on towards Mars for sustainable long-term exploration, development, and utilization

- Catalyze economic growth and drive innovation to address national challenges

- Enhance capabilities and operations to catalyze current and future mission success

### Budget

Further information: [Budget of NASA](/source/Budget_of_NASA)

NASA budget requests are developed by NASA and approved by the administration prior to submission to the [US Congress](/source/United_States_Congress). Authorized budgets are those that have been included in enacted appropriations bills that are approved by both houses of Congress and enacted into law by the US president.[229]

NASA fiscal year budget requests and authorized budgets are listed below.

Year Budget Request in bil. US$ Authorized Budget in bil. US$ US Government Employees 2018 $19.092[230] $20.736[231] 17,551[232] 2019 $19.892[231] $21.500[233] 17,551[234] 2020 $22.613[233] $22.629[235] 18,048[236] 2021 $25.246[235] $23.271[237] 18,339[238] 2022 $24.802[237] $24.041[239] 18,400 est

### Organization

Budget allocations to Mission Directorates

1. Human Spaceflight (45.0%)

1. Science (32.0%)

1. Mission Support (14.0%)

1. Research & Technology (9.00%)

NASA funding and priorities are developed through its four Mission Directorates.[240][241]

Mission Directorate Associate Administrator % of Budget[237] Human Spaceflight (HSMD) Lori Glaze 45% Mission Support (MSMD) John Bailey 14% Research and Technology (RTMD) James Kenyon 9% Science (SMD) Nicola Fox 32%

[Goddard](/source/Goddard_Space_Flight_Center)

[Kennedy](/source/Kennedy_Space_Center)

[JPL](/source/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory)

[Armstrong](/source/Armstrong_Flight_Research_Center)

[Glenn](/source/Glenn_Research_Center)

[Marshall](/source/Marshall_Space_Flight_Center)

[Ames](/source/Ames_Research_Center)

[Langley](/source/Langley_Research_Center)

[Johnson](/source/Lyndon_B._Johnson_Space_Center)

[Stennis](/source/John_C._Stennis_Space_Center)

NASA field centers

NASA operates ten field centers which manage and execute the agency's programs and activities. Under a management structure announced in May 2026, each field center receives a basic level of funding for its operations, and can "compete" for additional funding from the mission directorates.[241]

Field Center Primary Location Director Ames Research Center Moffett Field, California Eugene Tu[242] Armstrong Flight Research Center Edwards, California Troy A. Asher (acting) Glenn Research Center Cleveland, Ohio Dawn Schaible[240] Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt, Maryland Jamie Dunn[240] Jet Propulsion Laboratory La Cañada Flintridge, California Dave Gallagher Johnson Space Center Houston, Texas Vanessa Wyche[243] Kennedy Space Center Merritt Island, Florida Brian Hughes[240] Langley Research Center Hampton, Virginia Trina Dyal (acting) Marshall Space Flight Center Huntsville, Alabama Rae Ann Meyer (acting) Stennis Space Center Hancock County, Mississippi Christine Powell (acting)

## Sustainability

### Environmental impact

The exhaust gases produced by rocket propulsion systems, both in Earth's atmosphere and in space, can adversely affect the Earth's environment. Some [hypergolic](/source/Hypergolic) rocket propellants, such as [hydrazine](/source/Hydrazine), are highly toxic prior to [combustion](/source/Combustion), but decompose into less toxic compounds after burning. Rockets using hydrocarbon fuels, such as [kerosene](/source/Kerosene), release carbon dioxide and soot in their exhaust.[244] Carbon dioxide emissions are insignificant compared to those from other sources; on average, the US consumed 803 million US gal (3.0 million m3) of liquid fuels per day in 2014, while a single [Falcon 9](/source/Falcon_9) rocket first stage burns around 25,000 US gallons (95 m3) of kerosene fuel per launch.[245][246] Even if a Falcon 9 were launched every single day, it would only represent 0.006% of liquid fuel consumption (and carbon dioxide emissions) for that day. Additionally, the exhaust from [LOx](/source/LOx)- and [LH2](/source/LH2)-fueled engines, like the [SSME](/source/SSME), is almost entirely water vapor.[247] NASA addressed environmental concerns with its canceled [Constellation program](/source/Constellation_program) in accordance with the National Environmental Policy Act in 2011.[248] In contrast, [ion engines](/source/Ion_engines) use harmless noble gases like [xenon](/source/Xenon) for propulsion.[249][250]

An example of NASA's environmental efforts is the [NASA Sustainability Base](/source/NASA_Sustainability_Base). Additionally, the Exploration Sciences Building was awarded the LEED Gold rating in 2010.[251] On May 8, 2003, the [Environmental Protection Agency](/source/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency) recognized NASA as the first federal agency to directly use [landfill gas](/source/Landfill_gas) to produce energy at one of its facilities—the [Goddard Space Flight Center](/source/Goddard_Space_Flight_Center), Greenbelt, Maryland.[252]

In 2018, NASA along with other companies including Sensor Coating Systems, [Pratt & Whitney](/source/Pratt_%26_Whitney), Monitor Coating and [UTRC](/source/United_Technologies_Corp) launched the project CAUTION (CoAtings for Ultra High Temperature detectION). This project aims to enhance the temperature range of the [Thermal History Coating](/source/Thermal_history_coating) up to 1,500 °C (2,730 °F) and beyond. The final goal of this project is improving the safety of jet engines as well as increasing efficiency and reducing CO2 emissions.[253]

### Climate change

NASA also researches and publishes on [climate change](/source/Climate_change).[254] Its statements concur with the global scientific consensus that the climate is warming.[255] [Bob Walker](/source/Robert_Smith_Walker), who has advised former US President [Donald Trump](/source/Donald_Trump) on space issues, has advocated that NASA should focus on space exploration and that its climate study operations should be transferred to other agencies such as [NOAA](/source/NOAA). Former NASA atmospheric scientist [J. Marshall Shepherd](/source/J._Marshall_Shepherd) countered that Earth science study was built into NASA's mission at [its creation](/source/Creation_of_NASA) in the 1958 [National Aeronautics and Space Act](/source/National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Act).[256] NASA won the [2020 Webby People's Voice Award for Green](/source/2020_Webby_Award) in the category Web.[257]

### STEM Initiatives

Further information: [STEM](/source/STEM)

*[Educational Launch of Nanosatellites](/source/Educational_Launch_of_Nanosatellites) (ELaNa)*. Since 2011, the ELaNa program has provided opportunities for NASA to work with university teams to test emerging technologies and commercial-off-the-shelf solutions by providing launch opportunities for developed [CubeSats](/source/CubeSat) using NASA procured launch opportunities.[258] By example, two NASA-sponsored [CubeSats](/source/CubeSats) launched in June 2022 on a [Virgin Orbit](/source/Virgin_Orbit) [LauncherOne](/source/LauncherOne) vehicle as the ELaNa 39 mission.[259]

*Cubes in Space*. NASA started an annual competition in 2014 named "Cubes in Space".[260] It is jointly organized by NASA and the global education company *I Doodle Learning*, with the objective of teaching school students aged 11–18 to design and build scientific experiments to be launched into space on a NASA rocket or balloon. On June 21, 2017, the world's smallest satellite, KalamSAT, was launched.[261]

### Use of the metric system

US law requires the [International System of Units](/source/International_System_of_Units) to be used in all US Government programs, "except where impractical".[262]

In 1969, [Apollo 11](/source/Apollo_11) landed on the Moon using a mix of [US customary units](/source/US_customary_units) and [metric units](/source/Metric_system). In the 1980s, NASA started the transition towards the metric system, but was still using both systems in the 1990s.[263][264] On September 23, 1999, a mixup between NASA's use of SI units and [Lockheed Martin Space](/source/Lockheed_Martin_Space)'s use of US units resulted in the loss of the [Mars Climate Orbiter](/source/Mars_Climate_Orbiter).[265]

In August 2007, NASA stated that all future missions and explorations of the Moon would be done entirely using the SI system. This was done to improve cooperation with space agencies of other countries that already use the metric system.[266] As of 2007, NASA is predominantly working with SI units, but some projects still use US units, and some, including the International Space Station, use a mix of both.[267]

## Media presence

### NASA TV

Further information: [NASA TV](/source/NASA_TV)

Approaching 40 years of service, the [NASA TV](/source/NASA_TV) channel airs content ranging from live coverage of crewed missions to video coverage of significant milestones for operating robotic spacecraft (e.g. rover landings on Mars) and domestic and international launches.[268] The channel is delivered by NASA and is broadcast by satellite and over the Internet. The system initially started to capture archival footage of important space events for NASA managers and engineers and expanded as public interest grew. The [Apollo 8](/source/Apollo_8) Christmas Eve broadcast while in orbit around the Moon was received by more than a billion people.[269] NASA's video transmission of the [Apollo 11](/source/Apollo_11) Moon landing was awarded a [primetime Emmy](/source/Primetime_Emmy_Awards) in commemoration of the 40th anniversary of the landing.[270] The channel is a product of the US Government and is widely available across many television and Internet platforms.[271]

### NASAcast

NASAcast is the official audio and video [podcast](/source/Podcast) of the NASA website. Created in late 2005, the podcast service contains the latest audio and video features from the NASA web site, including [NASA TV](/source/NASA_TV)'s *This Week at NASA* and educational materials produced by NASA. Additional NASA podcasts, such as Science@NASA, are also featured and give subscribers an in-depth look at content by subject matter.[272]

### NASA EDGE

NASA EDGE broadcasting live from [White Sands Missile Range](/source/White_Sands_Missile_Range) in 2010

NASA EDGE is a [video podcast](/source/Video_podcast) which explores different missions, technologies and projects developed by NASA. The program was released by NASA on March 18, 2007, and, as of August 2020[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NASA&action=edit), there have been 200 vodcasts produced. It is a [public outreach](/source/Public_outreach) vodcast sponsored by NASA's Exploration Systems Mission Directorate and based out of the Exploration and Space Operations Directorate at [Langley Research Center](/source/Langley_Research_Center) in [Hampton](/source/Hampton%2C_Virginia), Virginia. The NASA EDGE team takes an insider's look at current projects and technologies from NASA facilities around the US, and it is depicted through personal interviews, on-scene broadcasts, [computer animations](/source/Computer_animation), and personal interviews with top scientists and engineers at NASA.[note 2]

The show explores the contributions NASA has made to society as well as the progress of current projects in materials and [space exploration](/source/Space_exploration). NASA EDGE vodcasts can be downloaded from the NASA website and from [iTunes](/source/ITunes).

In its first year of production, the show was downloaded over 450,000 times. As of February 2010,[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NASA&action=edit) the average download rate is more than 420,000 per month, with over one million downloads in December 2009 and January 2010.[274]

NASA and the NASA EDGE have also developed interactive programs designed to complement the vodcast. The Lunar Electric Rover App allows users to drive a simulated [Lunar Electric Rover](/source/Lunar_Electric_Rover) between objectives, and it provides information about and images of the vehicle.[275] The NASA EDGE Widget provides a [graphical user interface](/source/Graphical_user_interface) for accessing NASA EDGE vodcasts, image galleries, and the program's Twitter feed, as well as a live NASA news feed.[276]

### Astronomy Picture of the Day

This section is an excerpt from [Astronomy Picture of the Day](/source/Astronomy_Picture_of_the_Day).[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Astronomy_Picture_of_the_Day&action=edit)]

[Astronomy Picture of the Day](/source/Astronomy_Picture_of_the_Day) (APOD) is a [website](/source/Website) provided by NASA and [Michigan Technological University](/source/Michigan_Technological_University) (MTU). Each day it features a different image of the [universe](/source/Universe) accompanied by an explanation written by a professional [astronomer](/source/Astronomer).[277] The photograph does not necessarily correspond to a celestial event on the exact day that it is displayed, and images are sometimes repeated.[278] These often relate to current events in astronomy and [space exploration](/source/Space_exploration). The text has several hyperlinks to more pictures and websites for more information. The images are either [visible spectrum](/source/Visible_spectrum) photographs, images taken at non-visible [wavelengths](/source/Wavelengths) and displayed in [false color](/source/False_color), video footage, animations, artist's conceptions, or [micrographs](/source/Micrograph) that relate to space or cosmology.

Past images are stored in the APOD Archive, with the first image appearing on June 16, 1995.[279] This initiative has received support from NASA, the [National Science Foundation](/source/National_Science_Foundation), and MTU. The images are sometimes authored by people or organizations outside NASA, and therefore APOD images are often [copyrighted](/source/Copyright), unlike many other NASA image galleries.[280]

### NASA+

Main article: [NASA+](/source/NASA%2B)

In July 2023, NASA announced a new [streaming service](/source/Streaming_service) known as NASA+. It launched on November 8, 2023, and has live coverage of launches, documentaries and original programs. According to NASA, it will be free of ads and subscription fees. It will be a part of the NASA app on [iOS](/source/IOS), [Android](/source/Android_(operating_system)), [Amazon Fire TV](/source/Amazon_Fire_TV), [Roku](/source/Roku) and [Apple TV](/source/Apple_TV_(device)) as well as on the web on desktop and mobile devices.[281][282][283]

## Gallery

NASA spacecraft observations of the Solar System

		- [Sun](/source/Sun) image by [Solar Dynamics Observatory](/source/Solar_Dynamics_Observatory), 2010

		- [Planet Mercury](/source/Mercury_(planet)) image by *[MESSENGER](/source/MESSENGER)*, 2008

		- [Planet Venus](/source/Venus) image by *[Mariner 10](/source/Mariner_10)*, 1974

		- [Planet Earth](/source/Earth) image by [Apollo 17](/source/Apollo_17) crew, 1972

		- [Moon](/source/Moon) image by [Apollo 8](/source/Apollo_8) crew, 1968

		- [Planet Mars](/source/Mars) image by *[Viking 1](/source/Viking_1)*, 1976

		- [Asteroid 433 Eros](/source/Asteroid_433_Eros) image by *[NEAR Shoemaker](/source/NEAR_Shoemaker)*, 2000

		- [Dwarf planet Ceres](/source/Ceres_(dwarf_planet)) image by *[Dawn](/source/Dawn_(spacecraft))*, 2015

		- [Planet Jupiter](/source/Jupiter) image by *[Juno](/source/Juno_(spacecraft))*, 2019

		- [Moon Io (Jupiter)](/source/Io_(moon)) image by *[Galileo](/source/Galileo_(spacecraft))*, 1999

		- [Planet Saturn](/source/Saturn) image by *[Cassini](/source/Cassini%E2%80%93Huygens)*, 2016

		- [Moon Mimas (Saturn)](/source/Mimas_(moon)) image by *[Cassini](/source/Cassini%E2%80%93Huygens)*, 2010

		- [Planet Uranus](/source/Uranus) by *[Voyager 2](/source/Voyager_2)*, 1986

		- [Moon Miranda (Uranus)](/source/Miranda_(moon)) image by *[Voyager 2](/source/Voyager_2)*, 1986

		- [Planet Neptune](/source/Neptune) image by *[Voyager 2](/source/Voyager_2)*, 1989

		- [Dwarf planet Pluto](/source/Pluto) image by *[New Horizons](/source/New_Horizons)*, 2015

		- [Moon Charon (Pluto)](/source/Charon_(moon)) image by *[New Horizons](/source/New_Horizons)*, 2015

NASA Great Observatory images

		- [Helix Nebula](/source/Helix_Nebula) by [Spitzer Space Telescope](/source/Spitzer_Space_Telescope), 2007

		- 1901 GK Persei supernova by [Chandra X-ray Observatory](/source/Chandra_X-ray_Observatory), 2015

		- [Carina Nebula](/source/Carina_Nebula) by [Hubble Space Telescope](/source/Hubble_Space_Telescope), 2010

		- [Stephens quintet](/source/Stephan's_Quintet) by [James Webb Space Telescope](/source/James_Webb_Space_Telescope), Jul 2022

NASA spacecraft

		- Comparison of [Apollo](/source/Apollo_(spacecraft)), [Gemini](/source/Gemini_(spacecraft)), and [Mercury](/source/Project_Mercury) systems[note 3]

		- [Surveyor 3](/source/Surveyor_3), [Pete Conrad](/source/Pete_Conrad), and [Apollo 12](/source/Apollo_12) on the Moon, 1969

		- [Space Shuttle](/source/Space_Shuttle) *[Endeavor](/source/Space_Shuttle_Endeavour)* in orbit, 2008

		- [Hubble Space Telescope](/source/Hubble_Space_Telescope) released in orbit after servicing, 2009.

		- [James Webb Space Telescope](/source/James_Webb_Space_Telescope) now in orbit, 2025.

		- *[Opportunity](/source/Opportunity_(rover))* rover on surface of Mars (rendering), 2003

		- *[Curiosity](/source/Curiosity_(rover))* rover self-portrait on Mars, 2021

		- *[Perseverance](/source/Perseverance_(rover))* rover during Mars skycrane landing, February 2021

		- *[Voyager 2](/source/Voyager_2)*, now 21.1 billion kilometers from the Earth, June 2025

		- [*Orion* spacecraft](/source/Orion_(spacecraft)) and [European Service Module](/source/European_Service_Module) testing, 2020

NASA space launch systems

		- [Saturn V](/source/Saturn_V) and [Apollo 11](/source/Apollo_11) at launch, Jul 1969

		- [Titan III/Centaur](/source/Titan_IIIE) launching *[Voyager 2](/source/Voyager_2)* spacecraft, Jul 1977

		- [Delta II](/source/Delta_II) launching *[Spirit](/source/Spirit_(rover))* rover, Jun 2003

		- [Space Shuttle](/source/Space_Shuttle) ([STS-124](/source/STS-124)) during launch, May 2008

		- [Space Launch System](/source/Space_Launch_System) and [Artemis I](/source/Artemis_I) at launch, Nov 2022

Concepts and plans

		- Concept of space tug cargo transport to a Nuclear Shuttle, 1960s

		- Space Tug concept, 1970s

		- NASA Interstellar probe concept, 2022

		- Langley's Mars Ice Dome design for a Mars habitat, 2010s

		- [Lunar Gateway](/source/Lunar_Gateway) space station, 2020

		- [NASA lunar outpost concept](/source/NASA_lunar_outpost_concepts), 2006

		- NASA concept for crewed floating outpost on Venus, 2014

		- NASA concept for 2069 Alpha Centauri solar sail mission

## See also

- [United States portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:United_States)
- [Politics portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Politics)
- [Spaceflight portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Spaceflight)
- [Rocketry portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Rocketry)

- [List of crewed spacecraft](/source/List_of_crewed_spacecraft)

- [List of NASA aircraft](/source/List_of_NASA_aircraft)

- [List of space disasters](/source/List_of_space_disasters)

- [List of United States rockets](/source/List_of_United_States_rockets)

- [Category: NASA people](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:NASA_people)

- [NASA Advanced Space Transportation Program](/source/NASA_Advanced_Space_Transportation_Program)

- [NASA Art Program](/source/NASA_Art_Program)

- [NASA Clean Air Study](/source/NASA_Clean_Air_Study) – 1989 study of plants removing air pollutants

- [NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts](/source/NASA_Institute_for_Advanced_Concepts) – NASA program

- [NASA Research Park](/source/NASA_Research_Park) – Research and development campus at Moffett Federal Airfield, California

- [TechPort (NASA)](/source/TechPort_(NASA)) – Technology Portfolio System

## Explanatory notes

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Orbital_61-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Orbital_61-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Orbital_61-2) [Orbital Sciences](/source/Orbital_Sciences) was awarded a CRS contract in 2008. In 2015, Orbital Sciences became [Orbital ATK](/source/Orbital_ATK) through a business merger. Orbital ATK was awarded a CRS-2 contract in 2016. In 2018, Orbital ATK was acquired by [Northrop Grumman](/source/Northrop_Grumman).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-275)** *NASA EDGE* Cast and Crew: Chris Giersch (Host); Blair Allen (Co-host and senior producer); Franklin Fitzgerald ([News anchor](/source/News_anchor) and "everyman"); Jaqueline Mirielle Cortez (Special co-host); Ron Beard (Director and "set [therapist](/source/Therapist)"); and Don Morrison (Audio/[video engineer](/source/Video_engineer))[273]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-286)** From left to right: Launch vehicle of Apollo (Saturn 5), Gemini (Titan 2) and Mercury (Atlas). Left, top-down: Spacecraft of Apollo, Gemini and Mercury. The [Saturn IB](/source/Saturn_IB) and [Mercury-Redstone](/source/Mercury-Redstone_Launch_Vehicle) launch vehicles are left out.

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-cfc-naca_1-0)** ["The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA)"](https://www.centennialofflight.net/essay/Evolution_of_Technology/NACA/Tech1.htm). *US Centennial of Flight Commission*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20140220005256/https://www.centennialofflight.net/essay/Evolution_of_Technology/NACA/Tech1.htm) from the original on February 20, 2014. Retrieved November 3, 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-arstechnica-20251218_2-0)** [Berger, Eric](/source/Eric_Berger_(journalist)) (December 18, 2025). ["NASA finally—and we really do mean it this time—has a full-time leader"](https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/12/nasa-finally-and-we-really-do-mean-it-this-time-has-a-full-time-leader/). *[Ars Technica](/source/Ars_Technica)*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20251218102816/https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/12/nasa-finally-and-we-really-do-mean-it-this-time-has-a-full-time-leader/) from the original on December 18, 2025. Retrieved December 18, 2025.

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## Further reading

- Alexander, Joseph K. *Science Advice to NASA: Conflict, Consensus, Partnership, Leadership* (2019) [excerpt](https://www.amazon.com/Science-Advice-NASA-Partnership-Leadership-ebook/dp/B07RF7Q5HF/)

- Bizony, Piers et al. *The NASA Archives. 60 Years in Space* (2019)

- Brady, Kevin M. "NASA Launches Houston into Orbit How America's Space Program Contributed to Southeast Texas's Economic Growth, Scientific Development, and Modernization during the Late Twentieth Century." *Journal of the West* (2018), 57#4, pp. 13–54

- Bromberg, Joan Lisa. *NASA and the Space Industry* (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999)

- Clemons, Jack. *Safely to Earth: The Men and Women Who Brought the Astronauts Home* (2018) [excerpt](https://www.amazon.com/Safely-Earth-Women-Brought-Astronauts/dp/0813056020/)

- Dick, Steven J., and Launius, Roger D., eds. *Critical Issues in the History of Spaceflight* (NASA, 2006)

- Launius, Roger D. "Eisenhower, Sputnik, and the Creation of NASA." *Prologue-Quarterly of the National Archives* 28.2 (1996): 127–143

- Pyle, Rod. *Space 2.0: How Private Spaceflight, a Resurgent NASA, and International Partners are Creating a New Space Age* (2019), overview of space exploration [excerpt](https://www.amazon.com/dp/1944648453/)

- Spencer, Brett. "The Book and the Rocket: The Symbiotic Relationship between American Public Libraries and the Space Program, 1950–2015", *Information & Culture* 51, no. 4 (2016): 550–582

- Weinzierl, Matthew. "Space, the final economic frontier." *Journal of Economic Perspectives* 32.2 (2018): 173–192. [online](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?output=instlink&q=info:YffWC2o6lYsJ:scholar.google.com/&hl=en&as_sdt=1,27&as_ylo=2017&scillfp=8711858111903232899&oi=lle). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20211231054235/https://scholar.google.com/scholar?output=instlink&q=info%3AYffWC2o6lYsJ%3Ascholar.google.com%2F&hl=en&as_sdt=1%2C27&as_ylo=2017&scillfp=8711858111903232899&oi=lle) December 31, 2021, at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), review of economics literature

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v t e NASA Policy and history History (creation) NACA (1915) National Aeronautics and Space Act (1958) Space Task Group (1958) Paine (1986) Rogers (1986) Ride (1987) Space Exploration Initiative (1989) Augustine (1990) U.S. National Space Policy (1996) CFUSAI (2002) CAIB (2003) Vision for Space Exploration (2004) Aldridge (2004) Augustine (2009) General Space Race Administrator and Deputy Administrator Chief Scientist Astronaut Corps Ranks and positions Chief Budget NASA research spinoff technologies NASA+ NASA TV NASA Social Launch Services Program Mercury Control Center Manned Space Flight Network Kennedy Space Center Vehicle Assembly Building Launch Complex 39 39A 39B Launch Complex 48 Launch Control Center Operations and Checkout Building Johnson Space Center Mission Control Lunar Sample Laboratory Science Mission Directorate Human spaceflight programs Past X-15 (suborbital) Mercury Gemini Apollo Skylab Apollo–Soyuz (with the Soviet space program) Space Shuttle Shuttle–Mir (with Roscosmos) Constellation Current International Space Station Commercial Orbital Transportation Services Commercial Crew Orion Artemis Robotic programs Past Hitchhiker Mariner Mariner Mark II MESUR Mars Surveyor '98 New Millennium Lunar Orbiter Pioneer Planetary Observer Ranger Surveyor Viking Project Prometheus Mars Exploration Mars Exploration Rover Current Living With a Star Lunar Precursor Robotic Program Earth Observing System Great Observatories program Explorers Voyager Discovery New Frontiers Solar Terrestrial Probes Commercial Lunar Payload Services SIMPLEx Individual featured missions (human and robotic) Past Apollo 11 Artemis II COBE Mercury 3 Mercury-Atlas 6 Magellan Pioneer 10 Pioneer 11 Galileo timeline GALEX GRAIL WMAP Space Shuttle Spitzer Space Telescope Sojourner rover Spirit rover LADEE MESSENGER Aquarius Cassini Dawn Kepler space telescope Opportunity rover timeline observed RHESSI MAVEN InSight Ingenuity helicopter flights Currently operating Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter 2001 Mars Odyssey New Horizons International Space Station Hubble Space Telescope Chandra X-ray Observatory Swift Observatory THEMIS Curiosity rover timeline Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter SDO Juno Mars Science Laboratory timeline NuSTAR Voyager 1 Voyager 2 MMS OSIRIS-APEX TESS Mars 2020 Perseverance rover timeline James Webb Space Telescope timeline PACE Europa Clipper NISAR Future Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope DAVINCI VERITAS Communications and navigation Near Earth Network Space Network Deep Space Network (Goldstone Madrid Canberra Space Flight Operations Facility) Deep Space Atomic Clock NASA lists Astronauts by name by year Gemini astronauts Apollo astronauts Space Shuttle crews NASA aircraft NASA missions uncrewed missions Apollo missions Space Shuttle missions United States rockets NASA cancellations NASA cameras on spacecraft NASA images and artwork Earthrise The Blue Marble Family Portrait Pale Blue Dot Pillars of Creation Mystic Mountain Solar System Family Portrait The Day the Earth Smiled Hello, World Earthset Fallen Astronaut Deep fields Lunar plaques Pioneer plaques Voyager Golden Record Apollo 11 goodwill messages NASA insignia Gemini and Apollo medallions Mission patches Astronomy Picture of the Day Hubble Space Telescope anniversary images Related "We choose to go to the Moon" "One small step" Apollo 8 Genesis reading Apollo 15 postal covers incident Apollo Lunar Module Space Mirror Memorial The Astronaut Monument Lunar sample displays Moon rocks stolen or missing U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame Space program on U.S. stamps Apollo 17 Moon mice Moon tree Other primates in space NASA Exoplanet Archive NASA International Space Apps Challenge Astronauts Day National Astronaut Day Nikon NASA F4 Category

v t e NASA facilities NASA Headquarters Primary 10 centers Space flight Goddard Space Flight Center Jet Propulsion Laboratory Johnson Space Center Mission Control Lunar Receiving Laboratory Lunar Sample Laboratory Astromaterials Research and Exploration Science Directorate NASA 20-Foot Chamber Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory Space Environment Simulation Laboratory Kennedy Space Center Vehicle Assembly Building Launch Complex 39 39A 39B Launch Control Center Central Instrumentation Facility Shuttle Landing Facility Operations and Checkout Building NASA Railroad Crawler-transporter Marshall Space Flight Center Neutral Buoyancy Simulator Propulsion and Structural Test Facility Saturn V Dynamic Test Stand Stennis Space Center Research Ames Research Center Armstrong Flight Research Center Glenn Research Center Rocket Engine Test Facility Space Power Facility Spacecraft Propulsion Research Facility Zero Gravity Research Facility Langley Research Center Lunar Landing Research Facility Lunar Orbit and Landing Approach Rendezvous Docking Simulator Reduced Gravity Walking Simulator Space Task Group Other facilities Carnarvon Tracking Station Deep Space Network Goldstone Madrid Canberra Space Flight Operations Goddard Institute for Space Studies Katherine Johnson Independent Verification and Validation Facility Manned Space Flight Network Michoud Assembly Facility Santa Susana Field Laboratory Scientific Balloon Flight Facility Wallops Flight Facility White Sands Test Facility Related Cape Canaveral Space Force Station Mercury Control Center Morehead Planetarium and Science Center

Major NASA space missions and programs v t e Project Mercury General NASA Space Task Group Space race Space flight Mercury program capsule Missions Crewed Suborbit: Freedom 7 Liberty Bell 7 Earth orbit: Friendship 7 Aurora 7 Sigma 7 Faith 7 Cancelled: Freedom 7 II Uncrewed Little Joe 1 Big Joe 1 LJ-6 LJ-1A LJ-2 LJ-1B Beach Abort MA-1 Little Joe 5 MR-1 MR-1A MR-2 MA-2 LJ-5A MR-BD MA-3 LJ-5B MA-4 MS-1 MA-5 Flown non-human Sam Miss Sam Suborbit: Ham Earth orbit: Enos Astronauts General Mercury Seven In order of flight Suborbit: Alan Shepard Gus Grissom Earth orbit: John Glenn Scott Carpenter Wally Schirra Gordon Cooper Did not fly: Deke Slayton Equipment Navy Mark IV (space suit) Subprograms Mercury-Atlas Mercury-Redstone Mercury-Scout Mercury-Jupiter (canceled) Contractors McDonnell Aircraft Corporation (spacecraft) Convair (Atlas rocket) Chrysler (Redstone rocket) North American Aviation (Little Joe rocket) Rockets Atlas Redstone Redstone Test Stand Blue Scout II Little Joe Jupiter (proposed) Launch sites and Control Center Wallops Island / Wallops Flight Facility Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 5 Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 14 Mercury Control Center Related programs US Gemini (successor program) Apollo (lunar program) Soviet Vostok (rival in space race) Related Manned Space Flight Network Mercury spacesuit Astronaut Wives Club Mercury 13 (non-NASA project inspired by Project Mercury) v t e Project Gemini Missions Uncrewed Gemini 1 2 Crewed Gemini 3 4 5 7 6A 8 9A 10 11 12 Astronauts Gemini 3: Gus Grissom (command pilot), John Young (pilot) Gemini 4: James McDivitt (command pilot), Ed White (pilot) Gemini 5: Gordon Cooper (command pilot), Pete Conrad (pilot) Gemini 7: Frank Borman (command pilot), Jim Lovell (pilot) Gemini 6A: Wally Schirra (command pilot), Tom Stafford (pilot) Gemini 8: Neil Armstrong (command pilot), David Scott (pilot) Gemini 9A: Tom Stafford (command pilot), Gene Cernan (pilot) Gemini 10: John Young (command pilot), Michael Collins (pilot) Gemini 11: Pete Conrad (command pilot), Richard Gordon (pilot) Gemini 12: Jim Lovell (command pilot), Buzz Aldrin (pilot) Components Gemini spacecraft SC-2 Orbit Attitude and Maneuvering System Titan rocket Gemini Guidance Computer Agena target vehicle Gemini spacesuit Launch sites Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 19 / Launch Complex 14 Developments Advanced Gemini Blue Gemini / Military Orbital Development System Manned Orbiting Laboratory OPS 0855 Big Gemini Related Charles Bassett Elliot See Mission Control Center Manned Space Flight Network Rendezvous Docking Simulator 1966 NASA T-38 crash v t e Apollo program List of missions canceled missions List of Apollo astronauts Launch complexes Launch Complex 34 Launch Complex 37 Launch Complex 39 A B Ground facilities Mission Control Center Cape Kennedy Air Force Station Crawler-transporter Kennedy Space Center Manned Space Flight Network Launch vehicles Little Joe II Saturn Saturn I Saturn IB Saturn V Spacecraft and rover Apollo spacecraft Command and Service Module Lunar Module Lunar Roving Vehicle Flights Uncrewed AS-101 AS-102 AS-201 AS-202 Apollo 4 Apollo 5 Apollo 6† Crewed Apollo 1† Apollo 7 Apollo 8 Apollo 9 Apollo 10 Apollo 11 Apollo 12 Apollo 13† Apollo 14 Apollo 15 Apollo 16 Apollo 17 Saturn development Saturn-Apollo 1 SA-2 SA-3 SA-4 SA-5 AS-203 Apollo 4 Apollo 6† Abort tests QTV Pad Abort Test-1 A-001 A-002 A-003 Pad Abort Test-2 A-004 Pegasus flights AS-103 AS-104 AS-105 Apollo 8 specific Earthrise Genesis reading Apollo 11 specific Command Module Columbia Lunar Module Eagle Tranquility Base "One small step" Double crater Little West crater Goodwill messages Lunar sample displays Missing tapes Anniversaries 50th Anniversary commemorative coins In popular culture Apollo 12 specific Statio Cognitum Surveyor 3 Surveyor crater Bench Crater meteorite J002E3 Moon Museum Reports of Streptococcus mitis on the Moon Apollo 13 specific "Houston, we've had a problem" Apollo 14 specific Modular Equipment Transporter Fra Mauro formation Big Bertha Moon tree Apollo 15 specific Journey Lunar operations Solo operations Return to Earth Hadley–Apennine Fallen Astronaut Genesis Rock Great Scott Hadley Rille meteorite Seatbelt basalt Postal covers incident Apollo 16 specific Big Muley Apollo 17 specific The Blue Marble Taurus–Littrow Tracy's Rock Nansen-Apollo crater Shorty crater Lunar sample display Lunar basalt 70017 Troctolite 76535 Apollo Lunar Sounder Experiment Fee, Fi, Fo, Fum, and Phooey Post-Apollo capsule use Skylab 2 3 4 Apollo–Soyuz Training Lunar Landing Research Facility Lunar Landing Research Vehicle Lunar Landing Training Vehicle Reduced Gravity Walking Simulator Lunar Orbit and Landing Approach Rendezvous Docking Simulator Astrogeology Research Program Related "We choose to go to the Moon" Lunar orbit rendezvous Stolen and missing Moon rocks Third-party evidence for Apollo Moon landings Apollo insurance covers Symbol † indicates failure or partial failure v t e Skylab Flights Skylab 1 (uncrewed) Skylab 2 Skylab 3 Skylab 4 Astronauts Skylab 2 Pete Conrad (Commander) Joseph Kerwin (Science Pilot) Paul Weitz (Pilot) Skylab 3 Alan Bean (Commander) Owen Garriott (Science Pilot) Jack Lousma (Pilot) Skylab 4 Gerald Carr (Commander) Edward Gibson (Science Pilot) William Pogue (Pilot) Contingencies Skylab B Teleoperator Retrieval System Skylab Rescue (not flown) Skylab 5 Skylab Rescue Vance D. Brand (Commander) Don L. Lind (Pilot) People William C. Schneider (Program director) Jack Kinzler (Parasol fix designer) Raymond Loewy (Habitability consultant) Related Apollo Applications Program Apollo command and service module Apollo/Skylab spacesuit Beta cloth Thermal Micrometeoroid Garment Apollo Telescope Mount Crawler-transporter Manned Space Flight Network Mission Control Center Skylab 4 human factors Skylab Medical Experiment Altitude Test (SMEAT) Wet workshop Searching for Skylab (2019 documentary) v t e Space Shuttle program Space Shuttle List of missions List of crews Components Orbiter Solid Rocket Booster External tank Main engine Orbital Maneuvering System Reaction control system Thermal protection system Booster separation motor Orbiters Enterprise Columbia Challenger Discovery Atlantis Endeavour Add-ons Spacelab (ESA) Canadarm (CSA) Extended Duration Orbiter Remote Controlled Orbiter Spacehab Multi-Purpose Logistics Module Sites Launch Complex 39 A B Space Launch Complex 6 Landing sites Shuttle Landing Facility Abort landing sites Operations and training Missions (canceled) Crews Mission timeline Mission Control Center Rollbacks Abort modes Rendezvous pitch maneuver Shuttle Mission Simulator Shuttle Training Aircraft Testing Inspiration (design) Pathfinder (simulator) MPTA (engine test article) Approach and Landing Tests Disasters Challenger disaster (report) Columbia disaster (report) Support Crawler-transporter Mate-Demate Device Mobile Launcher Platform NASA recovery ship Orbiter Processing Facility Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory (SAIL) Shuttle Carrier Aircraft flights Shuttle Training Aircraft STS-3xx Special Deutschland-1 Getaway Special Journalist in Space Project Teacher in Space Project Shuttle-Mir Hitchhiker Space suits Extravehicular Mobility Unit Shuttle Ejection Escape Suit Launch Entry Suit Advanced Crew Escape Suit Experiments Freestar experiments Inflatable Antenna Experiment Spartan Packet Radio Experiment Shuttle pallet satellite Wake Shield Facility Derivatives Saturn-Shuttle Magnum Shuttle-Derived Heavy Lift Launch Vehicle Jupiter Shuttle-C Shuttle-Centaur Ares I IV V Liberty Space Launch System OmegA Replicas Independence Related Space Shuttle design process studied designs Inertial Upper Stage Payload Assist Module International Space Station Criticism Retirement Conroy Virtus Hail Columbia (1982 documentary) The Dream Is Alive (1985 documentary) Challenger (1990 film) Destiny in Space (1994 documentary) Columbia: The Tragic Loss (2004 documentary) Hubble (2010 documentary) The Challenger Disaster (2013 film) Challenger: The Final Flight (2020 documentary miniseries) Space Shuttle America Rendezvous: A Space Shuttle Simulation Space Shuttle Project Shuttle Space Shuttle: A Journey into Space Space Shuttle Mission 2007 Orbiter Space Flight Simulator When We Left Earth: The NASA Missions v t e Artemis program List of missions List of astronauts Artemis missions Uncrewed Artemis I (Nov 2022) Crewed Artemis II (April 2026) Planned crewed Artemis III (2027) Artemis IV (2028) Artemis V (2028) CLPS missions Past Peregrine† (Jan 2024) IM-1† (Feb 2024) Blue Ghost M1 (Jan 2025) IM-2† (Feb 2025) Planned Griffin M1 (Jul 2026) IM-3 (late 2026) Blue Ghost M2 (late 2026) Blue Moon Pathfinder M1 (late 2026) Blue Moon Pathfinder M2 (late 2027) Support programs Commercial Lunar Payload Services Exploration Ground Systems Agencies NASA Australian Space Agency Canadian Space Agency European Space Agency German Aerospace Center Italian Space Agency Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency Korea Aerospace Research Institute National Space Activities Commission of Argentina Saudi Space Agency Facilities Cape Canaveral SLC-37B SLC-40 SLC-41 Kennedy LC-39A LC-39B Mission Control SpaceX Starbase Vandenberg SLC-3E SLC-4E Rockets Electron Falcon 9 New Glenn Space Launch System Starship Vulcan Centaur Photographs Hello, World Earthset Crewed spacecraft Human Landing System Starship HLS Blue Moon Lunar Cruiser Lunar Terrain Vehicle CLV-1 Pegasus Orion European Service Module Robotic spacecraft Argonaut Blue Ghost CAPSTONE Nova-C Cancelled projects Asteroid Redirect Mission Lunar Gateway Gateway Logistics Services Related Handheld Universal Lunar Camera † - mission failed Category Commons v t e Hubble Space Telescope Current instruments Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS) Cosmic Origins Spectrograph (COS) Fine Guidance Sensor (FGS) Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS) Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3) Previous instruments Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial Replacement (COSTAR) Faint Object Camera (FOC) Faint Object Spectrograph (FOS) Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph (GHRS/HRS) High Speed Photometer (HSP) Wide Field and Planetary Camera (WFPC) Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) Space Shuttle missions Canceled: STS-61-J (1986, Atlantis) Launch: STS-31 (1990, Discovery) Servicing: STS-61 (1993, Endeavour) STS-82 (1997, Discovery) STS-103 (1999, Discovery) STS-109 (2002, Columbia) STS-125 (2009, Atlantis) Special fields and images Pillars of Creation (1995) Hubble Deep Field (1995) Hubble Deep Field South (1998) Hubble Ultra-Deep Field (2003–04) Extended Groth Strip (2004–05) SWEEPS (2006) Mystic Mountain (2010) Hubble eXtreme Deep Field (2012) Zooming In on the Andromeda Galaxy (2015) Hubble Legacy Field (2019) Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey Anniversary images List of deep fields Related Great Observatories program Space Telescope Science Institute Goddard Space Flight Center NASA Edwin Hubble Hubble (2010 documentary) Hubble Origins Probe Category Commons v t e James Webb Space Telescope Timeline of JWST Instruments and sensors Fine Guidance Sensor and Near Infrared Imager and Slitless Spectrograph Mid-Infrared Instrument Near-Infrared Camera Near-Infrared Spectrograph Elements Integrated Science Instrument Module Optical Telescope Element (mirrors) Spacecraft bus Sunshield Stages Launch and commissioning (2021–2022) Ariane flight VA256 Images Webb's First Deep Field (2022) Discoveries CEERS-93316 (2022) F200DB-045 (2022) GLASS-z12 (2022) Maisie's Galaxy (2022) JADES-GS-z13-0 (2022) LHS 475 b (2023) AzTECC71 (2023) UNCOVER-BD-1 (2023) UNCOVER-z12 (2023) UNCOVER-z13 (2023) JADES-GS-z14-0 (2024) A2744z7p9OD (2025) Capotauro (2025) Little red dots The Cliff CAPERS-LRD-z9 Jupiter-mass binary objects (JuMBOs) Institutions NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Space Telescope Science Institute European Space Agency Canadian Space Agency Related SpaceWire OTE Pathfinder James E. Webb (namesake) List of deep fields "Floating in Heaven" (2022 song) Deep Sky (2023 documentary) Unknown: Cosmic Time Machine (2023 documentary) Category v t e NASA Planetary Missions Program Office Discovery program Missions Main NEAR Shoemaker Mars Pathfinder Lunar Prospector Stardust Genesis CONTOUR† MESSENGER Deep Impact Dawn Kepler GRAIL InSight Lucy Psyche DAVINCI VERITAS Opportunity ASPERA-3 EPOXI NExT Moon Mineralogy Mapper Strofio MEGANE Proposals Finalists Mission 12 Comet Hopper Titan Mare Explorer Mission 13 and 14 NEOCam Mission 15 and 16 Io Volcano Observer Trident Candidates Enceladus Life Finder Icebreaker Life ISOCHRON JET LIFE MANTIS Mars Geyser Hopper Moon Diver PADME Phobos Surveyor Whipple New Frontiers program Missions New Horizons Juno OSIRIS-REx Dragonfly Proposals Finalists Mission 2 MoonRise Mission 3 MoonRise SAGE Mission 4 CAESAR Candidates CONDOR CORSAIR ELF ELSAH Oceanus SPRITE VICI VISAGE VOX Solar System Exploration program Missions DART JUICE instruments Europa Clipper Underline indicates active current missions Italics indicate missions yet to launch Symbol † indicates failure en route or before intended mission data returned

v t e Federal research and development agencies of the United States (list) Independent agencies National Science Foundation (NSF) National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity (IARPA) Smithsonian Institution research centers and programs Agriculture Agricultural Research Service (ARS) National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA) Economic Research Service (ERS) United States Forest Service Research and Development (R&D) Commerce National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Defense Army Combat Capabilities Development Command (DEVCOM) Analysis Center Armaments Center Benét Laboratories Aviation and Missile Center Army Research Laboratory Army Research Office C5ISR Center Chemical Biological Center Ground Vehicle Systems Center Soldier Center Simulation and Training Technology Center Engineer Research and Development Center (ERDC) Coastal and Hydraulics Laboratory Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory Construction Engineering Research Laboratory Environmental Laboratory Geospatial Research Laboratory Geotechnical and Structures Laboratory Information Technology Laboratory Medical Research and Development Command (USAMRDC) Aeromedical Research Laboratory Medical Materiel Development Activity Medical Research Acquisition Activity Institute of Surgical Research Research Institute of Chemical Defense Research Institute of Infectious Diseases Research Institute of Environmental Medicine Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center Walter Reed Army Institute of Research Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences Directorate – Kenya Directorate – Georgia Directorate – West Army Test and Evaluation Command (ATEC) Aberdeen Test Center Army Evaluation Center Operational Test Command Redstone Test Center West Desert Test Center White Sands Test Center Yuma Test Center Arctic Regions Tropic Regions Marine Corps Marine Corps Combat Development Command (MCCDC) Marine Corps Warfighting Laboratory (MCWL) Marine Corps Operational Test and Evaluation Activity (MCOTEA) Navy Office of Naval Research (ONR) Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) Naval Medical Research Center (NMRC) Naval Warfare Centers Air (NAWC) Surface (NSWC) Undersea (NUWC) Command, Control and Ocean Surveillance (NCCOSC) Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake (NAWS) Naval Postgraduate School (NPS) Operational Test and Evaluation Force (OPTEVFOR) Air Force Air Force Materiel Command (AFMC) Air Armament Center (AAC) Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) Air Force Life Cycle Management Center (AFLCMC) Air Force Nuclear Weapons Center (NWC) Air Force Institute of Technology (AFIT) Air Force Operational Test and Evaluation Center (AFOTEC) Space Force Space Systems Command (SSC) Other Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences (USU) Education Institute of Education Sciences (IES) National Institute on Disability, Independent Living, and Rehabilitation Research (NIDILRR) Energy Office of Science (DOE SC) Advanced Research Projects Agency–Energy (ARPA-E) National Laboratories Health and Human Services National Institutes of Health (NIH) National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Food and Drug Administration science and research programs Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA) Center for Medicare and Medicaid Innovation (CMMI) Advanced Research Projects Agency for Health (ARPA-H) Homeland Security Science and Technology Directorate (S&T) Coast Guard Research and Development Center (CG RDC) Interior United States Geological Survey (USGS) Justice National Institute of Justice (NIJ) FBI Science and Technology Branch Transportation Research and Innovative Technology Administration Federal Aviation Administration Research, Engineering, and Development Federal Highway Administration Research and Technology Treasury Office of Financial Research (OFR) Veterans Affairs Veterans Health Administration Office of Research and Development (ORD) Executive Office of the President Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP) Networking and Information Technology Research and Development Program (NITRD) National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) Legislative branch House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation Office of Technology Assessment (OTA) (defunct) Judicial branch Federal Judicial Center

v t e Public-sector space agencies Africa Pan-African and pan-Arab RASCOM Arabsat National ASAL EgSA NARSS ESSTI GSSTC KSA CRTS NASRDA SANSA Americas North America CSA NASA NESDIS OSC FAA/AST FCC USSF USSPACECOM NRO Latin America and the Caribbean ALCE AEM CONAE ABE AEB DCTA INPE ITA CCE ABAE IVIC Asia Pan-Asian APSCO Central Asia KazCosmos1 Roscosmos1 SRI VK TNSA1 East Asia CNSA SASTIND CASC CALT CAST CCF CGWIC PLAASF CASIC JAXA ISAS JSS NICT NATA KASA KARI KASI SaTReC TASA South Asia BSPARRSO ISRO2 Antrix Corp DoS NRSC NSIL DSA SUPARCO Southeast Asia BRIN ORPA INASA MYSA PhilSA NSAS GISTDA VNSC MSA West Asia ArmCosmos1 MAKA1 NSSA NEHSA ISA ISRC ISA NCSR SSA KACST-SRI SSA2 GORS TUA TÜBİTAK UZAY UAESA (MBRSC) Europe Pan-European CEN/CENELEC CEPT ETSI Eurocontrol ECAC ESA ECSS ESTEC EAC ESRIN ECSAT ESAC ESOC ESTRACK Guiana Space Centre EUMETSAT EUTELSAT IGO ESO EU and EEA DG DEFIS EUSPA EU SatCen EASA BEREC ALR2 BELSPO BIRA-IASB SRTI2 CSO2 DTU Space ESO1 CNES2 AAE CdE DLR2 HSA HSO2 ASI LSA LSO1 SRON NLSA NOSA POLSA2 CBK PAN UKE KRRiT ORO ULC PTSPACE ROSA2 INTA AEC EAE AEE SNSA Other ArmCosmos1 MAKA1 BSA1 KazCosmos1 Roscosmos1 SRI VVKO SSO TUA TÜBİTAK UZAY SSAU1 UKSA2 Oceania ASA CSIRO NZSA World CCSDS CEOS COSPAR IPDA Cospas-Sarsat GEO GSC IADC ICSMD IMSO ISECG ISS MCB ITSO Intersputnik ODCWG ITU-R UNCOPUOS UNOOSA UNOSAT Former BNSC KCST INCOSPAR LAPAN NAL NASDA SSP MOM Interkosmos See also: Timeline of first orbital launches by country 1 Preceded by the Soviet space program 2 Preceded by Interkosmos participation

v t e Dwight D. Eisenhower 34th President of the United States (1953–1961) Supreme Allied Commander Europe (1951–1952) Chief of Staff of the Army (1945–1948) Commander, Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (1943–1945) Military career Military career 1919 Motor Transport Corps convoy Louisiana Maneuvers Operation Torch European Theater of Operations Allied invasion of Sicily Armistice of Cassibile June 6, 1944, order of the day People of Western Europe speech Normandy landings Operation Veritable Berlin Declaration Military Governor, U.S. Occupation Zone in Germany Disarmed Enemy Forces European Advisory Commission Supreme Commander of NATO, 1951-1952 Presidency (timeline) Transition 1953 inauguration 1957 inauguration State of the Union Address 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 Cabinet Judicial appointments Supreme Court Farewell address "Military–industrial complex" Kennedy transition Executive Orders Presidential Proclamations Foreign policy Eisenhower Doctrine Korean War 1953; Korean Armistice Agreement 1953 Iranian coup d'état "Chance for Peace" speech (1953) Cold War Domino theory Khrushchev, Eisenhower and De-Stalinization New Look policy Massive retaliation 1955 Geneva Summit 1960 U-2 incident Atomic Energy Act of 1954 Atoms for Peace Restricted Data Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954 Food for Peace Suez Crisis (1956) DARPA (1958) EURATOM Cooperation Act of 1958 National Aeronautics and Space Act 1958; NASA Operation 40 (1960) Domestic policy Executive Order 10479 (1953) Outer Continental Shelf Act (1953) Refugee Relief Act (1953) Submerged Lands Act (1953) U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (1953) Agricultural Act of 1954 National Wool Act of 1954 Special Milk Program Excise Tax Reduction Act of 1954 Internal Revenue Code of 1954 Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act of 1954 Small Watershed Program Air Pollution Control Act of 1955 Agricultural Act of 1956 Soil Bank Act Soil Bank Program Federal Voting Assistance Program (1955) Bank Holding Company Act (1956) Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956 Interstate Highway System Highway Trust Fund Fish and Wildlife Act (1956) People to People Student Ambassador Program (1956) President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports (1956) Civil Rights Act of 1957 U.S. Commission on Civil Rights U.S. Department of Justice Civil Rights Division Federal Plant Pest Act of 1957 Little Rock Nine intervention (1957) Price–Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act (1957) Alaska Statehood Act (1958) Humane Slaughter Act (1958) National Defense Education Act 1958; Federal Perkins Loan Student loans in the United States Hawaii Admission Act (1959) Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act of 1960 Civil Rights Act of 1960 Sikes Act (1960) Books Crusade in Europe (1948) Elections Primaries Draft Eisenhower movement 1948 1952 1956 Republican National Conventions 1952 Vice presidential candidate selection Logistics Television broadcasts 1956 General elections 1952 1956 Legacy Bibliography Birthplace Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum, gravesite Boyhood home Eisenhower National Historic Site, home and farm Eisenhower House Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial Eisenhower Executive Office Building Wichita Dwight D. Eisenhower National Airport Eisenhower Fellowships Eisenhower Institute Eisenhower Monument Eisenhower dollar Eisenhower Centennial silver dollar U.S. Postage stamps Dwight D. Eisenhower Army Medical Center Eisenhower Medical Center Eisenhower Trophy Eisenhower Tunnel Eisenhower Golf Club Eisenhower Theater Statue of Dwight D. Eisenhower (U.S. Capitol) Fort Eisenhower Mount Eisenhower White House putting green Eisenhower College Places named for Eisenhower Other tributes and memorials Popular culture Eisenhower jacket Eisenhower Tree Crusade in Europe (1949 television series) Backstairs at the White House (1979 miniseries) Ike (1979 miniseries) Ike: Countdown to D-Day (2004 film) Pressure (2014 play) Family Mary "Mamie" Geneva Doud Eisenhower (wife) John Eisenhower (son) David Eisenhower (grandson) Anne Eisenhower (granddaughter) Susan Eisenhower (granddaughter) Mary Jean Eisenhower (granddaughter) Jennie Eisenhower (great-granddaughter) Ida Stover Eisenhower (mother) Arthur Eisenhower (brother) Edgar N. Eisenhower (brother) Roy Eisenhower (brother) Earl D. Eisenhower (brother) Milton S. Eisenhower (brother) Related Eisenhower baseball controversy Camp David "And I don't care what it is" Atoms for Peace Award Introduction to Outer Space Eddie Slovik Kay Summersby ← Harry S. Truman John F. Kennedy → Category

Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Portugal Norway Latvia Korea Sweden Poland Israel Academics CiNii Artists ULAN MusicBrainz Museum of Modern Art Photographers' Identities People Trove LibraryThing Other IdRef Open Library 2 MusicBrainz label SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) Yale LUX

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