# Muskogean languages

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{{Short description|Language family of Southeast US}}
{{Redirect|Muskogean|the indigenous people|Muscogee}}
{{Infobox language family
| name          = Muskogean
| region        = Southeastern [North America](/source/North_America)
| familycolor   = American
| family        = One of the world's primary [language families](/source/language_family)
| glotto        = musk1252
| glottorefname = Muskogean
| child1        = [Choctaw](/source/Choctaw_language)–[Chickasaw](/source/Chickasaw_language)
| child2        = [Alabama](/source/Alabama_language)–[Koasati](/source/Koasati_language)
| child3        = [Hitchiti–Mikasuki](/source/Mikasuki_language)
| child4        = [Muscogee](/source/Muscogee_language)
| child5        = [Apalachee](/source/Apalachee_language) {{extinct}}
| child6        = [Houma](/source/Houma_language) {{extinct}}
| map           = Muskogean map labeled.svg
| mapcaption    = Pre-contact distribution of Muskogean languages
| ancestor      = [Proto-Muskogean](/source/Proto-Muskogean)
| glottoname    = 
| notes         = 
}}

'''Muskogean''' ({{IPAc-en|m|@|'|s|k|ou|g|i|@n}} {{respell|mə|SKOH|ghee|ən}}; also '''Muskhogean''') is a [language family](/source/language_family) spoken in the [Southeastern United States](/source/Southeastern_United_States). The state with the largest population of speakers today is Oklahoma. Members of the family are [Indigenous languages of the Americas](/source/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas). Typologically, Muskogean languages are highly [synthetic](/source/Synthetic_language) and [agglutinative](/source/agglutinative). One documented language, [Apalachee](/source/Apalachee_language), is no longer spoken, and the remaining languages are critically endangered.

==Genetic relationships==

===Family division===
The Muskogean family consists of [Alabama](/source/Alabama_language), [Chickasaw](/source/Chickasaw_language), [Choctaw](/source/Choctaw_language), [Muscogee](/source/Creek_language) (or Creek), [Koasati](/source/Koasati_language), [Apalachee](/source/Apalachee_language), and [Hitchiti-Mikasuki](/source/Mikasuki_language).<ref>Jack B. Martin. "Muskogean" ''The Languages and Linguistics of Indigenous North America'' Vol. 13.2 (2023) p. 1577–1600</ref> [Hitchiti](/source/Hitchiti) is generally considered a dialect of Mikasuki.<ref>Hardy 2005, p. 69</ref> "Seminole" is sometimes used for either a dialect of Muscogee spoken in Oklahoma,<ref>(Hardy 2005: 70; see also Mithun 2005: 462, Martin 2023)</ref> or to refer to the Mikasuki which is the ancestral language of most Florida Seminoles<ref>{{cite web |last1=University of Florida |title=Florida's INDIANS: Past and Present |url=https://research.ufl.edu/publications/explore/v03n2/indians.html |website=RGP-Explore |publisher=Explore Magazine Volume 3 Issue 2 |access-date=1 May 2026}}</ref>, while "Cow Creek Seminole" more specifically refers to a dialect of Muscogee spoken by a minority of [Seminole](/source/Seminole)s in Florida.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Spoehr |first=Alexander |url=http://archive.org/details/campclankinamong331spoe |title=Camp, clan, and kin among the Cow Creek Seminole of Florida |date=1941 |publisher=Chicago: Field Museum Press |others=University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign |pages=9–10. |via=Internet Archive}}</ref>

The major subdivisions of the family have long been controversial, but the following lower-level groups are universally accepted: Choctaw–Chickasaw, Alabama–Koasati, Hitchiti–Mikasuki, and Muscogee.<ref>Broadwell 1992, p. 1</ref><ref>Hardy 2005, p. 70</ref><ref>Martin & Munro 2005, p. 299</ref> Apalachee is [no longer spoken](/source/Language_death); its precise relationship to the other languages is uncertain, but [Mary Haas](/source/Mary_Haas) and [Pamela Munro](/source/Pamela_Munro) both classify it with the Alabama–Koasati group.<ref>Broadwell 1992, pp. 3; 41–42, footnote 2</ref>

====Haas's classification====
For connections among these groupings, one influential classification is that of Mary Haas and Karen Booker, in which "Western Muskogean" (Choctaw-Chickasaw) is seen as one major branch, and "Eastern Muskogean" (Alabama-Koasati, Hitchiti-Mikasuki, and Muscogee) as another. Within Eastern Muskogean, Alabama-Koasati and Hitchiti-Mikasuki are generally thought to be more closely related to each other than to Muscogee.<ref name="H2005classification">Hardy 2005, pp. 70-71</ref> That classification is reflected in the list below:<ref>Mithun 2005, p. 461</ref><ref>Campbell 1997, p. 147</ref><ref>Martin, Jack B. 2004. ''Languages. Handbook of North American Indians''. "The Southeast". Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian.</ref>

{{tree list}}
* '''Muskogean'''
** Western Muskogean
*** '''[Chickasaw](/source/Chickasaw_language)'''
*** '''[Choctaw](/source/Choctaw_language)''' (also called Chahta, Chacato)
** Eastern Muskogean
*** '''[Muscogee](/source/Creek_language)''' (also called Muskogee, Maskoke, Mvskoke, Seminole, and Creek)
*** '''[Hitchiti-Mikasuki](/source/Mikasuki_language)''' (also called Miccosukee or Seminole)
*** Apalachee–Alabama–Koasati
**** '''[Apalachee](/source/Apalachee_language)''' {{extinct}}
**** '''[Alabama](/source/Alabama_language)''' (also called Alibamu)
**** '''[Koasati](/source/Koasati_language)''' (also called Coushatta)
{{tree list/end}}

====Munro's classification====
A different classification has been proposed by [Pamela Munro](/source/Pamela_Munro). In her classification, the languages are divided into a "Southern Muskogean" branch (Choctaw-Chickasaw, Alabama-Koasati, and Hitchiti-Mikasuki) and a "Northern Muskogean" one (Muscogee). Southern Muskogean is then subdivided into Hitchiti-Mikasuki and a "Southwestern Muskogean" branch containing Alabama-Koasati and "Western Muskogean" (Choctaw-Chickasaw).<ref name="H2005classification" /> The classification is reflected in the list below:<ref name="C1997pg148">Campbell 1997, p. 148</ref>

{{tree list}}
* '''Muskogean'''
** Northern Muskogean
*** '''[Muscogee](/source/Creek_language)'''
** Southern Muskogean
*** '''[Hitchiti-Mikasuki](/source/Mikasuki_language)'''
*** Southwestern Muskogean
**** '''[Apalachee](/source/Apalachee_language)''' {{extinct}}
**** ''Alabama–Koasati''
***** '''[Alabama](/source/Alabama_language)'''
***** '''[Koasati](/source/Koasati_language)'''
**** ''Western Muskogean''
***** '''[Chickasaw](/source/Chickasaw_language)'''
***** '''[Choctaw](/source/Choctaw_language)'''
{{tree list/end}}

===Broader relationships===
====Possible Muskogean languages====
Several sparsely attested languages have been claimed to be Muskogean languages. George Broadwell suggested that the languages of the [Yamasee](/source/Yamasee) and [Guale](/source/Guale) were Muskogean.<ref name="Campbell149">Campbell 1997, p. 149</ref><ref>Broadwell 1992, pp. 41–42, fn. 2</ref> However, William Sturtevant argued that the "Yamasee" and "Guale" data were Muscogee and that the language(s) spoken by the Yamasee and Guale people remain unknown.<ref>Sturtevant 1994, referenced in Campbell 1997, p. 149</ref> It is possible that the Yamasee were an amalgamation of several different ethnic groups and did not speak a single language. Chester B. DePratter describes the Yamasee as consisting mainly of speakers of Hitchiti and Guale.<ref>{{NRHP url|id=64500575|title=Dr. Chester B. DePratter, "The Foundation, Occupation, and Abandonment of Yamasee Indian Towns in the South Carolina Lowcountry, 1684–1715"}}, National Register Multiple Property Submission</ref> The historian Steven Oatis also describes the Yamasee as an ethnically mixed group that included people from Muskogean-speaking regions, such as the early colonial-era native towns of ''Hitchiti'', ''Coweta'', and ''Cussita''.<ref>{{cite book |last= Oatis |first= Steven J. |title= A Colonial Complex: South Carolina's Frontiers in the Era of the Yamasee War, 1680–1730 |year= 2004 |publisher= University of Nebraska Press |isbn= 0-8032-3575-5}}</ref>

The [Amacano](/source/Amacano_people), [Chacato](/source/Chacato), [Chine](/source/Chine_people), Pacara, and [Pensacola](/source/Pensacola_people) people, who lived along the Gulf Coast of Florida from the [Big Bend Coast](/source/Big_Bend_Coast) to [Pensacola Bay](/source/Pensacola_Bay), are reported to have spoken the same Muskogean language, which may have been closely related to Choctaw.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hann |first=John H. |title=The Native American World Beyond Apalachee |publisher=University Press of Florida |year=2006 |isbn=9-780-8130-2982-5 |pages=11, 20–21, 24, 43}}</ref><ref>Milanich:95, 96</ref><ref>Coker:6</ref><ref>Swanton:136</ref>

Sparse evidence indicates that a Muskogean language was spoken by at least some of the people of the paramount chiefdom of [Cofitachequi](/source/Cofitachequi) in northeastern [South Carolina](/source/South_Carolina). If so, that would be the most eastern outpost of Muskogean. The people of Cofitichequi were probably absorbed by nearby [Siouan](/source/Siouan) and [Iroquoian](/source/Iroquoian) speakers in the late 17th century.<ref>Hudson, Charles ''The Juan Pardo Expeditions'' Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990, pp. 68–73, 75</ref>

A vocabulary of the [Houma](/source/Houma_Tribe) may be another underdocumented Western Muskogean language or a version of [Mobilian Jargon](/source/Mobilian_Jargon), a pidgin based on Western Muskogean.

====Gulf====
{{main|Gulf languages}}
The best-known connection proposed between Muskogean and other languages is [Mary Haas](/source/Mary_Haas)' [Gulf hypothesis](/source/Gulf_languages), in which she conceived of a macrofamily comprising Muskogean and a number of [language isolate](/source/language_isolate)s of the southeastern US: [Atakapa](/source/Atakapa_language), [Chitimacha](/source/Chitimacha_language), [Tunica](/source/Tunica_language), and [Natchez](/source/Natchez_language). While well-known, the Gulf grouping is now generally rejected by historical linguists.<ref name="Campbell149" /><ref>Campbell 1997, pp. 305–09</ref> Some Muskogean scholars continue to assert that Muskogean is related to Natchez.<ref>Campbell 1997, p. 305</ref>

==Features==
===Nouns===
Nouns in Muskogean languages may take prefixes indicating the person and number of a possessor. Noun phrases may be marked for [grammatical case](/source/grammatical_case), with a distinction between subjects (nominative case) and nonsubjects (oblique case). Some Muskogean languages have affixes indicating plural nouns (generally human nouns) or groups. 

===Verbs===
Muskogean verbs are highly synthetic, with affixes for tense, aspect, person, number, direction, and mood. While case marking is [nominative–accusative](/source/Nominative%E2%80%93accusative_alignment), person marking is [active–stative](/source/Active%E2%80%93stative_alignment), with separate series of agent, patient, and indirect object person markers.

Verbs have a complex system of [ablaut](/source/ablaut) indicating aspect. In Muskogean linguistics, the different forms are known as "grades" or "themes".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Haas |first=Mary R. |date=1940 |title=Ablaut and Its Function in Muskogee |journal=Language |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=141–50 |JSTOR=}}</ref>

All the languages make use of suppletive verbs indicating the number of the subject in an intransitive verb or the number of the direct object in a transitive verb.

Innately-numbered verbal stems, Mikasuki:<ref>{{Cite journal |last=West |first=David |date=1974 |title=Number in the Mikasuki verb stem. |url=https://commons.und.edu/sil-work-papers/vol18/iss1/15/ |journal=Work Papers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, University of North Dakota Session |volume=18 |issue=15 |page=135}}</ref>

{{interlinear
| indent = 2|haca:l-om|stand.SG.SBJ|"(one) is standing"
}}

{{interlinear
| indent = 2|loko:k-om|stand.DU|"(two) stand"
}}

{{interlinear
| indent = 2|loko:ka:c-om|stand.PL|"(three or more) stand"
}}

==Vocabulary==
Below is a list of basic vocabulary in five Muskogean languages from Broadwell (1992):<ref>{{cite conference |last=Broadwell |first=George Aaron |date=1992 |title=Reconstructing Proto-Muskogean Language and Prehistory: Preliminary Results |url=http://www.albany.edu/anthro/fac/broadwell/flora.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060107085838/http://www.albany.edu/anthro/fac/broadwell/flora.pdf |archive-date=7 January 2006 |conference=Southern Anthropological Society |location=[St. Augustine, Florida](/source/St._Augustine%2C_Florida) |publisher=[State University of New York at Albany](/source/State_University_of_New_York_at_Albany)}}</ref>

{{collapse top|Muskogean basic vocabulary from by Broadwell (1992)}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! gloss !! Chickasaw !! Choctaw !! Alabama !! Mikasuki !! Muscogee
|-
| all || mõma || mõma || óyha || maamos- || omalka
|-
| ashes || hottok || hitokchobi || histo || tolhambi || iisso
|-
| belly || ittakoba' || iffoka || ikfi || lampi || nalhki
|-
| big || ishto || chito || coba || coob- || lhakkii
|-
| bird || foshi' || hoshi || foosi || foosi || foswa
|-
| bite || kisili || kopooli || kachalhlhi || kabalikci || akkita
|-
| black || losa || losa || loca || looci || lasti
|-
| blood || issish || issish || lhakhani || picikci || caati
|-
| bone || foni' || foni || cokfoni || -fooni || iffoni
|-
| breast || ip shik || ip shik || pisi || owaaci || hokpi
|-
| burn || lowa || lowah || libatli || yill- || noklhita
|-
| claw || iyyakchosh || iyyakchosh || iyyaksi || iiyakoosi || ilinkososwa
|-
| cloud || hoshonti || hoshõti || onoolici || hosoti || aholocii
|-
| cold || kapassa || kapassa || kasatka || kapaali || kasappi
|-
| come || minti || m ti || ila || ont- || atita
|-
| die || illi || illi || illi || il- || ilita
|-
| dog || ofi' || ofi || ifa || iifi || ifa
|-
| drink || ishko || ishko || isko || isk- || iskita
|-
| dry || shila || shila || solotka || sokook- || kalhpii
|-
| ear || haksibis || haksobish || hakco || hacoobi || hakco
|-
| earth || yakni' || yakni || ihaani || yakni || iikana
|-
| eat || impa || pa || ipa || imp- || hompita
|-
| egg || akankoshi' || akãkoshi || akaakocóòsi || onaasi || costaki
|-
| eye || ishkin || nishkin || ittilhi || iti || tolhwa
|-
| fat (grease) || niha || bila || nitokci || niihi || nihaa
|-
| fire || lowak || lowak || tikba || iiti || tootka
|-
| fish || nani' || nani || lhalho || lhaalhi || lhalho
|-
| fly, to || wakaa || hika || wakayka || yakaal- || tamkita
|-
| foot || iyyi' || iyyi || iyyi || iyi || ili
|-
| full || kayya || kayya || kayya || labakni || fackita
|-
| give || ima || ima || inka || iik- || imita
|-
| good || chokma || achokma || kano || hiilhi || h lhi
|-
| green || okchamali || okchamaali || okcakko || honotbitalakci || laani
|-
| hair || pãshi'/hishi' || pãshi/hishi || hissi || tokisi || issi
|-
| hand || ilbak || ibbak || ilbi || ilbi || inki
|-
| head || ishkobo' || noshkobo || isbakko || yoosi || ika
|-
| hear || hánglo || haklo || haalo || hakl- || pohita
|-
| heart || chõkash || chõkash || conoska || conosbi || fiiki
|-
| horn || lapish || lapish || lapihci || lap-i || yapi
|-
| I || ano' || ano || ana || aani || ani
|-
| kill || abi || abi || ibi || ill c || iliicita
|-
| knee || iyyinto'lhka' || iyyi kalaaha || ittôlhpa || tolhpi || tolhkowa
|-
| know || ithána || ikhana || sobayli || ataalh || kilhlhita
|-
| lie down, to || tí'wa || talaaya || baláàli || talaal || wakkita
|-
| liver || salakha || salakha || illopi || lopi || lopi
|-
| long || falaa || falaaya || baski || backi || capki
|-
| louse || issap || issap || icha || hicahci || icka
|-
| man || hattak nakni' || hattak nakni || naani || nakni || honanwa
|-
| many || lawa || lawa || lawa || aconki || solkii
|-
| meat (flesh) || nipi' || nipi || nipo || akni || apiswa
|-
| mountain || onchaba || habik || bokkoscaaha ||  || iikanhalwii
|-
| mouth || iti || itialbi || icokhalbi || ici || cokwa
|-
| name || holhchifo || hohchifo || holcifa || hocilki || hocifka
|-
| neck || nokhistap || ikkõla || nokbi || nokbi || nokwa
|-
| new || himitta || himmona || hahpa || himaci || mocasi
|-
| night || oklhili' || ninak || tanka || niilhaki || nilhii
|-
| nose || ibichchala' || ibishakni || ibisaani || ibi || yopoo
|-
| not || ki'yo || kiiyo || mánko || maati || monks
|-
| one || chaffa || achaffa || caffaaka || lhaamin || hamkin
|-
| person (human) || hattak || hattak || aati || yaati || isti
|-
| rain || omba || õba || oyba || okoob- || oskita
|-
| red || homma || homma || homma || kitisci || caati
|-
| road (path) || hina' || hina || hini || hini || nini
|-
| root || haksish || hakshish || assikci || aski || yalomka
|-
| round || lhibokta || kalaaha || bonotka || polocki || polooki
|-
| say || aachi || aachi || manka || kaac || maakita
|-
| sand || shinok || shinok || sanco || samooci || oktaaha
|-
| see || p sa || p sa || hicha || hica || hicita
|-
| seed || nihi' || nihi || hilhikci || yiilhi || nilhka
|-
| sit || bínni'li || biniili || cokóòli || cokool- || leykita
|-
| skin || hakshop || hakshop || affakci || halbi || halhpi
|-
| sleep || nosi || nosi || noci || nooc- || nocita
|-
| small || iskanno'si || osi || cinoofa || wink- || cotki
|-
| smoke || shobohli || shobohli || sobotli || ockoci || ikkoci
|-
| stand || híkki'ya || hikiiya || lokóòli || lokooka || hoylhita
|-
| star || foshik || fichik || hociilhi || owaaciki || kocacampa
|-
| stone || tali' || tali || tali || tali || cato
|-
| sun || hashi' || hashi || hasi || haasi || hasi
|-
| swim || yopi || okshiniili || oohapka || opahk- || omeyyita
|-
| tail || hasimbish || has bis || haci || haaci || haci
|-
| that || yamma || ma || akki || ma || ma
|-
| this || yappa || pa || ya || ya || ya
|-
| thou || ishno' || chishno || isna || cihn- || ciimi
|-
| tongue || isõlash || ittõlas || icoolaksi || cokolaasi || tolaaswa
|-
| tooth || noti' || noti || innati || -nooti || noti
|-
| tree || itti' || itti || itto || ahi || ito
|-
| two || toklo || toklo || tôklo || toklan || hokkoolin
|-
| walk || nõwa || nowa || ciyahli || cayahl || yakapita
|-
| warm (hot) || lashpa || lashpa || ikba || hãyyi || hayyita
|-
| water || oka' || oka || oki || ooki || oywa
|-
| we || poshno' || pishno || posna || pohni || poomi
|-
| what || nanta || natah || náàsi || naaki || naaki
|-
| white || tohbi || tohbi || hatka || hatki || hatki
|-
| who || kata || katah || náksi || noolh- || isteyma
|-
| woman || ihoo || ohooyo || tayyi || tayki || hoktii
|-
| yellow || lakna || lakna || laana || lakni || laanii
|}
{{collapse bottom}}

==Proto-language==<!---[Proto-Muskogean](/source/Proto-Muskogean) redirects here--->
{{Infobox proto-language
| name             = Proto-Muskogean
| familycolor      = American
| ancestor         = 
| target          = Muskogean languages
}}
===Phonology===
Proto-Muskogean is reconstructed as having the consonants (given in [IPA](/source/International_Phonetic_Alphabet) transcription):<ref>Booker 2005</ref>

{|  class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2"|
! rowspan="2"| [Labial](/source/Labial_consonant)
! colspan="2"| [Alveolar](/source/Alveolar_consonant)
! rowspan="2"| [Palatal](/source/Palatal_consonant)
! colspan="2"| [Velar](/source/Velar_consonant)
|-
! [Median](/source/Median_consonant)
! [Lateral](/source/Lateral_consonant)
! Plain
! [Labialized](/source/Labialisation)
|- align="center"
! [Stop](/source/Stop_consonant)s
| {{IPA|*p}}
| {{IPA|*t}}
|
|
| {{IPA|*k}}
| {{IPA|*kʷ}}
|- align="center"
! [Affricate](/source/Affricate_consonant)s
|
| {{IPA|*ts}}
|
| {{IPA|*tʃ}}
|
|
|- align="center"
! [Fricative](/source/Fricative_consonant)s
|
| {{IPA|*s}}
| {{IPA|*ɬ}}
| {{IPA|*ʃ}}
| {{IPA|*x}}
| {{IPA|*xʷ}}
|- align="center"
! [Nasals](/source/Nasal_stop)
| {{IPA|*m}}
| {{IPA|*n}}
|
|
|
|
|- align="center"
! [Approximant](/source/Approximant)s
|
|
| {{IPA|*l}}
| {{IPA|*j}}
|
| {{IPA|*w}}
|-
! Other
|
| colspan="2" align="center"| *θ [n̥]
|
|
|
|}

The phonemes reconstructed by Haas as {{IPA|*/x/}} and {{IPA|*/xʷ/}} show up as {{IPA|/h/}} and {{IPA|/f/}} (or {{IPA|/ɸ/}}<ref>Booker 2005, pg. 254</ref>), respectively, in all Muskogean languages;<ref>Booker 2005, pp. 248, 252, 254</ref> they are therefore reconstructed by some as {{IPA|*/h/}} and {{IPA|*/ɸ/}}.<ref name="C1997pg148" /><ref>Martin & Munro 2005, p. 318, fn. 2</ref> {{IPA|*/kʷ/}} appears as {{IPA|/b/}} in all the daughter languages except [Muscogee](/source/Creek_language) for which it is {{IPA|/k/}} initially and {{IPA|/p/}} medially. The value of the proto-phoneme conventionally written {{angle bracket|θ}} (or {{angle bracket|N}}) is unknown;<ref>Booker 2005, p. 286, footnote 7</ref> it appears as {{IPA|/n/}} in Western Muskogean languages and as {{IPA|/ɬ/}} in Eastern Muskogean languages. Haas reconstructed it as a voiceless {{IPA|/n/}} (that is, {{IPA|*/n̥/}}), based partly on presumed cognates in [Natchez](/source/Natchez_language).<ref name="C1997pg148" /><ref>Booker 2005, pp. 251–52</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
* Booker, Karen. (2005). "Muskogean Historical Phonology." In Hardy, Heather Kay and Scancarelli, Janine (eds.), ''Native languages of the Southeastern United States'', 246–298. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
* {{cite conference |last=Broadwell |first=George Aaron |date=1992 |title=Reconstructing Proto-Muskogean Language and Prehistory: Preliminary Results |url=http://www.albany.edu/anthro/fac/broadwell/flora.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060107085838/http://www.albany.edu/anthro/fac/broadwell/flora.pdf |archive-date=7 January 2006 |conference=Southern Anthropological Society |location=[St. Augustine, Florida](/source/St._Augustine%2C_Florida) |publisher=[State University of New York at Albany](/source/State_University_of_New_York_at_Albany)}}
* Campbell, Lyle. (1997). ''American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-509427-1}}.
*Coker, William S. (1999) "Pensacola, 1686–1821." in Judith Anne Bense. (1999) Editor. ''Archaeology of colonial Pensacola.'' University Press of Florida. {{ISBN|0-8130-1661-4}} Found at [https://books.google.com/books?id=_WnLuhfm7vAC&q=archaeology+of+colonial+pensacola Google Books]
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==External links==
{{sister project |project=wiktionary |text=[Wiktionary](/source/Wiktionary) has a list of reconstructed forms at '''''[Appendix:Proto-Muskogean reconstructions](/source/Wiktionary%3AAppendix%3AProto-Muskogean_reconstructions)'''''}}
*[http://www.native-languages.org/fammus.htm Muskogean Language Family] page at native-languages.org
*[http://www.chickasaw.tv/culture-keepers/video/the-origin-of-the-chickasaw-language/list/language Chickasaw Language Information & Videos] - Chickasaw.TV

{{Mississippian and related cultures}}
{{Pre-Columbian North America}}
{{Language families}}
{{North American languages}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Muskogean Language}}
Category:Muskogean languages
Category:Agglutinative languages
Category:Language families
Category:Indigenous languages of the North American Southeast
Category:South Appalachian Mississippian culture
Category:Gulf languages

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Muskogean languages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muskogean_languages) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muskogean_languages?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.