# Mugging

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{{Short description|Form of robbery}}
{{good article}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use American English|date=March 2025}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2025}}
thumb|upright=1.2|alt=Illustration of a man being held by a mugger while another goes through his pockets|1904 newspaper illustration of a mugging, described as a "hold-up"
'''Mugging''' (sometimes called '''personal robbery''' or '''street robbery''') is a form of [robbery](/source/robbery) and [street crime](/source/street_crime) that occurs in public places, often urban areas at night. It involves a [confrontation](/source/confrontation) with a threat of violence. Muggers steal money or [personal property](/source/personal_property), which is worth less than the payouts of commercial robbery but involves less time and planning. They may be motivated by money, [cultural capital](/source/cultural_capital), or the thrill of the act. The risk of property loss, injury, or [psychological trauma](/source/psychological_trauma) causes people to fear becoming victims of mugging.

The concept of mugging originated in 1940s United States, when [blackout](/source/blackout_(wartime))s of [World War II](/source/World_War_II) enabled committing crimes in the dark. It soon became the subject of [anti-Black racism](/source/anti-Black_racism). In the United Kingdom, a media wave about mugging occurred in the 1970s, before which the concept had not been applied to British crimes. Police departments created "anti-mugging" units. The crime was often committed by [West Indian](/source/West_Indian) youths, and there were widespread [racial stereotype](/source/racial_stereotype)s associating it with Black people. Some leftist criminologists said that the media inaccurately reported a [crime wave](/source/Crime) of mugging, including [Stuart Hall](/source/Stuart_Hall_(cultural_theorist)), who called it a [moral panic](/source/moral_panic). Political debate of mugging in the country peaked in the 1980s. In the 1990s, Brazilian media reported a mass mugging phenomenon known as {{lang|pt|arrastão}}, a term later used in Portugal.

== Etymology and terminology ==
The word ''mug'' had several definitions in the nineteenth century. The noun ''mugger'' had been used since the eighteenth century to refer to [earthenware](/source/earthenware) sellers before a [semantic shift](/source/semantic_shift) toward referring to thieves. The ''[Dictionary of Americanisms](/source/John_Russell_Bartlett)'' documented the thief-related usage of the word among inmates at [Confederate prisons in the American Civil War](/source/American_Civil_War_prison_camps).{{sfn|Tamony|1971|pp=130–131}} The modern usage—referring to [robbery](/source/robbery) against an individual, often by a group—originated in the 1940s among criminals and police.{{sfn|Lejeune|Alex|1973|p=260}} The noun ''mugging'' and the verb ''mug'' entered British English from American English, becoming a [buzzword](/source/buzzword) in late 1972 and early 1973.{{sfn|Lawson|1972|p=306}}

''Mugging'' is a common term for personal robbery,{{sfn|Burrell|Bull|Bond|2012|p=202}} though personal robbery also encompasses forms of theft such as [carjacking](/source/carjacking).{{sfn|Wüllenweber|Burrell|2023|p=5}} Other terms for personal robbery include ''snatch theft'' and ''street robbery'', as it is an example of a [street crime](/source/street_crime).{{sfn|Porter|2010|p=535}} The terms ''mugging'', ''street robbery'', and ''street crime'' are often interchangeable, though usage varies.{{sfn|Stockdale|1998|p=1}}

== Description ==
Mugging is a form of [robbery](/source/robbery). Mugging itself is generally not a criminal offense; perpetrators of the act commit the crime of robbery, though mugging is a more specific concept.<ref name="LII" />{{sfn|Wykes|2007|p=164}} Unlike other forms of robbery, mugging is a [personal offense](/source/Criminal_law). It typically involves less planning and smaller payouts than commercial robbery,{{sfn|Burrell|Bull|Bond|2012|p=202}} and it is usually committed by inexperienced criminals who rely on fear.{{sfn|Burrell|Bull|Bond|2012|p=203}}

Mugging often involves an attack on a victim walking alone at night.<ref name="LII" /> Perpetrators steal money or valuable [personal property](/source/personal_property) such as [cell phone](/source/cell_phone)s.{{sfn|Burrell|Bull|Bond|2012|p=202}}<ref name="LII">{{Cite web |last=<!--not stated--> |date=August 2020 |title=mugging |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/mugging |access-date=March 1, 2025 |website=[Legal Information Institute](/source/Legal_Information_Institute)}}</ref> Actual or threatened violence is a major aspect of mugging, which often uses weapons such as [knives](/source/knives).{{sfnm|1a1=Burrell|1a2=Bull|1a3=Bond|1y=2012|1p=202|2a1=Lejeune|2y=1977|2p=123}} The level of violence can vary, with some muggings resulting in injury or death. The level of violence and the emotional response contribute to a victim's level of crisis.{{sfn|Lee|Rosenthal|1983|p=598}} Victims often face loss of property, injury, or fear, and they may gain [psychological trauma](/source/psychological_trauma).{{sfn|Burrell|Bull|Bond|2012|p=203}} The possibility of such outcomes results in a widespread fear of mugging.{{sfn|Lejeune|1977|p=123}}

[Motive](/source/Motive_(law))s for mugging include need for money, desire to increase [social status](/source/social_status), and the thrill of the act.{{sfnm|1a1=Burrell|1a2=Bull|1a3=Bond|1y=2012|1p=203|2a1=Lejeune|2y=1977|2p=124}} The latter two motives are common among younger people, while the need for money often motivates habitual drug users to commit street robbery.{{sfn|Deakin|Smithson|Spencer|Medina-Ariza|2007|p=54}} Though mugging takes more time than other crimes and brings little money, perpetrators are motivated by a feeling of power.{{sfn|Sandberg|Pedersen|2011|p=130}} Compared to commercial robbery, street robbery is a more reliable source of money due to its speed, simplicity, and low punishment rate; this is motivating for people who lack legitimate sources of money.{{sfn|Harding|Deuchar|Densley|McLean|2019|p=880}} Muggers are often motivated by [peer pressure](/source/peer_pressure), which [normalizes](/source/Normalization_(sociology)) the behavior.{{sfn|Lejeune|1977|pp=132–133}} People involved in [street gang](/source/street_gang)s gain [cultural capital](/source/cultural_capital) from it.{{sfn|Harding|Deuchar|Densley|McLean|2019|p=884}}

Street robbery usually occurs in urban areas.{{sfn|Smith|Frazee|Davison|2000|p=497}} It is often associated with night,{{sfn|Wüllenweber|Burrell|2023|pp=4–5}} though it frequently occurs at other times of day.{{sfn|Deakin|Smithson|Spencer|Medina-Ariza|2007|p=56}} Muggers usually work within small, familiar areas, such as the surroundings of their homes.{{sfnm|1a1=Bernasco|1a2=Block|1a3=Ruiter|1y=2012|1p=136|2a1=Burrell|2a2=Bull|2a3=Bond|2y=2012|2pp=204, 215|3a1=Lejeune|3y=1977|3p=135|4a1=Smith|4a2=Frazee|4a3=Davison|4y=2000|4pp=496, 503}} Street robberies occur within a few [city block](/source/city_block)s of places that are likely to have cash, like stores, bars, illegal businesses, or [ATM](/source/ATM)s.{{sfn|Bernasco|Block|Ruiter|2012|pp=119–120, 123, 135}} Incidents are often clustered at points within cities such as [bus stop](/source/bus_stop)s.{{sfnm|1a1=Hart|1a2=Miethe|1y=2014|1p=190|2a1=Liu|2a2=Lan|2a3=Eck|2a4=Kang|2y=2020|2pp=1–2}} Many incidents occur in places with activity in the [night-time economy](/source/night-time_economy); such cases frequently involve [alcohol intoxication](/source/alcohol_intoxication) or violence.{{sfn|Wüllenweber|Burrell|2023|pp=6, 10}} Street robbers sometimes target other criminals opportunistically; such cases are less commonly reported to police.{{sfn|Deakin|Smithson|Spencer|Medina-Ariza|2007|p=58}}

A mugging typically lasts a few minutes.{{sfn|Lejeune|1977|p=127}} It begins with the perpetrator [assessing the risk](/source/Risk_assessment) of conducting the act.{{sfn|Lejeune|1977|p=127}} Muggers select victims whom they perceive as vulnerable or likely to have money.{{sfn|Lejeune|1977|p=134}} They may initiate a [confrontation](/source/confrontation) by feigning a non-threatening encounter.{{sfnm|1a1=Deakin|1a2=Smithson|1a3=Spencer|1a4=Medina-Ariza|1y=2007|1p=61|2a1=Lejeune|2y=1977|2p=136–139|3a1=Lejeune|3a2=Alex|3y=1973|3p=266}} The confrontation occurs in a short range, enabling personal contact, such as shoving, that may surprise the victim.{{sfn|Lejeune|Alex|1973|p=260}} The perpetrator may display weapons or implicitly threaten violence.{{sfn|Deakin|Smithson|Spencer|Medina-Ariza|2007|p=62}} They attempt to take control of the victim, which creates an unpredictable situation for both parties based on their perceptions of each other.{{sfn|Lejeune|1977|p=136–139}} Though muggers usually do not desire to induce violence, confrontations often become violent when they lose control or perceive resistance.{{sfnm|1a1=Deakin|1a2=Smithson|1a3=Spencer|1a4=Medina-Ariza|1y=2007|1p=63|2a1=Lejeune|2y=1977|2pp=141–143}}

== History ==
=== Origins ===
The concept of mugging originated in the United States in the 1940s.{{sfn|Doran|2008|p=203}} [Blackout](/source/Blackout_(wartime))s during [World War II](/source/World_War_II) enabled people to commit crimes in the dark, inciting the popularity of muggings in cities such as [Baltimore](/source/Baltimore).{{sfn|Tamony|1971|p=131}} Mugging narratives were [racialized](/source/racialized) since the origin of the concept,{{sfn|Esteves|2012|p=136}} and, in the post-war era, media in New York City associated mugging with [the Black population](/source/African_Americans_in_New_York_City). African-American communist politician [Benjamin J. Davis Jr.](/source/Benjamin_J._Davis_Jr.) described such reports as "exaggerated [crime wave](/source/Crime) slander", and the journal ''[Phylon](/source/Phylon)'' wrote that conservative media aimed to "create a [Negro](/source/Negro) crime wave".{{sfn|Suddler|2019|pp=20–21}}

=== 1970s British phenomenon ===
The term ''mugging'' was first used in British media in the 1960s.{{sfn|Doran|2008|p=204}} The media frequently reported waves of muggings from 1972 to 1976,{{sfn|Brake|Shank|1983|p=6}} a time when the concept of [fear of crime](/source/fear_of_crime) gained recognition.{{sfn|Jefferson|2008|p=118}} Prior to this era, the British public had considered mugging to be limited to American cities.{{sfn|Lawson|1972|p=306}} Commentators of the time compared ethnic tensions in British cities to those in America, and the association of mugging with the [criminal stereotype of African Americans](/source/criminal_stereotype_of_African_Americans) spread to Britain.{{sfn|Wykes|2007|p=164}} Similar crimes in Britain had previously been called "robbery with violence", "assault and robbery", "robbery and grievous bodily harm", or "bag snatching".{{sfnm|1a1=Jefferson|1a2=Clarke|1y=1974|1p=37|2a1=Lawson|2y=1972|2p=306}} Such crimes had been increasingly reported starting in the mid-1960s,{{sfn|Loader|2001|p=45}} and many newspapers reported police statistics saying that London's mugging rate increased 129% between 1968 and 1972.{{sfn|Gunter|2017|p=66}} During this time, urban residents gained awareness of the risk of victimization, especially in middle-class neighborhoods whose residents had not expected crime.{{sfn|Lejeune|Alex|1973|pp=260–264}}

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, many muggers were [West Indian](/source/West_Indian) youths, largely due to socioeconomic discontent.{{sfn|Jefferson|Clarke|1974|pp=37, 48–49}} Police departments strengthened [crime control](/source/crime_control) measures.{{sfn|Kalunta-Crumpton|2000|p=158}} Some, including London's [Metropolitan Police](/source/Metropolitan_Police) and [London Transport Police](/source/London_Transport_Police), utilized "anti-mugging" units, which primarily focused on West Indian–majority neighborhoods.{{sfn|Jefferson|Clarke|1974|p=37}} Police associated the crime with West Indians, despite high rates of mugging in some cities with low Black populations{{sfn|Brake|Shank|1983|p=7}} and a 1976 Metropolitan Police report to the [Home Affairs Select Committee](/source/Home_Affairs_Select_Committee) that said crime rates of West Indians were the same as the general population.{{sfn|Gunter|2017|p=66}} Muggings received disproportionate media attention compared to other crimes that occurred in White-majority areas.{{sfn|Kalunta-Crumpton|2000|pp=159–160}} Television reports frequently featured elderly women who were victims of mugging,{{sfn|Herridge|1983|p=90}} and this demographic gained a widespread fear of the crime, though men were more likely to be victims.{{sfn|Brake|Shank|1983|p=7}}

A mugging case in [Handsworth, West Midlands](/source/Handsworth%2C_West_Midlands), on November 5, 1972, resulted in three teenagers being sentenced to twenty years of prison and received widespread newspaper coverage.{{sfn|McLaughlin|2008|pp=147, 149}} A column by commentator John Akass in ''[The Sun](/source/The_Sun_(United_Kingdom))'', a widely circulated [tabloid newspaper](/source/Tabloid_journalism), wrote that the case's perpetrator "did not get 20 years for mugging. He got it for attempted murder," and that the punishment was "almost as barbarous as the crime itself".{{sfn|McLaughlin|2008|pp=150–151}} The fatal stabbing of an elderly man, soon after the Handsworth case, was the first individual crime in Britain to be reported with the word ''mugging''.{{sfn|Jefferson|2021|p=40}} Some leftist criminologists believed that the widespread attention to mugging was a result of the media rather than circumstances contributing to crime. However, [Jock Young](/source/Jock_Young) said in 1976, "It is unrealistic to suggest that the problem of crime like mugging is merely the problem of mis-categorization and concomitant moral panics."{{sfn|McLaughlin|2008|p=147}} In the late 1970s, public opinion largely associated mugging with Black people.{{sfn|Esteves|2012|p=128}} Politician [Enoch Powell](/source/Enoch_Powell) referred to mugging as a "black crime" in 1976.{{sfn|Kalunta-Crumpton|2000|p=158}} A 1979 study found that two types of crime were disproportionately associated with black youths: mugging and [being suspicious](/source/Sus_law).{{sfn|Pitts|2020|p=148}}

[[File:Hall Stuart.jpg|thumb|upright|[Stuart Hall](/source/Stuart_Hall_(cultural_theorist)) described mugging as a [moral panic](/source/moral_panic).]]
The 1978 book ''[Policing the Crisis](/source/Policing_the_Crisis)'', cowritten by [Stuart Hall](/source/Stuart_Hall_(cultural_theorist)), labeled the phenomenon as a [moral panic](/source/moral_panic) and argued that the media ideologically conceptualized mugging.{{sfn|Doran|2008|pp=192, 206}} The book said that mugging was not defined in law or distinct from existing crimes, but that the concept was influenced by preexisting societal concerns and [anti-Black sentiment](/source/Racism_in_the_United_Kingdom), as well as by the connotations of the word ''mugging'' in America.{{sfnm|1a1=Doran|1y=2008|1p=203–204|2a1=Waddington|2y=1986|2pp=246–247}} It argued that political and media figures used mugging to direct public fears about public disorder toward Black youths,{{sfn|Gray|Grasso|Farrall|Jennings|2019|p=439}} that the government used this attitude to secure support,{{sfn|Brake|Shank|1983|p=6}} and that media coverage of the Handsworth case exemplified the undue attention to the subject.{{sfn|McLaughlin|2008|p=147}} The book disagreed with the belief that the [crime rate](/source/crime_rate) was increasing; some critics, including Nob Doran and [P. A. J. Waddington](/source/P._A._J._Waddington), said that its use of statistics was biased.{{sfnm|1a1=Doran|1y=2008|1p=206|2a1=Waddington|2y=1986|2pp=248–250}} Unlike Hall, Michael Pratt stated that London's rate of mugging was increasing and that the Metropolitan Police's had a legal classification equivalent to mugging.{{sfn|Waddington|1986|pp=253–254}} Colin Sumner challenged the description of mugging as a moral panic, saying that media statements did not equate to [public opinion](/source/public_opinion).{{sfn|Hunt|1997|p=645}}

Discussion of mugging in the [British Parliament](/source/British_Parliament) increased through the 1960s and 1970s (alongside that of [burglary](/source/burglary)) and peaked in the 1980s.{{sfn|Gray|Grasso|Farrall|Jennings|2019|p=444}} By that time, [riot](/source/riot)s, rather than muggings, were the subject of racialized media coverage.{{sfn|Gunter|2017|p=67}} A survey by the [Home Office](/source/Home_Office), published in March 1982, recommended [community policing](/source/community_policing) to resist mugging and criticized excessive media response, but its findings received little attention.{{sfn|Herridge|1983|p=90}} Public fear of mugging peaked in the 1990s and was most prevalent among people who grew up during the era of the media phenomenon.{{sfn|Gray|Grasso|Farrall|Jennings|2019|pp=454–455}}

=== 1990s–2020s ===
Brazilian media in the 1990s reported a phenomenon of mass mugging and [organized crime](/source/organized_crime), termed {{lang|pt|arrastão}} ({{Literal translation|[dragnet](/source/Seine_fishing)}}).{{sfnm|1a1=Penglase|1y=2007|1p=306|2a1=Pereira Rosa|2y=2018|2p=188}} The term was coined for 1992 reports of mass muggings on beaches in the wealthy [southern region of Rio de Janeiro](/source/South_Zone_(Rio_de_Janeiro)). The only injury of these incidents was caused by a police officer, and only two muggings were reported, but many people believed there was a high rate of unreported muggings. Newspapers associated the {{lang|pt|arrastão}} with youths, particularly of the {{lang|pt|[funkeiro](/source/funkeiro)}} subculture, fans of the African-American [funk](/source/funk) music genre.{{sfn|Penglase|2007|pp=307–308}} According to anthropologist Ben Penglase, this media wave was similar to the racist reports of mugging in 1980s Britain, despite not explicitly mentioning race.{{sfn|Penglase|2007|p=307}} In Portugal, a twelve-day media wave about mass mugging began after a report by [Lusa News Agency](/source/Lusa_News_Agency) on June 10, 2005, about crime at [Carcavelos Beach](/source/Carcavelos). Media reports used the word {{lang|pt|arrastão}}, though police said there was no evidence of it.{{sfn|Pereira Rosa|2018|p=188}} Most national news outlets and many politicians framed it as a mass mugging. Reporters gave more attention to unrelated acts, mostly by racial minorities, to support a mass mugging wave.{{sfn|Pereira Rosa|2018|pp=198–201}}

In the 2000s, [conservatives in the United States](/source/conservatives_in_the_United_States) used the thesis, "A liberal is someone who has not been mugged," in support of a [law and order](/source/law_and_order_(politics)) ideology, though being a victim of crimes such as mugging was not correlated with conservatism.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1a2=Maruna|1y=2009|1pp=149, 161|2a1=Unnever|2a2=Cullen|2a3=Fisher|2y=2007|2pp=310–311, 322–326}} American media in the late 2000s frequently reported accounts of "payday muggings", which supposed that [Mexican Americans](/source/Mexican_Americans), who were thought to be likely to be [undocumented](/source/Illegal_immigration_to_the_United_States) and lack resources, were targeted by primarily Black muggers.{{sfn|Wortham|Allard|Lee|Mortimer|2011|p=9}}

Rates of personal robbery decreased during the [COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom](/source/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom) as there was less night-time economic activity.{{sfn|Wüllenweber|Burrell|2023|p=5}}

== Statistics ==
About 2% of crimes recorded in England and Wales in the 2000s and 2010s are personal robberies.{{sfn|Burrell|Bull|Bond|2012|p=203}} About one-third of personal robberies in the United Kingdom involve weapons, and about 40% of victims are injured.{{sfn|Burrell|Bull|Bond|2012|p=202}} Most perpetrators in the United Kingdom are groups of young men, and most victims are men.{{sfn|Burrell|Bull|Bond|2012|p=203}} In the country, fear of mugging is more prevalent among people who have been victims of it, as well as people who are women, non-white, lower-income, lower-educated, or unemployed, {{As of|2019|lc=y}}.{{sfn|Gray|Grasso|Farrall|Jennings|2019|pp=446–447}}

Mugging is less frequent in Canada than the United States, {{As of|2005|lc=y}}.{{sfn|Ouimet|2005|p=90}} In Norway, mugging is rare outside of criminal circles, but incidents are commonly reported in the media.{{sfn|Sandberg|Pedersen|2011|pp=128, 139}}

== References ==
===Citations===
{{reflist}}

=== Sources ===
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* {{Cite journal |last1=Jefferson |first1=Tony |last2=Clarke |first2=John |date=July 1974 |title=Down These Mean Streets: The Meaning of Mugging |journal=[The Howard Journal of Criminal Justice](/source/The_Howard_Journal_of_Criminal_Justice) |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=37–53 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2311.1974.tb00290.x|url=http://epapers.bham.ac.uk/2992/1/Jefferson_Clarke_SOP17.pdf }}
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* {{Cite book |last=Jefferson |first=Tony |chapter=Conjunctural Analysis Part Two: The Case of Policing the Crisis |date=July 1, 2021 |title=Stuart Hall, Conjunctural Analysis and Cultural Criminology |pages=39–54 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-74731-2_3 |publisher=[Palgrave MacMillan](/source/Palgrave_MacMillan) |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-74731-2_3 |isbn=978-3-030-74730-5}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Kalunta-Crumpton |first=Anita |date=June 2000 |title=Race in Popular and Courtroom Discourse of Violence |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/135822910000400204 |journal=[International Journal of Discrimination and the Law](/source/International_Journal_of_Discrimination_and_the_Law) |language=en |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=153–172 |doi=10.1177/135822910000400204 |issn=1358-2291|url-access=subscription }}
* {{Cite journal |last1=King |first1=Anna |last2=Maruna |first2=Shadd |date=April 2009 |title=Is a conservative just a liberal who has been mugged?: Exploring the origins of punitive views |journal=[Punishment & Society](/source/Punishment_%26_Society) |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=147–169 |doi=10.1177/1462474508101490 |issn=1462-4745}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Lawson |first=Sarah |date=Autumn–Winter 1972 |title=Mugging in Britain |journal=[American Speech](/source/American_Speech) |volume=47 |issue=3/4 |pages=306–307 |doi=10.2307/3087972|jstor=3087972 }}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Judith A.B. |last2=Rosenthal |first2=Susan J. |date=December 1983 |title=Working with Victims of Violent Assault |journal=Social Casework |volume=64 |issue=10 |pages=593–601 |doi=10.1177/104438948306401003 |issn=0037-7678}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Lejeune |first1=Robert |last2=Alex |first2=Nicholas |date=October 1973 |title=On Being Mugged: The Event and its Aftermath |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/089124167300200301 |journal=Urban Life and Culture |publisher=[Sage Publishing](/source/Sage_Publishing) |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=259–287 |doi=10.1177/089124167300200301 |issn=0049-5662|url-access=subscription }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Lejeune |first=Robert |date=July 1977 |title=The Management of a Mugging |journal=Urban Life |publisher=[Sage](/source/Sage_(publisher)) |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=123–148 |doi=10.1177/089124167700600201}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Lin |last2=Lan |first2=Minxuan |last3=Eck |first3=John E. |last4=Kang |first4=Emily Lei |date=March 1, 2020 |title=Assessing the effects of bus stop relocation on street robbery |journal=Computers, Environment and Urban Systems |volume=80 |article-number=101455 |doi=10.1016/j.compenvurbsys.2019.101455 |bibcode=2020CEUS...8001455L |issn=0198-9715}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Loader |first=I. |date=January 1, 2001 |title=The Power of Legitimate Naming: Part I--Chief Constables as Social Commentators in Post-War England |journal=[British Journal of Criminology](/source/British_Journal_of_Criminology) |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=41–55 |doi=10.1093/bjc/41.1.41}}
* {{Cite journal |last=McLaughlin |first=Eugene |date=April 2008 |title=Hitting the panic button: policing/'mugging'/media/crisis |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1741659007087280 |journal=[Crime, Media, Culture](/source/Crime%2C_Media%2C_Culture) |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=145–154 |doi=10.1177/1741659007087280 |issn=1741-6590|url-access=subscription }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Ouimet |first=Marc |date=August 16, 2005 |title=L'aigle et le castor: étude de la distribution spatiale de la criminalité aux États-Unis et au Canada |url=http://id.erudit.org/iderudit/017340ar |journal=Criminologie |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=85–102 |doi=10.7202/017340ar |issn=1492-1367 |lang=fr}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Penglase |first=Ben |date=December 2007 |title=Barbarians on the beach: Media narratives of violence in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil |journal=[Crime, Media, Culture](/source/Crime%2C_Media%2C_Culture) |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=305–325 |doi=10.1177/1741659007082468 |issn=1741-6590}}
* {{Cite book |last=Pereira Rosa |first=Gonçalo |chapter=How a Small-Scale Panic Turns into an Unstoppable News Wave About Mass Mugging on the Beach |date=2018 |title=From Media Hype to Twitter Storm |pages=187–208 |editor-last=Vasterman |editor-first=Peter |publisher=[Amsterdam University Press](/source/Amsterdam_University_Press) |doi=10.2307/j.ctt21215m0.13 |jstor=j.ctt21215m0.13 |isbn=978-94-6298-217-8}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Pitts |first=John |date=April 2020 |title=Black Young People and Gang Involvement in London |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1473225420912331 |journal=Youth Justice |volume=20 |issue=1–2 |pages=146–158 |doi=10.1177/1473225420912331 |issn=1473-2254|url-access=subscription }}
* {{Cite book |last=Porter |first=Louise E. |chapter=Robbery |date=April 29, 2010 |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Forensic Psychology |pages=535–542 |editor-last=Brown |editor-first=Jennifer M. |edition=1 |publisher=[Cambridge University Press](/source/Cambridge_University_Press) |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511730290.065 |hdl=10072/40847 |isbn=978-0-511-73029-0 |editor2-last=Campbell |editor2-first=Elizabeth A.}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Sandberg |first1=Sveinung |last2=Pedersen |first2=Willy |title=Street capital: Black cannabis dealers in a white welfare state |chapter=Violence and street culture |pages=122–140 |date=April 6, 2011 |publisher=Policy Press |isbn=978-1-84742-120-3 |doi=10.1332/policypress/9781847421203.001.0001}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=William R. |last2=Frazee |first2=Sharon Glave |last3=Davison |first3=Elizabeth L. |date=May 2000 |title=Furthering the Integration of Routine Activity and Social Disorganization Theories: Small units of analysis and the Study of Street Robbery as a Diffusion Process |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2000.tb00897.x |journal=Criminology |language=en |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=489–524 |doi=10.1111/j.1745-9125.2000.tb00897.x |issn=0011-1384|url-access=subscription }}
* {{Cite book |last=Stockdale |first=Janet E. |url=https://archive.org/details/tacklingstreetro0000stoc/ |title=Tackling Street Robbery: A Comparative Evaluation of Operation Eagle Eye |date=1998 |publisher=Home Office Police Research Group |page=1 |via=Internet Archive |isbn=978-1-84082-032-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Suddler |first=Carl |title=Presumed Criminal: Black Youth and the Justice System in Postwar New York|publisher=[NYU Press](/source/NYU_Press) |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-4798-1269-1 |pages=68–95 |chapter="Every Generation Has Had the Habit of Going to the Devil": Constructions of a Postwar Delinquent |id={{Project MUSE|2665967}} }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Tamony |first=Peter |date=April 1971 |title=1851 Vigilante Daguerrotypes: Modern Mugging |journal=[Western Folklore](/source/Western_Folklore) |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=127–132 |doi=10.2307/1499071|jstor=1499071 |doi-access=free }}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Unnever |first1=James D. |last2=Cullen |first2=Francis T. |last3=Fisher |first3=Bonnie S. |date=June 2007 |title='A Liberal Is Someone Who Has Not Been Mugged': Criminal Victimization and Political Beliefs |journal=[Justice Quarterly](/source/Justice_Quarterly) |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=309–334 |doi=10.1080/07418820701294862}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Waddington |first=P. A. J. |date=June 1986 |title=Mugging as a Moral Panic: A Question of Proportion |journal=[The British Journal of Sociology](/source/The_British_Journal_of_Sociology) |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=245–259 |doi=10.2307/590356|jstor=590356 }}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Wortham |first1=Stanton |last2=Allard |first2=Elaine |last3=Lee |first3=Kathy |last4=Mortimer |first4=Katherine |date=August 26, 2011 |title=Racialization in Payday Mugging Narratives |journal=Journal of Linguistic Anthropology |publisher=[American Anthropological Association](/source/American_Anthropological_Association) |volume=21 |issue=s1 |pages=E56–E75 |doi=10.1111/j.1548-1395.2011.001097.x}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Wüllenweber |first1=Sarah |last2=Burrell |first2=Amy |date=May 17, 2023 |title=The crime and the place: Robbery in the night-time economy |journal=[Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling](/source/Journal_of_Investigative_Psychology_and_Offender_Profiling) |publisher=[Wiley](/source/Wiley_(publisher)) |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=3–19 |doi=10.1002/jip.1616|doi-access=free }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Wykes |first=Maggie |date=August 2007 |title=Constructing crime: Culture, stalking, celebrity and cyber |journal=[Crime, Media, Culture](/source/Crime%2C_Media%2C_Culture) |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=158–174 |doi=10.1177/1741659007078541 |issn=1741-6590}}
{{refend}}

Category:Robbery
Category:Assault
Category:Moral panic

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Mugging](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mugging) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mugging?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.