# Monarchy
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{{Short description|Form of government ruled by a monarch, or a polity with this form of government}}
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A '''monarchy''' is a hereditary [form of government](/source/form_of_government) in which political power is legally passed on to the family members of the [monarch](/source/monarch), a head of state who rules for life.[{{cite book | last1=Bogdanor | first1=Vernon | title=The Monarchy and the Constitution | date=1995 | publisher=Clarendon Press | isbn=978-0-19-829334-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mN6SzMefot4C&dq=monarchy&pg=PA1 }}][{{cite book | last1=Spellman | first1=W. M. | title=Monarchies 1000-2000 | date=2001 | publisher=Reaktion Books | isbn=978-1-86189-087-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MRbExiEuYPsC&q=hereditary&pg=PA15 }}] While monarchs gain their power depending on specific succession laws, they can also gain their authority via [election](/source/elective_monarchy).[{{Cite episode | title = The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/m0010f8z | access-date = 29 March 2023 | series = In Our Time | series-link = In Our Time (radio series) | network = [BBC Radio 4](/source/BBC_Radio_4) | date = 14 October 2021}}]
Monarchies have historically been a common form of government. Nearly half of all independent states at the start of the 19th century were monarchies.[{{Cite book |last=Inata |first=Kana |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/61528/chapter/536674476 |title=Monarchies in the Contemporary World: Born to Rule or Bound to Fade? |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2025 |chapter=2. What Do We Know about Monarchies?}}] After reaching a peak in the middle of the 19th century, the proportion of monarchies in the world has steadily declined.[{{cite book | title=Political Systems, Structures, and Functions | date=June 2012 | publisher=Britannica Educational | isbn=978-1-61530-747-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3fScAAAAQBAJ&dq=%22decline%20of%20monarchies%22%20%2219th%20and%2020th%22&pg=PP1 }}][{{cite book | last1=Kimizuka | first1=Naotaka | title=Constitutional Monarchy of the Twenty-First Century | date=July 2024 | publisher=Springer | isbn=978-981-97-4327-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3JUREQAAQBAJ&dq=constitutional+monarchies&pg=PA8 }}]
There are conventionally two types of monarchy: absolute monarchy and constitutional monarchy.[{{cite web | title=Search 'monarch' on etymonline | url=https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=monarch |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251227222523/https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=monarch |archive-date=2025-12-27}}] The term ''monarchy'' dates back to the mid-14th century, when it referred to a kingdom or territory ruled by a monarch, and by the late 14th century it also meant rule by a single person with supreme power. It comes from Old French monarchie (13th century), meaning "sovereignty" or "absolute power," which was borrowed from Late Latin monarchia and ultimately from Greek monarkhia, "absolute rule," literally "ruling of one," from monos ("alone") and arkhein ("to rule").[{{cite web | title=Monarchy - Etymology, Origin & Meaning | url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/monarchy |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251228053727/https://www.etymonline.com/word/monarchy |archive-date=2025-12-28}}]
==History==
[[File:Sumerian King List, 1800 BC, Larsa, Iraq.jpg|thumb|upright|The [Weld-Blundell Prism](/source/Weld-Blundell_Prism), inscribed with the [Sumerian King List](/source/Sumerian_King_List)]]
The similar form of societal hierarchy known as [chiefdom](/source/chiefdom) or [tribal kingship](/source/Tribal_chief) is prehistoric. Chiefdoms provided the concept of state formation, which started with civilizations such as [Mesopotamia](/source/Mesopotamia), [Ancient Egypt](/source/Ancient_Egypt) and the [Indus Valley civilization](/source/Indus_Valley_Civilisation).[{{cite book|author=Conrad Phillip Kottak|title=Cultural Anthropology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_NLtAAAAMAAJ|year=1991|publisher=McGraw-Hill|isbn=978-0-07-035615-3|page=124}}] In some parts of the world, chiefdoms became monarchies.[{{cite book|author1=A. Adu Boahen|author2=J. F. Ade Ajayi|author3=Michael Tidy|title=Topics in West African History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xLoKAQAAIAAJ|year=1986|publisher=Longman Group|isbn=978-0-582-58504-1|page=19}}] Some of the oldest recorded and evidenced monarchies were those of [Narmer](/source/Narmer), [Pharaoh](/source/Pharaoh) of Ancient Egypt {{Circa|3100 BCE}}, and [Enmebaragesi](/source/Enmebaragesi), a [Sumer](/source/Sumer)ian King of [Kish](/source/Kish_(Sumer)) {{Circa|2600 BCE}}.[{{cite book | last1=Bunson | first1=Margaret | title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt | date=May 14, 2014 | publisher=Infobase | isbn=978-1-4381-0997-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-6EJ0G-4jyoC&dq=narmer+egypt&pg=PA262 }}][ Jacobsen The Sumerian King List pp. 82-85]
From the earliest records, monarchs could be directly hereditary, while others were elected from among eligible members. With the [Egyptian](/source/Pharaoh), [Chinese](/source/Outline_of_ancient_China), [Indian](/source/Outline_of_ancient_India),[''[https://books.google.com/books?id=t6A4DwAAQBAJ Political Violence in Ancient India]'', p.23, "In later Vedic texts, the frequency of the word "dharma" decreased and its connotations shrank; it came to be especially connected with kingship and with the royal consecration ritual known as the rājasūya."] [Mesopotamian](/source/Lugal), [Sudanic](/source/Sudanic_languages),[{{cite book|title=Traditions and encounters|quote=By about 5000 b.c.e. many Sudanic peoples had formed small monarchies ruled by kings who were viewed as divine or semidivine beings.|page=63|publisher=[McGraw–Hill Education](/source/McGraw%E2%80%93Hill_Education)}}] reconstructed [Proto-Indo-European religion](/source/Proto-Indo-European_mythology), but not others, the monarch held [sacral functions](/source/Sacred_king) directly connected to [sacrifice](/source/sacrifice) and was sometimes identified with having [divine ancestry](/source/imperial_cult), possibly establishing a notion of the [divine right of kings](/source/divine_right_of_kings).
[Polybius](/source/Polybius) identified monarchy as one of three "benign" basic forms of government (monarchy, [aristocracy](/source/aristocracy), and [democracy](/source/Democracy)), opposed to the three "malignant" basic forms of government ([tyranny](/source/Tyrant), [oligarchy](/source/oligarchy), and [ochlocracy](/source/Mob_rule)). The monarch in classical antiquity is often identified as "[king](/source/king)" or "ruler" (translating ''[archon](/source/archon)'', ''[basileus](/source/basileus)'', ''[rex](/source/rex_(title))'', ''[tyrannos](/source/Tyrant)'', etc.) or as "[queen](/source/Queen_regnant)" (''[basilinna](/source/basilinna)'', ''basilissa'', ''basileia'' or ''basilis'';[Liddell & Scott] ''regina''). Polybius originally understood monarchy as a component of [republics](/source/Republic), but since antiquity monarchy has contrasted with forms of republic, where executive power is wielded by free citizens and their assemblies.[{{cite web | title=Polybius • Histories — Book 5 | url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/polybius/5*.html }}] The 4th-century BCE Hindu text ''[Arthasastra](/source/Arthashastra)'' laid out the ethics of monarchism.[{{cite book|title=The Arthasastra: Selections from the Classic Indian Work on Statecraft|date=September 15, 2012|publisher=Hackett Publishing|isbn=9781603849029}}] In antiquity, some monarchies were [abolished](/source/Abolition_of_monarchy) in favour of such assemblies in [Rome](/source/Ancient_Rome) ([Roman Republic](/source/Roman_Republic), 509 BCE), and [Athens](/source/History_of_Athens) ([Athenian democracy](/source/Athenian_democracy), 500 BCE).
thumb|left|Map of monarchies and republics in Europe, 1648
By the 17th century, monarchy was challenged by evolving [parliamentarism](/source/Parliamentary_system) e.g. through regional assemblies (such as the [Icelandic Commonwealth](/source/Icelandic_Commonwealth), the Swiss ''[Landsgemeinde](/source/Landsgemeinde)'' and later ''[Tagsatzung](/source/Tagsatzung)'', and the High Medieval [communal movement](/source/Medieval_commune) linked to the rise of medieval [town privileges](/source/town_privileges)) and by modern anti-monarchism e.g. of the temporary overthrow of the [English monarchy](/source/Monarchy_of_the_United_Kingdom) by the [Parliament of England](/source/Parliament_of_England) in 1649, the [American Revolution](/source/American_Revolution) of 1776 and the [French Revolution](/source/French_Revolution) of 1789. One of many opponents of that trend was [Elizabeth Dawbarn](/source/Elizabeth_Dawbarn), whose anonymous ''Dialogue between Clara Neville and Louisa Mills, on Loyalty'' (1794) features "silly Louisa, who admires liberty, [Tom Paine](/source/Thomas_Paine) and the US, [who is] lectured by Clara on God's approval of monarchy" and on the influence women can exert on men.[''The Feminist Companion to Literature in English'', ed. Virginia Blain, Patricia Clements and Isobel Grundy, (London: Batsford, 1990), p. 272.]
Since then advocacy of the abolition of a monarchy or respectively of [republic](/source/republic)s has been called [republicanism](/source/republicanism), while the advocacy of monarchies is called [monarchism](/source/monarchism). As such republics have become the opposing and alternative form of government to monarchy,[{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UTkBAAAAYAAJ&q=%22res%20publica%22%20republic%20democracy%20monarch&pg=PA640|title=The Standard Library Cyclopedia of Political, Constitutional, Statistical and Forensic Knowledge|last=Bohn|first=H. G.|year=1849|pages=640|language=en|quote=A ''republic'', according to the modern usage of the word, signifies a political community which is not under monarchical government ... in which one person does not possess the entire sovereign power.}}][{{Cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/republic|title=Definition of Republic|website=Merriam-Webster Dictionary|language=en-US|access-date=2017-02-18|quote=a government having a chief of state who is not a monarch ... a government in which supreme power resides in a body of citizens entitled to vote and is exercised by elected officers and representatives responsible to them and governing according to law}}][{{Cite web|url=http://www.dictionary.com/browse/republic|title=The definition of republic|website=Dictionary.com|access-date=2017-02-18|quote=a state in which the supreme power rests in the body of citizens entitled to vote and is exercised by representatives chosen directly or indirectly by them. ... a state in which the head of government is not a monarch or other hereditary head of state.}}] despite some having seen [infringements](/source/President_for_life) through lifelong or even hereditary heads of state, such as in [North Korea](/source/North_Korea).[{{cite web|url=http://nautilus.org/publications/books/dprkbb/negotiating/dprk-briefing-book-korean-monarch-kim-jong-il-technocrat-ruler-of-the-hermit-kingdom-facing-the-challenge-of-modernity/ |title=Korean Monarch Kim Jong Il: Technocrat Ruler of the Hermit Kingdom Facing the Challenge of Modernity |publisher=[The Nautilus Institute](/source/Nautilus_Institute_for_Security_and_Sustainability) |access-date=18 December 2007 |last=Mansourov |first=Alexandre |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130922040313/http://nautilus.org/publications/books/dprkbb/negotiating/dprk-briefing-book-korean-monarch-kim-jong-il-technocrat-ruler-of-the-hermit-kingdom-facing-the-challenge-of-modernity/ |archive-date=22 September 2013 }}] Historically there have also been monarchical republics, such as the [Dutch Republic](/source/Dutch_Republic), and republican monarchies, such as the [Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth](/source/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth) and [Sweden](/source/Sweden) during the [Age of Liberty](/source/Age_of_Liberty) (1719–1772).[{{Cite book |last=Nordin |first=Jonas |title=Monarchy in the Age of Liberty: Royal power and public life in eighteenth-century Sweden |publisher=Lund University Press |year=2026 |isbn=978-91-98740-4-4-8 |pages=2–6 |doi=10.7765/9789198740448}}]
With the rise of republicanism, a diverse division between republicanism developed in the 19th-century politics (such as anti-monarchist [radicalism](/source/Classical_radicalism)) and [conservative](/source/Conservatism) or even [reactionary](/source/reactionary) [monarchism](/source/monarchism). In the following 20th century many countries abolished the monarchy and became republics, especially in the wake of [World War I](/source/World_War_I) and [World War II](/source/World_War_II).
Today forty-three sovereign nations in the world have a [monarch](/source/List_of_current_monarchs_of_sovereign_states), including fifteen [Commonwealth realm](/source/Commonwealth_realm)s that have [Charles III](/source/Charles_III) as the head of state. Most modern monarchs are [constitutional monarchs](/source/Constitutional_monarchy), who retain a unique legal and ceremonial role but exercise limited or no political power under a constitution. Many are so-called [crowned republic](/source/crowned_republic)s, surviving particularly in small states.[W. Veenendaal, "Monarchy and Democracy in Small States: An Ambiguous Symbiosis," in S. Wolf, ed., ''State Size Matters: Politik und Recht I'm Kontext von Kleinstaatlichkeit und Monarchie'' (Wiesbaden: Springer VS, 2016), pp. 183–198, {{doi|10.1007/978-3-658-07725-9_9}}, {{ISBN|978-3-658-07724-2|}}.]
In some nations, however, such as [Morocco](/source/Morocco), [Qatar](/source/Qatar), [Liechtenstein](/source/Liechtenstein), and [Thailand](/source/Thailand), the hereditary monarch has more political influence than any other single source of authority in the state.[{{cite web | title=Seven myths about democracy in Morocco | url=https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/north-africa-west-asia/seven-myths-about-democracy-in-morocco/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260109051547/https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/north-africa-west-asia/seven-myths-about-democracy-in-morocco/ |archive-date=2026-01-09}}][{{cite news | title=Thailand's king seeks to bring back absolute monarchy | newspaper=The Economist | url=https://www.economist.com/briefing/2020/10/14/thailands-king-seeks-to-bring-back-absolute-monarchy }}][{{cite encyclopedia | title=Qatar - Politics, Economy, Society | Britannica | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica | url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Qatar/Government-and-society }}][{{cite web | last1=Bertolini | first1=Elisa | editor-first1=Laura | editor-last1=Hood | title=Europe's microstates: The medieval monarchies that survive in our midst | date=December 23, 2024 | doi=10.64628/AB.qaqpc5xh5 | url=https://theconversation.com/europes-microstates-the-medieval-monarchies-that-survive-in-our-midst-245328 }}]
According to a 2020 study, monarchy arose as a system of governance because of an efficiency in governing large populations and expansive territories during periods when coordinating such populations was difficult. The authors argue that monarchy declined as an efficient regime type with innovations in communications and transportation technology, as the efficiency of monarchy relative to other regime types declined.[{{Cite journal |last1=Gerring |first1=John |last2=Wig |first2=Tore |last3=Veenendaal |first3=Wouter |last4=Weitzel |first4=Daniel |last5=Teorell |first5=Jan |last6=Kikuta |first6=Kyosuke |date=2020 |title=Why Monarchy? The Rise and Demise of a Regime Type |url=http://urn.nb.no/URN:NBN:no-87297 |journal=Comparative Political Studies |language=en |volume=54 |issue=3–4 |pages=585–622 |doi=10.1177/0010414020938090 |issn=0010-4140 |s2cid=225612565 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10852/84589}}]
According to a 2023 study, monarchy has persisted as a regime type because it can accommodate demands for [democratization](/source/democratization) better than other forms of autocratic rule: "Monarchies can democratize without destabilizing the leadership through transitioning to a democratic [constitutional monarchy](/source/constitutional_monarchy). The prospect of retaining the ruler appeals to opposition groups who value both democracy and stability, but it also has implications for their ability to organize and sustain mass protest."[{{Cite journal |last=Lawrence |first=Adria |date=2023 |title=Why Monarchies Still Reign |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/1/article/886932 |journal=Journal of Democracy |language=en |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=47–61 |doi=10.1353/jod.2023.0017 |s2cid=258184108 |issn=1086-3214|url-access=subscription }}]
==Characteristics and role==
[[File:Allan Ramsay - King George III in coronation robes - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright|[King George III of the United Kingdom](/source/George_III), [coronation portrait](/source/Coronation_Portrait_of_George_III) by [Allan Ramsay](/source/Allan_Ramsay_(artist)), 1762]]
Monarchies are associated with [hereditary reign](/source/Hereditary_monarchy), in which monarchs reign for life and the responsibilities and power of the position pass to their child or another member of their family when they die. Most monarchs, both historically and in the modern-day, have been born and brought up within a [royal family](/source/royal_family), the centre of the [royal household](/source/royal_household) and [court](/source/Royal_court). Growing up in a royal family (called a [dynasty](/source/dynasty) when it continues for several [generation](/source/generation)s), [future monarchs](/source/heir_apparent) are often trained for their expected future responsibilities as monarch.[{{Cite web |last=UCL |date=2021-11-08 |title=What is the role of the monarchy? |url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/constitution-unit/explainers/what-role-monarchy |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=The Constitution Unit |language=en}}]
Different systems of hereditary [succession](/source/Order_of_succession) have been used, such as [proximity of blood](/source/proximity_of_blood), [primogeniture](/source/primogeniture), and [agnatic seniority](/source/agnatic_seniority) ([Salic law](/source/Salic_law)). While most monarchs in history have been male, many female monarchs also have reigned.[{{Cite journal |last=Beemer |first=Cristy |date=2011 |title=The Female Monarchy: A Rhetorical Strategy of Early Modern Rule |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23064026 |journal=Rhetoric Review |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=258–274 |doi=10.1080/07350198.2011.581937 |jstor=23064026 |s2cid=144455583 |issn=0735-0198|url-access=subscription }}] The term "[queen regnant](/source/queen_regnant)" refers to a ruling monarch, while "[queen consort](/source/queen_consort)" refers to the wife of a reigning king. Rule may be hereditary in practice without being considered a monarchy: there have been some family dictatorships (and also [political families](/source/Political_family)) in many [democracies](/source/Democracy).
Some monarchies are not hereditary. In an [elective monarchy](/source/elective_monarchy), monarchs are [elected](/source/Election) or appointed by some body (an [electoral college](/source/electoral_college)) for life or a defined period. Four elective monarchies exist today: [Cambodia](/source/Cambodia), [Malaysia](/source/Malaysia) and the [United Arab Emirates](/source/United_Arab_Emirates) are 20th-century creations, while one (the [papacy](/source/Pope)) is ancient.[{{Cite web|title=The Definition of an Elective Monarchy|url=https://www.theclassroom.com/definition-elective-monarchy-5221.html|access-date=2021-08-30|website=The Classroom {{!}} Empowering Students in Their College Journey|language=en}}]
A [self-proclaimed monarchy](/source/self-proclaimed_monarchy) is established when a person claims the monarchy without any historical ties to a previous dynasty. There are examples of republican leaders who have proclaimed themselves monarchs: [Napoleon I of France](/source/Napoleon) declared himself [Emperor of the French](/source/List_of_French_monarchs) and ruled the [First French Empire](/source/First_French_Empire) after having held the title of [First Consul](/source/French_Consulate) of the [French Republic](/source/French_First_Republic) for five years from his seizing power in the coup of [18 Brumaire](/source/Coup_of_18_Brumaire). President [Jean-Bédel Bokassa](/source/Jean-B%C3%A9del_Bokassa) of the [Central African Republic](/source/Central_African_Republic) declared himself Emperor of the [Central African Empire](/source/Central_African_Empire) in 1976.[{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/the-central-african-republic-where-emperor-bokassa-ruled-with-violence-and-greed-1.1750805|title=The Central African Republic, where Emperor Bokassa ruled with violence and greed|last=Marlowe|first=Lara|newspaper=The Irish Times|language=en|access-date=2019-02-05}}] [Yuan Shikai](/source/Yuan_Shikai), the first formal President of the [Republic of China](/source/Beiyang_government), crowned himself Emperor of the short-lived "[Empire of China](/source/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916))" a few years after the Republic of China was founded.[[Spence, Jonathan D.](/source/Jonathan_Spence) (1999) ''[The Search for Modern China](/source/The_Search_for_Modern_China)'', [W.W. Norton and Company](/source/W.W._Norton_and_Company). p. 274. {{ISBN|0-393-97351-4}}.]
===Powers of the monarch===
[[File:Salman of Saudi Arabia - 2020 (49563590728) (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|King [Salman of Saudi Arabia](/source/Salman_of_Saudi_Arabia) is an absolute monarch.]]
* In an [absolute monarchy](/source/absolute_monarchy), the monarch rules with absolute power over the state and government.[{{cite book | last1=Konnert | first1=Mark | title=Early Modern Europe: The Age of Religious War, 1559-1715 | date=23 August 2008 | publisher=University of Toronto Press | isbn=978-1-4426-0004-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t6TXB9RbwbYC&dq=absolute%20monarchy&pg=PA165 }}]
* In a [constitutional monarchy](/source/constitutional_monarchy), the monarch's power is subject to a [constitution](/source/constitution). In most current constitutional monarchies, the monarch is mainly a ceremonial [figurehead](/source/figurehead) symbol of national unity and state continuity.
** [Semi-constitutional monarchies](/source/Constitutional_monarchy) exhibit fewer parliamentary powers or simply monarchs with more authority.[{{cite web |url=https://ecpr.eu/Events/PaperDetails.aspx?PaperID=30190&EventID=95 |title=Semi presidential systems and semi constitutional monarchies: A historical assessment of executive power-sharing |last1=Anckar|first1=Carsten|last2=Akademi|first2=Åbo |date=2016|publisher=European Consortium for Political Research (ECPR) |access-date=2019-08-14}}] The term "parliamentary monarchy" may be used to differentiate from semi-constitutional monarchies.
==Succession==
===Hereditary monarchies===
[[File:European monarchies by succession.svg|thumb|alt=Political Map of Europe with Monarchical states colour-coded |Current European monarchies by succession method:
{{legend|#018571|[Absolute primogeniture](/source/Absolute_primogeniture)|size=94%}}
{{legend|#dfc27d|[Male-preference cognatic primogeniture](/source/Male-preference_cognatic_primogeniture), to be changed to absolute primogeniture|size=94%}}
{{legend|#a6611a|[Male-preference cognatic primogeniture](/source/Male-preference_cognatic_primogeniture)|size=94%}}
{{legend|#000000|[Agnatic primogeniture](/source/Agnatic_primogeniture)|size=94%}}
{{legend|#f5f5f5|[Elective](/source/Elective_monarchy)|size=94%}}]]
In a [hereditary monarchy](/source/hereditary_monarchy), the position of monarch is inherited according to a statutory or customary [order of succession](/source/order_of_succession), usually within one [royal family](/source/royal_family) tracing its origin through a historical [dynasty](/source/dynasty) or bloodline. This usually means that the heir to the throne is known well in advance of becoming monarch to ensure a smooth succession.[{{Cite journal|last=Kurrild-Klitgaard|first=Peter|date=2000|title=The constitutional economics of autocratic succession|journal=Public Choice|volume=103|issue=1/2|pages=63–84|doi=10.1023/A:1005078532251|s2cid=154097838|issn=0048-5829}}][{{Cite book|last=Kurrild-Klitgaard|first=Peter|title=The Encyclopedia of Public Choice |chapter=Autocratic Succession |date=2004|volume=103|pages=358–362|doi=10.1007/978-0-306-47828-4_39|isbn=978-0-306-47828-4}}]
[Primogeniture](/source/Primogeniture), in which the eldest child of the monarch is first in line to become monarch, is the most common system in hereditary monarchy. The order of succession is usually affected by rules on gender. Historically "agnatic primogeniture" or "patrilineal primogeniture" was favoured, that is inheritance according to seniority of birth among the sons of a monarch or [head of family](/source/Pater_familias), with sons and their male issue inheriting before brothers and their male issue, to the total exclusion of females and descendants through females from succession.[[https://runeberg.org/nfcj/0023.html Tronföljd], ''[Nordisk familjebok](/source/Nordisk_familjebok)'', vol. 30 (1920)] This complete exclusion of females from dynastic succession is commonly referred to as application of the [Salic law](/source/Salic_law). Another variation on agnatic primogeniture was the so-called semi-Salic law, or "agnatic-cognatic primogeniture", which allowed women to succeed only at the extinction of all the male descendants in the male line of the particular legislator.[[https://runeberg.org/nfcj/0023.html Tronföljd], ''[Nordisk familjebok](/source/Nordisk_familjebok)'', vol. 30 (1920)][[SOU](/source/Statens_offentliga_utredningar) 1977:5 ''Kvinnlig tronföljd'', p. 16.]
Before primogeniture was enshrined in European law and tradition, kings would often secure the succession by having their successor (usually their eldest son) crowned during their own lifetime, so for a time there would be two kings in [coregency](/source/coregency)—a senior king and a junior king. Examples were [Henry the Young King](/source/Henry_the_Young_King) of England and the early [Direct Capetians](/source/House_of_Capet) in France. Sometimes, however, primogeniture can operate through the female line.
[[File:NICAISE Leopold ANV.jpg|left|thumb|upright|King [Leopold I](/source/Leopold_I_of_Belgium), an elected founder of the hereditary [monarchy of Belgium](/source/monarchy_of_Belgium)]]
In 1980, [Sweden](/source/Sweden) became the first monarchy to declare equal (full cognatic) primogeniture, meaning that the eldest child of the monarch, whether female or male, ascends to the throne.[[SOU](/source/Statens_offentliga_utredningar) 1977:5 ''Kvinnlig tronföljd'', p. 16.] Other kingdoms (such as the [Netherlands](/source/Netherlands) in 1983, [Norway](/source/Norway) in 1990, [Belgium](/source/Belgium) in 1991, [Denmark](/source/Denmark) in 2009, and [Luxembourg](/source/Luxembourg)[[https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-15489544 "Overturning Centuries of Royal Rules"] (2011-10-28). ''BBC.com''. Retrieved 2018-11-02.] in 2011) have since followed suit. The [United Kingdom](/source/United_Kingdom) adopted absolute (equal) primogeniture (subject to the claims of existing heirs) on April 25, 2013, following [agreement by the prime ministers of the sixteen Commonwealth Realms](/source/Perth_Agreement) at the 22nd Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting.[{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-32073399|title=New rules on royal succession come into effect|work=BBC News|date=March 26, 2015|access-date=1 August 2019}}]
Other hereditary systems of succession included [tanistry](/source/tanistry), which is semi-elective and gives weight to merit and [Agnatic seniority](/source/Agnatic_seniority). In some monarchies, such as [Saudi Arabia](/source/Saudi_Arabia), succession to the throne first passes to the monarch's next eldest brother, and only after that to the monarch's children (agnatic seniority). On June 21, 2017, King Salman of Saudi Arabia revolted against this style of monarchy and elected his son to inherit the throne.[{{Cite journal|last=Chara|first=Jihan|date=2018-10-01|title=Saudi Arabia: A prince's revolution|journal=European View|language=en|volume=17|issue=2|pages=227–234|doi=10.1177/1781685818803525|issn=1781-6858|doi-access=free}}][{{cite web | title=Is Power Trumping Legitimacy in Saudi Arabia? | date=April 20, 2022 | url=https://arabcenterdc.org/resource/is-power-trumping-legitimacy-in-saudi-arabia/ }}]
===Elective monarchies===
{{see also|Jure uxoris}}
[[File:Pope Francis Korea Haemi Castle 19.jpg|thumb|[Pope Francis](/source/Pope_Francis), Sovereign of the [Vatican City State](/source/Vatican_City) from 2013 to 2025]]
In an [elective monarchy](/source/elective_monarchy), monarchs are [elected](/source/Election) or appointed by somebody (an [electoral college](/source/electoral_college)) for life or a defined period, but then reign like any other monarch. There is no popular vote involved in elective monarchies, as the elective body usually consists of a small number of eligible people. Historical examples of elective monarchy are the [Holy Roman Emperor](/source/Holy_Roman_Emperor)s (chosen by [prince-elector](/source/prince-elector)s but often coming from the same dynasty) and the [free election](/source/Royal_elections_in_Poland) of kings of the [Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth](/source/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth). For example, [Pepin the Short](/source/Pepin_the_Short) (father of [Charlemagne](/source/Charlemagne)) was elected [King of the Franks](/source/List_of_Frankish_kings) by an assembly of Frankish leading men;[{{Cite book |first=John |last=Middleton |title=World monarchies and dynasties |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7656-8050-1 |oclc=920786632}}] nobleman [Stanisław August Poniatowski](/source/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski) of Poland was an elected king, as was [Frederick I of Denmark](/source/Frederick_I_of_Denmark). [Gallic](/source/Gauls) and [Germanic peoples](/source/Germanic_peoples) also had elective monarchies.
The [Pope](/source/Pope) of the [Roman Catholic Church](/source/Catholic_Church) (who rules as [Sovereign](/source/Sovereign) of the [Vatican City State](/source/Vatican_City)) is [elected](/source/Papal_conclave) for life by the [College of Cardinals](/source/College_of_Cardinals).[{{cite web | title=How is a New Pope Chosen? | USCCB | url=https://www.usccb.org/offices/public-affairs/how-new-pope-chosen }}] In the [Sovereign Military Order of Malta](/source/Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta), the [Prince and Grand Master](/source/List_of_grand_masters_of_the_Knights_Hospitaller) is elected for life tenure by the Council Complete of State from within its members. In [Malaysia](/source/Malaysia), the federal king, called the [Yang di-Pertuan Agong](/source/Yang_di-Pertuan_Agong) or Paramount Ruler, is elected for a five-year term from among and by the hereditary rulers (mostly [sultan](/source/sultan)s) of nine of the federation's constitutive [states](/source/States_and_federal_territories_of_Malaysia), all on the [Malay peninsula](/source/Malay_Peninsula).[{{cite book | last1=Nohlen | first1=Dieter | last2=Grotz | first2=Florian | last3=Hartmann | first3=Christof | title=Elections in Asia and the Pacific : A Data Handbook: Volume II: South East Asia, East Asia, and the South Pacific | date=November 15, 2001 | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-153042-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qQ1REAAAQBAJ&dq=yang%20di%20pertuan%20agong%20election&pg=PA149 }}] The [United Arab Emirates](/source/United_Arab_Emirates) also chooses its federal leaders from among emirs of the federated states. Furthermore, [Andorra](/source/Andorra) has a unique constitutional arrangement as one of its heads of state is the President of the [French Republic](/source/France) in the form of a [Co-Prince](/source/Co-Princes_of_Andorra).[{{cite book | last1=Gendźwiłł | first1=Adam | last2=Kjaer | first2=Ulrik | last3=Steyvers | first3=Kristof | title=The Routledge Handbook of Local Elections and Voting in Europe | date=February 27, 2022 | publisher=Routledge | isbn=978-1-000-53122-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hLdZEAAAQBAJ&dq=andorra+king+election&pg=PT240 }}] In New Zealand, the Maori King, head of the Kingitanga Movement, is elected by a council of Maori elders at the funeral of their predecessor, which is also where their coronation takes place. All of the Heads of the Maori King Movement have been descendants of the first Maori King, Potatau Te Wherowhero, who was elected and became King in June 1858.
===Usurpation===
{{main|Usurper}}
Another way monarchs have historically gained royal power is by seizing it, either by force or other illegitimate measures. Historically usurpation has usually happened via a [coup](/source/coup_detat) or by fraudulently claiming be a descendant of a ruler that they may or may not be related to. According to [Herodotus](/source/Herodotus), this was done by someone impersonating [Smerdis](/source/Smerdis) in order to seize the throne of [Cyrus the Great](/source/Cyrus_the_Great) after his death.[Herodotus, ''The Histories'' Book 3, [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Herodotus/3c*.html 61–79]]
===Other ways of succession===
{{see also|Order of succession|Self-proclaimed monarchy|Legitimacy (political)}}
====By accession====
{{See also|Enthronement}}
The legitimacy and authorities of monarchs are often [proclaimed](/source/Proclamation) and recognized through occupying and being [invested](/source/investiture) with [insignia](/source/insignia), seats, [deed](/source/deed)s and [title](/source/title)s, like in the course of [coronation](/source/coronation)s.
This is especially employed to legitimize and settle disputed successions, changes in ways of succession, status of a monarch (e.g. as in the case of the [''privilegium maius''](/source/Privilegium_Maius) deed) or new monarchies altogether (e.g. as in the case of the [coronation of Napoleon I](/source/Coronation_of_Napoleon)).
====Succession crisis====
{{Main|Succession crisis}}
In cases of succession challenges, it can be instrumental for [pretender](/source/pretender)s to secure or install [legitimacy](/source/Legitimacy_(political)) through the above, for example proof of accession like insignia, through treaties or a claim of a divine mandate to rule (e.g. by [Hong Xiuquan](/source/Hong_Xiuquan) and his [Taiping Heavenly Kingdom](/source/Taiping_Heavenly_Kingdom)).
== Current monarchies ==
{{Main article|List of current monarchs of sovereign states}}
{{Basic Forms of government}}
{{Systems of government}}
Currently, there are several countries in the world with a monarch as head of state. They fall roughly into the following categories:
=== Commonwealth realms ===
[King Charles III](/source/Charles_III) is, separately, monarch of fifteen [Commonwealth realm](/source/Commonwealth_realm)s ([Antigua and Barbuda](/source/Antigua_and_Barbuda), the [Commonwealth of Australia](/source/Australia), the [Commonwealth of the Bahamas](/source/The_Bahamas), [Belize](/source/Belize), [Canada](/source/Canada), [Grenada](/source/Grenada), [Jamaica](/source/Jamaica), [New Zealand](/source/New_Zealand), the [Independent State of Papua New Guinea](/source/Papua_New_Guinea), the [Federation of Saint Christopher and Nevis](/source/Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis), [Saint Lucia](/source/Saint_Lucia), [Saint Vincent and the Grenadines](/source/Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines), the [Solomon Islands](/source/Solomon_Islands), [Tuvalu](/source/Tuvalu) and the [United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland](/source/United_Kingdom)). They evolved out of the [British Empire](/source/British_Empire) into fully independent states within the [Commonwealth of Nations](/source/Commonwealth_of_Nations) that retain the King as head of state.[{{cite web | title=Realms and Commonwealth | website=The Royal Family | url=https://www.royal.uk/clarencehouse/features/realms-and-commonwealth }}]
=== Other European constitutional monarchies ===
The [Principality of Andorra](/source/Andorra), the [Kingdom of Belgium](/source/Belgium), the [Kingdom of Denmark](/source/Danish_Realm), the [Grand Duchy of Luxembourg](/source/Luxembourg), the [Kingdom of the Netherlands](/source/Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands), the [Kingdom of Norway](/source/Norway), the [Kingdom of Spain](/source/Spain), and the [Kingdom of Sweden](/source/Sweden) are fully democratic states in which the monarch has a limited or largely ceremonial role.[{{cite web | title=Andorra: Freedom in the World 2024 Country Report | url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/andorra/freedom-world/2024 }}][{{cite web | title=Belgium – EU country profile | European Union | url=https://european-union.europa.eu/principles-countries-history/eu-countries/belgium_en }}][{{cite encyclopedia | title=Denmark - Politics, Constitution, Monarchy | Britannica | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica | url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Denmark/Political-process }}][{{cite encyclopedia | title=Spain | History, Map, Flag, Population, Currency, Climate, & Facts | Britannica | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica | url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Spain }}]
Andorra is unique among all existing monarchies, as it is a [diarchy](/source/diarchy), with the co-princes being shared by the [president of France](/source/president_of_France) and the [bishop of Urgell](/source/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Urgell).[Bertolini, E. (2024, December 23). Europe’s microstates: The medieval monarchies that survive in our midst. The Conversation.] For example, the [2003 Constitution referendum](/source/2003_Liechtenstein_constitutional_referendum) gave the [Prince of Liechtenstein](/source/Monarchy_of_Liechtenstein) the power to veto any law that the ''[Landtag](/source/Landtag)'' (parliament) proposes, while the Landtag can veto any law that the Prince tries to pass.[Bertolini, E. (2024, December 23). Europe’s microstates: The medieval monarchies that survive in our midst. The Conversation.] The prince can appoint or dismiss any elective member or government employee. The [prince of Monaco](/source/Monarchy_of_Monaco) has simpler powers; he cannot appoint or dismiss any elective member or government employee to or from his or her post, but he can elect the [minister of state](/source/Minister_of_State_(Monaco)), [government council](/source/Politics_of_Monaco) and judges.[Bertolini, E. (2024, December 23). Europe’s microstates: The medieval monarchies that survive in our midst. The Conversation.]
===Monarchies in the Muslim world===
The monarchies of the [Kingdom of Bahrain](/source/Bahrain), the [Brunei Darussalam](/source/Brunei), the [Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan](/source/Jordan), the [State of Kuwait](/source/Kuwait), [Malaysia](/source/Malaysia), the [Kingdom of Morocco](/source/Morocco), the [Sultanate of Oman](/source/Oman), the [State of Qatar](/source/Qatar), the [Kingdom of Saudi Arabia](/source/Saudi_Arabia), and the [United Arab Emirates](/source/United_Arab_Emirates) generally retain far more powers than their European or Commonwealth counterparts.[{{cite book | last1=Jung | first1=Dietrich | title=Muslim History and Social Theory: A Global Sociology of Modernity | date=March 24, 2017 | publisher=Springer | isbn=978-3-319-52608-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aqR6DgAAQBAJ&dq=muslim%20monarchies&pg=PA40 }}] Brunei, Oman, and Saudi Arabia are absolute monarchies;[{{cite web | title=Not all monarchs have lost power. Here are a few countries where royals really rule | website=[Los Angeles Times](/source/Los_Angeles_Times) | date=May 4, 2019 | url=https://www.latimes.com/world/la-fg-countries-where-monarchs-still-rule-20190503-story.html }}][{{cite web | title=A Visitor's Guide to Oman, the Middle East's Most Welcoming Absolute Monarchy | website=[Vanity Fair](/source/Vanity_Fair_(magazine)) | date=May 5, 2014 | url=https://www.vanityfair.com/news/politics/2014/05/extremism-free-middle-east-oman }}] Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar and United Arab Emirates are classified as mixed, meaning there are representative bodies but the monarch retains most of his powers. Jordan, Malaysia, and Morocco are constitutional monarchies.
===East and Southeast Asian constitutional monarchies===
The [Kingdom of Bhutan](/source/Bhutan), the [Kingdom of Cambodia](/source/Cambodia), the [Kingdom of Thailand](/source/Thailand), and [Japan](/source/Japan) are constitutional monarchies where the monarch has a limited or merely ceremonial role. Bhutan made the change in 2008.[{{Cite web |last=Xavier |first=Constantino |date=2020-07-08 |title=Bhutan's democratic transition and ties to India |url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2020/07/08/bhutans-democratic-transition-and-ties-to-india/ |access-date=2022-04-16 |website=Brookings |language=en-US}}] Cambodia had its own monarchy after independence from the [French colonial empire](/source/French_colonial_empire), but it was deposed after the [Khmer Rouge](/source/Khmer_Rouge) came into power. The monarchy was subsequently restored in the peace agreement of 1993. Thailand transitioned into a constitutional monarchy over the course of the 20th century. Japan has had a monarchy, an [emperor](/source/Emperor_of_Japan), according to legend, since Emperor Jimmu (reigned 660–585 BCE), making it the world's oldest existing monarchy.[{{Cite web |last1=Cartwright |first1=Mark |title=Emperor of Japan |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Emperor_of_Japan/ |access-date=2022-04-16 |website=World History Encyclopedia |date=July 10, 2019 |language=en}}] After their defeat in the [Second World War](/source/World_War_II), Japan was forced into limiting the power of the Emperor, giving almost all of it to the [National Diet](/source/National_Diet).
===Other monarchies===
Eswatini is unique among these monarchies, often being considered a [diarchy](/source/diarchy): the King, or [Ngwenyama](/source/Ngwenyama), rules alongside his mother, the [Ndlovukati](/source/Ndlovukati), as dual heads of state.[{{Cite journal |date=1999-02-22 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/arbp.1999.36.issue-1 |journal=Africa Research Bulletin: Political, Social and Cultural Series |volume=36 |issue=1 |doi=10.1111/arbp.1999.36.issue-1 |issn=0001-9844|url-access=subscription }}][{{Cite web |title=BTI 2022 Eswatini Country Report |url=https://bti-project.org/en/reports/country-report?isocode=SWZ&cHash=146c71974628ab13a493684f16c20c20 |access-date=2023-11-12 |website=BTI 2022 |language=en}}] This was originally intended to provide a check on political power. The Ngwenyama, however, is considered the administrative head of state, while the Ndlovukati is considered the spiritual and national head of state, a position which more or less has become symbolic in recent years.[{{cite news |last1=Thom |first1=Liezl |title=Princess Sikhanyiso Dlamini of Eswatini is looking to the future while embracing her roots |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/princess-sikhanyiso-dlamini-eswatini-future-embracing-roots/story?id=77224505 |access-date=8 August 2021 |work=ABC News |date=28 April 2021}}]
The [Pope](/source/Pope) is the absolute monarch of the Vatican City State (a separate entity from the [Holy See](/source/Holy_See)) by virtue of his position as head of the [Roman Catholic Church](/source/Catholic_Church) and Bishop of Rome; he is an elected rather than a hereditary ruler, and does not have to be a citizen of the territory prior to his election by the cardinals.[{{Cite journal |last=Marans |first=Noam E. |date=2015-04-09 |title=The Pope Francis Effect and Catholic-Jewish Relations |journal=Studies in Christian-Jewish Relations |volume=10 |issue=1 |doi=10.6017/scjr.v10i1.8659 |issn=1930-3777|doi-access=free }}][{{Citation |title=Holy See (Vatican City) |date=2023-11-01 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/holy-see-vatican-city/#government |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102144936/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/holy-see-vatican-city/#government |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 2, 2023 |work=The World Factbook |access-date=2023-11-12 |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |language=en}}]
In [Samoa](/source/Samoa), the position of head of state is described in Part III of the 1960 [Samoan constitution](/source/Constitution_of_Samoa). At the time the constitution was adopted, it was anticipated that future heads of state would be chosen from among the four Tama a 'Aiga "royal" paramount chiefs. However, this is not required by the constitution, and, for this reason, Samoa can be considered a [parliamentary republic](/source/parliamentary_republic) rather than a [constitutional monarchy](/source/constitutional_monarchy). However, each member of the [Samoan parliament](/source/Legislative_Assembly_of_Samoa), except for the two seats reserved for non-Samoans, must be a ''matai'', a member of the hereditary political system known as the [Faʻamatai](/source/Fa%CA%BBamatai).[{{cite book
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZUpmpeJz-8gC
|title=New Politics in the South pacific
|first= Jean
|last=Drage
|page=162
|year=1994
|publisher=Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific
|isbn=9789820201156
|access-date=11 April 2010
}}]
The [ruling Kim family](/source/Kim_family_(North_Korea)) in [North Korea](/source/North_Korea) ([Kim Il Sung](/source/Kim_Il_Sung), [Kim Jong Il](/source/Kim_Jong_Il) and [Kim Jong Un](/source/Kim_Jong_Un)) has been described as a ''de facto'' [absolute monarchy](/source/absolute_monarchy)[Young W. Kihl, Hong Nack Kim. ''North Korea: The Politics of Regime Survival''. Armonk, New York, USA: M. E. Sharpe, Inc., 2006. Pp 56.][Robert A. Scalapino, Chong-Sik Lee. ''The Society''. University of California Press, 1972. Pp. 689.][Bong Youn Choy. A history of the Korean reunification movement: its issues and prospects. Research Committee on Korean Reunification, Institute of International Studies, Bradley University, 1984. Pp. 117.] or a "hereditary dictatorship".[{{Cite news |last=Sheridan |first=Michael |date=16 September 2007 |title=A tale of two dictatorships: The links between North Korea and Syria |work=[The Times](/source/The_Times) |location=London |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article2452356.ece |url-status=dead |access-date=9 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219000655/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article2452356.ece |archive-date=19 February 2008}}] In 2013, Clause 2 of Article 10 of the new edited [Ten Fundamental Principles](/source/Ten_Principles_for_the_Establishment_of_a_Monolithic_Ideological_System) of the [Korean Workers' Party](/source/Workers'_Party_of_Korea) states that the party and revolution must be carried "eternally" by the "[Baekdu](/source/Paektu_Mountain) (Kim's) bloodline".[[http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2013/08/13/2013081301558.html The Twisted Logic of the N.Korean Regime], Chosun Ilbo, 2013-08-13, Accessed date: 2017-01-11] This though does not mean it is a ''de jure'' absolute monarchy, as the country's official name is the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. The [al-Assad family](/source/al-Assad_family), which ruled [Syria](/source/Syria) from 1971 to 2024, was similarly categorised as such.