# Mikhail Gorbachev > Mediated Wiki article. Canonical URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Mikhail_Gorbachev > Markdown URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Mikhail_Gorbachev.md > Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev > Source revision: 1356719077 > License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) {{Short description|Leader of the Soviet Union from 1985 to 1991}} {{Redirect|Gorbachev|other people with the surname|Gorbachev (surname)}} {{Good article}} {{Use American English|date=October 2022}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2025}} {{Infobox officeholder | native_name = {{nobold|Михаил Горбачёв}} | native_name_lang = ru | image = RIAN archive 850809 General Secretary of the CPSU CC M. Gorbachev (crop).jpg | image_size = | alt = Head shot of Gorbachev speaking and facing right | caption = Gorbachev in 1987 | office = [President of the Soviet Union](/source/President_of_the_Soviet_Union) | term_start = 15 March 1990 | term_end = 25 December 1991{{efn|Briefly suspended from 19 to 21 August 1991 during the [August Coup](/source/August_Coup), when coup leaders proclaimed Vice President Yanayev as the Acting President.}} | prime_minister = [Nikolai Ryzhkov](/source/Nikolai_Ryzhkov) (as Premier)
[Valentin Pavlov](/source/Valentin_Pavlov)
[Ivan Silayev](/source/Ivan_Silayev) (de facto) | vice_president = [Gennady Yanayev](/source/Gennady_Yanayev){{Efn|''De facto'' until 21 August 1991; ''de jure'' until 4 September.}} | predecessor = ''Himself as [Chairman of the Supreme Soviet](/source/Chairman_of_the_Supreme%26nbsp%3BSoviet)'' | successor = {{Italics correction|[''Office abolished''](/source/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union)}}{{efn|This post was abolished on [25 December 1991](/source/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union) and powers were transferred to [Boris Yeltsin](/source/Boris_Yeltsin), the [President of Russia](/source/President_of_Russia). Functions of the presidency were succeeded by the [Council of Heads of State](/source/Council_of_Heads_of_State_of_the_CIS) and the Executive Secretary of the [Commonwealth of Independent States](/source/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States).}} | office1 = [General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union](/source/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union) | term_start1 = 11 March 1985 | term_end1 = 24 August 1991{{Efn|On 14 March 1990, the provision on the CPSU monopoly on power was removed from Article 6 of the Constitution of the USSR. Thus, in the Soviet Union, a multi-party system was officially allowed, and the CPSU ceased to be part of the state apparatus.}} | deputy1 = [Vladimir Ivashko](/source/Vladimir_Ivashko) | predecessor1 = [Konstantin Chernenko](/source/Konstantin_Chernenko) | successor1 = Vladimir Ivashko (acting) | office2 = [Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union](/source/List_of_heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union) | term_start2 = 25 May 1989 | term_end2 = 15 March 1990 | premier2 = Nikolai Ryzhkov | deputy2 = Anatoly Lukyanov | predecessor2 = ''{{hanging indent|Himself as [Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet](/source/Chairman_of_the_Presidium_of_the_Supreme%26nbsp%3BSoviet)}}'' | successor2 = [Anatoly Lukyanov](/source/Anatoly_Lukyanov){{efn|''Himself'' (as head of state as President).}} | office3 = [Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union](/source/List_of_heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union) | term_start3 = 1 October 1988 | term_end3 = 25 May 1989 | premier3 = Nikolai Ryzhkov | predecessor3 = [Andrei Gromyko](/source/Andrei_Gromyko) | successor3 = ''{{hanging indent|Himself as Chairman of the Supreme Soviet}}'' {{Collapsed infobox section begin |last=yes |Additional positions | titlestyle = border:1px dashed lightgrey;}}{{Infobox officeholder | embed = yes | office5 = Co-Chairman of the {{awrap|[Union of Social Democrats](/source/Union_of_Social_Democrats)}} | term_start5 = 11 March 2000{{efn|Himself as the Chairman of the United Social Democratic Party of Russia until 24 November 2001, and the Chairman of the [Social Democratic Party of Russia](/source/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Russia_(2001)) until 20 October 2007}} | term_end5 = 15 November 2017 | predecessor5 = ''Party established'' | successor5 = ''Party disestablished'' | office6 = [Second Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union](/source/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union) | term_start6 = 9 February 1984 | term_end6 = 10 March 1985 | predecessor6 = Konstantin Chernenko | successor6 = [Yegor Ligachyov](/source/Yegor_Ligachyov) {{Collapsed infobox section end}}}} | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1931|03|02}} | death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|2022|08|30|1931|03|02}} | birth_place = [Privolnoye](/source/Privolnoye%2C_Stavropol_Krai), North Caucasus Krai, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union | death_place = Moscow, Russia | resting_place = [Novodevichy Cemetery](/source/Novodevichy_Cemetery) | citizenship = | party = {{plainlist| * [CPSU](/source/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union) {{nowrap|(1952–1991)}} * [Independent](/source/Independent_politician) {{nowrap|(1991–2000; from 2013)}} * [ROSDP](/source/Russian_United_Social_Democratic_Party) {{nowrap|(2000–2001)}} * [SDPR](/source/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Russia_(2001)) {{nowrap|(2001–2007)}} * [USD](/source/Union_of_Social_Democrats) {{nowrap|(2007–2013)}} }} | spouse = {{marriage|[Raisa Titarenko](/source/Raisa_Titarenko)|1953|1999|reason=died}} | children = 1 | alma_mater = [Moscow State University](/source/Moscow_State_University) | signature = Gorbachev Signature.svg | website = {{Official website|https://gorby.ru/en}} | module = {{Listen voice|name=Gorbachev|filename= Mihail Gorbachev voice.oga|recorded=2012}} | module2 = {{Collapsible list ||titlestyle = background-color:#FCF;text-align:center; | title = Central institution membership | bullets = on | 1980–1991: Member, [25th](/source/Politburo_of_the_25th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union), [26th](/source/Politburo_of_the_26th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union), [27th](/source/Politburo_of_the_27th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union), [28th](/source/Politburo_of_the_28th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union) Politburo | 1979–1980: Candidate, [25th](/source/Politburo_of_the_25th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union) Politburo | 1978–1991: Member, [25th](/source/Secretariat_of_the_25th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union), [26th](/source/Secretariat_of_the_26th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union), [27th](/source/Secretariat_of_the_27th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union), [28th](/source/Secretariat_of_the_28th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union) Secretariat | 1971–1991: Member, [24th](/source/Central_Committee_of_the_24th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union), [25th](/source/Central_Committee_of_the_25th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union), [26th](/source/Central_Committee_of_the_26th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union), [27th](/source/Central_Committee_of_the_27th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union), [28th](/source/Central_Committee_of_the_28th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union) Central Committee }} ---- {{Collapsible list |titlestyle = background-color:#FCF;text-align:center; | title = Other offices held | bullets = on | 2001–2004: Chairman, [Social Democratic Party of Russia](/source/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Russia_(2001)) | 1985–1991: Chairman, [Defense Council](/source/Defense_Council_(Soviet_Union)) | 1970–1978: First Secretary, Stavropol Regional Committee }} | module3 = '''[Leader of the Soviet Union](/source/Leader_of_the_Soviet_Union)''' {{flatlist| * {{big|'''←'''}} [Chernenko](/source/Konstantin_Chernenko) * ''None (last holder)'' }} }} '''Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev'''{{Family name footnote|Sergeyevich|Gorbachev|lang=Eastern Slavic}}{{efn|{{IPAc-en|UK|ˈ|ɡ|ɔːr|b|ə|tʃ|ɒ|f|,_|ˌ|ɡ|ɔːr|b|ə|ˈ|tʃ|ɒ|f}}, {{IPAc-en|US|-|tʃ|ɔː|f|,_|-|tʃ|ɛ|f}};[https://www.dictionary.com/browse/gorbachev "Gorbachev"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402114118/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/gorbachev |date=2 April 2015}}. ''[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary](/source/Random_House_Webster's_Unabridged_Dictionary)''.[https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/gorbachev,_mikhail "Gorbachev, Mikhail"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513151055/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/gorbachev,_mikhail |date=13 May 2019 }}, Oxford Dictionaries. Retrieved 4 February 2019{{cite Merriam-Webster|Gorbachev|access-date=4 February 2019}} {{lang-rus|links=no|Михаил Сергеевич Горбачёв|r=Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachyov|p=mʲɪxɐˈil sʲɪrˈɡʲejɪvʲɪdʑ ɡərbɐˈtɕɵf|a=ru-Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev.ogg}}}} (2 March 1931 – 30 August 2022) was a Soviet and Russian politician who was the last leader of the [Soviet Union](/source/Soviet_Union) from 1985 until [the country's dissolution](/source/dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union) in 1991. He served as [General Secretary of the Communist Party](/source/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union) from 1985, and additionally as [head of state](/source/List_of_heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union) from 1988.{{efn|At first, Gorbachev derived his actual power from his position as General Secretary. He also succeeded [Andrei Gromyko](/source/Andrei_Gromyko) as Chairman of the [Presidium of the Supreme Soviet](/source/Presidium_of_the_Supreme_Soviet) in 1988, representing a largely ceremonial "collective head of state". The new [Congress of People's Deputies](/source/Congress_of_People's_Deputies_of_the_Soviet_Union) elected him the sole head of state with the title of Chairman of the [Supreme Soviet](/source/Supreme_Soviet) the following year. After a [constitutional amendment](/source/Leading_role_of_the_party) ended the Communist Party's monopoly on power in 1990, the office of [president of the Soviet Union](/source/president_of_the_Soviet_Union) was created, most executive authority was transferred to it, and Gorbachev was [elected unopposed](/source/1990_Soviet_Union_presidential_election) as its first and only holder.}} Ideologically, he initially adhered to [Marxism–Leninism](/source/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism), but moved towards [social democracy](/source/social_democracy) by the early 1990s. Born in [Privolnoye](/source/Privolnoye%2C_Stavropol_Krai), North Caucasus Krai, into a peasant family of [Russian](/source/Russians) and [Ukrainian](/source/Ukrainians_in_Russia) heritage, Gorbachev grew up under [the rule](/source/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1927%E2%80%931953)) of [Joseph Stalin](/source/Joseph_Stalin). In his youth, Gorbachev operated [combine harvester](/source/combine_harvester)s on a [collective farm](/source/collective_farm), before joining the [Communist Party](/source/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union), which then governed the Soviet Union as a [one-party state](/source/one-party_state). Studying at [Moscow State University](/source/Moscow_State_University), he married fellow student [Raisa Titarenko](/source/Raisa_Titarenko) in 1953 and received his law degree in 1955. Moving to [Stavropol](/source/Stavropol), he worked for the [Komsomol](/source/Komsomol) youth organization and, after Stalin's death, became a keen proponent of the [de-Stalinization](/source/de-Stalinization) reforms of Soviet leader [Nikita Khrushchev](/source/Nikita_Khrushchev). Gorbachev was appointed the first party secretary of the Stavropol Regional Committee in 1970, overseeing the construction of the [Great Stavropol Canal](/source/Great_Stavropol_Canal). In 1978, Gorbachev returned to [Moscow](/source/Moscow) to become a secretary of [the party's Central Committee](/source/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union). He joined the governing [Politburo](/source/Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union) ([25th term](/source/Politburo_of_the_25th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union)) as a non-voting member the following year and as a voting member in 1980. Three years after the death of Soviet leader [Leonid Brezhnev](/source/Leonid_Brezhnev), and following the brief tenures of [Yuri Andropov](/source/Yuri_Andropov) and [Konstantin Chernenko](/source/Konstantin_Chernenko) in 1985, the Politburo elected Gorbachev as general secretary. Although committed to preserving the Soviet state and its Marxist–Leninist principles, Gorbachev believed significant reform was necessary for its survival. [He withdrew troops](/source/Soviet_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan) from the [Soviet–Afghan War](/source/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War), and embarked on summits with United States president [Ronald Reagan](/source/Ronald_Reagan) to limit [nuclear weapon](/source/nuclear_weapon)s and end the [Cold War](/source/Cold_War). Domestically, Gorbachev's policy of ''[glasnost](/source/glasnost)'' ("openness") and [''demokratizatsiya''](/source/Demokratizatsiya_(Soviet_Union)) ("democratization") allowed for enhanced [freedom of speech](/source/freedom_of_speech) and [the press](/source/Freedom_of_the_press), while his ''[perestroika](/source/perestroika)'' ("restructuring") sought to decentralize economic decision-making to improve its efficiency. Ultimately, his [democratization](/source/Democratization_(Soviet_Union)) measures and formation of the elected [Congress of People's Deputies](/source/Congress_of_People's_Deputies_of_the_Soviet_Union) undermined the one-party state. When various [Warsaw Pact](/source/Warsaw_Pact) countries [abandoned Marxist–Leninist governance in 1989](/source/Revolutions_of_1989), he declined to intervene militarily. Growing [nationalist](/source/nationalist) sentiment within [constituent republics](/source/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union) threatened to break up the Soviet Union, leading hardliners within the party to launch [an unsuccessful coup](/source/1991_Soviet_coup_d'%C3%A9tat_attempt) against him in August 1991. In the coup's wake, the Soviet Union dissolved against Gorbachev's wishes. After resigning from the presidency, he launched [the Gorbachev Foundation](/source/the_Gorbachev_Foundation), became a vocal critic of Russian presidents [Boris Yeltsin](/source/Boris_Yeltsin) and [Vladimir Putin](/source/Vladimir_Putin), and campaigned for Russia's social-democratic movement. Considered one of the most significant figures of the second half of the 20th century, Gorbachev remains controversial. The recipient of a wide range of awards, including the [Nobel Peace Prize](/source/Nobel_Peace_Prize), he was praised for his role in ending the Cold War, introducing new political and economic freedoms in the Soviet Union, and tolerating both the fall of Marxist–Leninist administrations in eastern and central Europe and the [German reunification](/source/German_reunification). Critics see him as weakening Russia's global influence and precipitating [an economic collapse in the country](/source/Economic_history_of_the_Russian_Federation). == Early life and education == === 1931–1950: Childhood and adolescence === [[File:Миша Горбачёв с дедом Пантелеем и бабушкой Василисой.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.7|Gorbachev and his [Ukrainian](/source/Ukrainians_in_Russia) maternal grandparents, late 1930s]] {{Mikhail Gorbachev series}} Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev was born on 2 March 1931 in [Privolnoye](/source/Privolnoye%2C_Stavropol_Krai), a ''[selo](/source/Village)'' then in the [North Caucasus Krai](/source/North_Caucasus_Krai) of the [Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic](/source/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic) of the [Soviet Union](/source/Soviet_Union) and now in the [Krasnogvardeysky District](/source/Krasnogvardeysky_District%2C_Stavropol_Krai) of the [Stavropol Krai](/source/Stavropol_Krai) of Russia.{{sfnm|1a1=Medvedev|1y=1986|1p=22 |2a1=Doder|2a2=Branson|2y=1990|2p=1 |3a1=McCauley|3y=1998|3p=15 |4a1=Taubman|4y=2017|4p=7}} Privolnoye was divided between [Russians](/source/Russians) and ethnic [Ukrainians](/source/Ukrainians_in_Russia) at the time.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=10}} His paternal family were Russians and had moved from [Voronezh](/source/Voronezh) several generations before, while his maternal family were ethnic Ukrainians and had migrated from [Chernigov](/source/Chernigov).{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=15 |2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=10}} Gorbachev's parents, Sergey Andreyevich Gorbachev and Maria Panteleyevna Gorbacheva ({{née|Gopkalo}}), named him Viktor at birth. However, at Maria's insistence, Gorbachev had a secret [baptism](/source/baptism), where Sergey's father christened him Mikhail.{{sfnm|1a1=Doder|1a2=Branson|1y=1990|1p=4 |2a1=McCauley|2y=1998|2p=15 |3a1=Taubman|3y=2017|3p=7}} Gorbachev's relationship with Sergey was close, while Maria was cold and punitive.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=8–9}} The couple were poor{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=9}} and lived as peasants.{{sfn|Medvedev|1986|p=22}} They married as teenagers in 1928.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=16}} In keeping with local tradition, Sergey and Maria initially resided in the house of the former's father, an [adobe](/source/adobe)-walled [hut](/source/hut), before a hut of their own could be built.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=16, 17}} The Soviet Union was a [one-party state](/source/one-party_state) governed by the [Communist Party](/source/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union), led by [Joseph Stalin](/source/Joseph_Stalin). Stalin had initiated a project of [mass rural collectivization](/source/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union) meant to help convert the country into a [socialist society](/source/Socialist_mode_of_production).{{sfnm|1a1=Doder|1a2=Branson|1y=1990|1p=1 |2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=7}} Maria's father joined the Communist Party in 1928 and helped form Privolnoye's first [kolkhoz](/source/kolkhoz) the following year, becoming its chair.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=15 |2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2pp=12–13}} It was {{convert|12|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=off|sp=us}} outside Privolnoye. At the age of three, Gorbachev left his parental home and moved into the kolkhoz with Maria's parents.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=14}} Two of Gorbachev's paternal uncles and an aunt died in the [famine of 1930–1933](/source/Soviet_famine_of_1930%E2%80%931933).{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=16|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=7}} This was followed by the [Great Purge](/source/Great_Purge), in which individuals accused of being "[enemies of the people](/source/enemies_of_the_people)" were interned in [labor camps](/source/Gulag) or executed. Both of Gorbachev's grandfathers served time in labor camps.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1pp=15–16|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2pp=7, 8}} After his December 1938 release, Maria's father discussed having been tortured by the [secret police](/source/Joint_State_Political_Directorate), an account that influenced Gorbachev.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=18–19}} During the [Second World War](/source/Second_World_War), the [German Army](/source/Wehrmacht) started [invading the Soviet Union](/source/Operation_Barbarossa) in June 1941, and occupied Privolnoye for four and a half months the following year.{{sfnm|1a1=Doder|1a2=Branson|1y=1990|1pp=5–6 |2a1=McCauley|2y=1998|2p=17 |3a1=Taubman|3y=2017|3pp=7, 20–22}} Sergey fought on the frontlines; he was wrongly declared dead during the war and fought in the 1943 [Battle of Kursk](/source/Battle_of_Kursk) before returning to his family, injured.{{sfnm|1a1=Doder|1a2=Branson|1y=1990|1p=5|2a1=McCauley|2y=1998|2p=17|3a1=Taubman|3y=2017|3pp=8, 26–27}} Following the war, Sergey and Maria had their second son, Aleksandr, in 1947; Gorbachev and Aleksandr were the couple's only children.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=16}} The school in Privolnoye was closed during much of the war, re-opening in autumn 1944.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=27}} Gorbachev did not want to return but excelled academically when he did.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=9, 27–28}} He read voraciously, moving from the Western novels of [Thomas Mayne Reid](/source/Thomas_Mayne_Reid) to the works of [Vissarion Belinsky](/source/Vissarion_Belinsky), [Alexander Pushkin](/source/Alexander_Pushkin), [Nikolai Gogol](/source/Nikolai_Gogol), and [Mikhail Lermontov](/source/Mikhail_Lermontov).{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=29–30}} In 1946, Gorbachev joined the [Komsomol](/source/Komsomol), the Soviet political youth organization, becoming leader of his local group, and was then elected to the Komsomol committee for the district.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=8, 28–29}} From primary school, he moved to the high school in [Molotovskoye](/source/Krasnogvardeyskoye%2C_Stavropol_Krai); he stayed there during the week and walked the {{cvt|12|mi|km|order=flip|sp=us}} home during weekends.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=30}} As well as being a member of the school's drama society,{{sfnm|1a1=Doder|1a2=Branson|1y=1990|1p=7 |2a1=McCauley|2y=1998|2p=18 |3a1=Taubman|3y=2017|3p=32}} Gorbachev organized sporting and social activities, and led the school's morning exercise class.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=32}} Over the course of five consecutive summers starting with 1946, he returned home to assist Sergey in operating a [combine harvester](/source/combine_harvester); they sometimes worked 20 hours a day during those summers.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=18 |2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=34}} In 1948, they harvested over {{convert|800|t|lb|sp=us|abbr=off}} of grain, a feat for which Sergey was awarded the [Order of Lenin](/source/Order_of_Lenin); the following year, Gorbachev was awarded the [Order of the Red Banner of Labour](/source/Order_of_the_Red_Banner_of_Labour).{{sfnm|1a1=Doder|1a2=Branson|1y=1990|1p=6 |2a1=McCauley|2y=1998|2p=18 |3a1=Taubman|3y=2017|3pp=8, 34}}{{cite book |last1=Никитинский |first1=Леонид Васильевич |date=14 July 2025 |script-title=ru:Михаил Горбачев: «Главное – начать» |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p0pxEQAAQBAJ |language=ru |publisher=ЛитРес |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=p0pxEQAAQBAJ&pg=PT7 7] |isbn=9785047786773 |access-date=24 May 2026 |script-quote=ru:[...] в 1949 году был награжден орденом Трудового Красного Знамени.}}{{cite book |editor-last1=Wieczynski |editor-first1=Joseph L. |year=1993 |title=The Gorbachev Encyclopedia: Gorbachev, the Man and His Times |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p95oAAAAMAAJ |publication-place=[Salt Lake City](/source/Salt_Lake_City), Utah, United States |publisher=Charles Schlacks, Jr. |page=162 |isbn=9781884445026 |access-date=24 May 2026 |quote=In 1949, after an especially good harvest, Gorbachev and his co-workers received the Order of the Red Banner of Labor.}} === 1950–1955: University === [[File:Gorbachev and classmates Moscow 1952.png|thumb|left|Gorbachev (first from right) with his classmates at the Faculty of Law of [Moscow State University](/source/Moscow_State_University), 1952]] {{Quote box | quote = I would consider it a high honour to be a member of the highly advanced, genuinely revolutionary Communist Party of Bolsheviks. I promise to be faithful to the great cause of Lenin and Stalin, to devote my entire life to the party's struggle for Communism. | source=— Gorbachev's letter requesting membership of the Communist Party, 1950{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=42}} | align = right | width = 25em }} In June 1950, Gorbachev became a candidate member of the Communist Party.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=42}} He applied to study at the law school of [Moscow State University](/source/Moscow_State_University) (MSU), then the most prestigious university in the country. They accepted him without asking for an exam, likely because of his worker-peasant origins and his possession of the Order of the Red Banner of Labour.{{sfnm|1a1=Doder|1a2=Branson|1y=1990|1p=6, 8 |2a1=McCauley|2y=1998|2p=18 |3a1=Taubman|3y=2017|3pp=40–41}} His choice of law was unusual; it was not a well-regarded subject in Soviet society at that time.{{sfn|Medvedev|1986|p=35}} At age 19, he traveled by train to [Moscow](/source/Moscow), the first time he had left his home region.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=43}} In Moscow, Gorbachev resided with fellow MSU students at a dormitory in the [Sokolniki District](/source/Sokolniki_District).{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=50}} He felt at odds with his urban counterparts, but soon came to fit in.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=44}} Fellow students recall his working especially hard, often late into the night.{{sfnm|1a1=Doder|1a2=Branson|1y=1990|1p=14 |2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=48}} He gained a reputation as a mediator during disputes{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=53}} and was outspoken in class, but was private about his views; for instance, he confided in some students his opposition to the Soviet jurisprudential norm that a confession proved guilt, noting that confessions could have been forced.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=52}} During his studies, an [antisemitic](/source/Antisemitism) campaign spread through the Soviet Union, culminating in the [Doctors' plot](/source/Doctors'_plot); Gorbachev publicly defended Volodya Liberman, a Jewish student accused of disloyalty.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=19|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2pp=45, 52}} At MSU, Gorbachev became the Komsomol head of his entering class, and then Komsomol's deputy secretary for agitation and propaganda at the law school.{{sfnm|1a1=Doder|1a2=Branson|1y=1990|1p=10|2a1=McCauley|2y=1998|2p=19|3a1=Taubman|3y=2017|3p=46}} One of his first Komsomol assignments in Moscow was to monitor the election polling in [Presnensky District](/source/Presnensky_District) to ensure near-total turnout; Gorbachev found that most people voted "out of fear".{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=46}} In 1952, he was appointed a full member of the Communist Party.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=19|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=46}} He was tasked with monitoring fellow students for subversion; some of his fellow students said he did so only minimally and that they trusted him to keep confidential information secret from the authorities.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=47}} Gorbachev became close friends with [Zdeněk Mlynář](/source/Zden%C4%9Bk_Mlyn%C3%A1%C5%99), a [Czechoslovak](/source/Demographics_of_Czechoslovakia) student who later became a primary ideologist of the 1968 [Prague Spring](/source/Prague_Spring). Mlynář recalled that the duo remained committed Marxist–Leninists despite their growing concerns about the [Stalinist](/source/Stalinism) system.{{sfnm|1a1=Medvedev|1y=1986|1pp=36–37 |2a1=Doder|2a2=Branson|2y=1990|2p=11 |3a1=McCauley|3y=1998|3p=19|4a1=Taubman|4y=2017|4pp=45, 53, 56–57}} After Stalin died in March 1953, Gorbachev and Mlynář joined the crowds massing to see Stalin's body lying in state.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=20 |2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2pp=57–58}} At MSU, Gorbachev met [Raisa Titarenko](/source/Raisa_Gorbacheva), who was studying in the university's philosophy department.{{sfnm|1a1=Doder|1a2=Branson|1y=1990|1p=1 5 |2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2pp=59, 63}} She was engaged to another man, but after that engagement fell apart, she began a relationship with Gorbachev;{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=59–63}} together they went to bookstores, museums, and art exhibits.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=66}} In early 1953, he took an internship at the procurator's office in Molotovskoye district, but he was angered by the incompetence and arrogance of those working there.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=72–73}} That summer, he returned to Privolnoye to work with his father on the harvest; the money earned allowed him to pay for his wedding.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=20 |2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=68}} On 25 September 1953, he and Raisa registered their marriage at Sokolniki Registry Office,{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=20 |2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=68}} and in October, moved in together at the [Lenin Hills](/source/Sparrow_Hills) dormitory.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=70}} Raisa discovered that she was pregnant and although the couple wanted to keep the child she fell ill and required an abortion.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=70–71}} In June 1955, Gorbachev graduated with a distinction;{{sfnm|1a1=Medvedev|1y=1986|1p=42 |2a1=McCauley|2y=1998|2p=20}} his final paper had been on the advantages of "socialist democracy" over "bourgeois democracy" ([liberal democracy](/source/liberal_democracy)).{{sfn|McCauley|1998|p=20}} He was subsequently assigned to the [Soviet Procurator](/source/Procurator_General_of_the_Soviet_Union)'s office, which was focusing on the rehabilitation of the innocent victims of Stalin's purges, but found that they had no work for him.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1pp=20–21 |2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2pp=73–74}} He was then offered a place on an MSU graduate course specializing in kolkhoz law, but declined.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=20 |2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=74}} He had wanted to remain in Moscow, where Raisa was enrolled in a PhD program, but instead gained employment in [Stavropol](/source/Stavropol); Raisa abandoned her studies to join him there.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1pp=20–21 |2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=75}} ==Early CPSU career== === 1955–1969: Stavropol Komsomol === thumb|left|Gorbachev with his wife (far right) and daughter in Stavropol, 1964 In August 1955, Gorbachev started work at the Stavropol regional procurator's office, but disliked it and got a transfer to work for Komsomol,{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=21|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=77}} becoming deputy director of Komsomol's agitation and propaganda department for that region.{{sfnm|1a1=Doder|1a2=Branson|1y=1990|1p=31|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=78}} In this position, he visited villages in the area and tried to improve the lives of their inhabitants; he established a discussion circle in Gorkaya Balka to help its peasant residents gain social contacts.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=95}} Gorbachev and his wife Raisa initially rented a small room in Stavropol,{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=210|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2pp=81–83}} taking daily evening walks around the city and on weekends hiking in the countryside.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=81}} In January 1957, Raisa gave birth to a daughter, Irina,{{sfnm|1a1=Doder|1a2=Branson|1y=1990|1p=19|2a1=McCauley|2y=1998|2p=23|3a1=Taubman|3y=2017|3p=86}} and in 1958 they moved into two rooms in a [communal apartment](/source/communal_apartment).{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=23|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=89}} In 1961, Gorbachev pursued a second degree, in agricultural production; he took a [correspondence course](/source/correspondence_course) from the local Stavropol Agricultural Institute, receiving his diploma in 1967.{{sfnm|1a1=Medvedev|1y=1986|1pp=56, 62|2a1=Doder|2a2=Branson|2y=1990|2p=19 |3a1=McCauley|3y=1998|3p=29 |4a1=Taubman|4y=2017|4pp=115–116}} His wife had also pursued a second degree, attaining a PhD in sociology in 1967 from the [Moscow State Pedagogical University](/source/Moscow_State_Pedagogical_University);{{sfnm|1a1=Medvedev|1y=1986|1p=63 |2a1=Doder|2a2=Branson|2y=1990|2p=19 |3a1=McCauley|3y=1998|3p=29 |4a1=Taubman|4y=2017|4pp=111–113}} while in Stavropol she joined the Communist Party.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=86}} Stalin was succeeded as Soviet leader by [Nikita Khrushchev](/source/Nikita_Khrushchev), who denounced Stalin and his [cult of personality](/source/cult_of_personality) in a [speech given in February 1956](/source/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences), after which he launched a de-Stalinization process throughout Soviet society.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=90–91}} Later biographer [William Taubman](/source/William_Taubman) suggested that Gorbachev "embodied" the "reformist spirit" of the Khrushchev era.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=90}} Gorbachev was among those who saw themselves as "genuine Marxists" or "genuine Leninists".{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=91}} He helped spread Khrushchev's anti-Stalinist message in Stavropol, but encountered many who saw Stalin as a hero and praised his purges as just.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=22|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2pp=96–98}} Gorbachev rose steadily through the ranks of the local administration.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=78}} The authorities regarded him as politically reliable,{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=80}} and he would flatter his superiors, for instance gaining favor with prominent local politician [Fyodor Kulakov](/source/Fyodor_Kulakov).{{sfnm|1a1=Medvedev|1y=1986|1p=74|2a1=Doder|2a2=Branson|2y=1990|2p=32|3a1=McCauley|3y=1998|3p=25|4a1=Taubman|4y=2017|4pp=105–106}} With an ability to outmaneuver rivals, some colleagues resented his success.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=103, 105}} In September 1956, he was promoted First Secretary of the Stavropol city's Komsomol, placing him in charge of it;{{sfnm|1a1=Medvedev|1y=1986|1p=47 |2a1=Doder|2a2=Branson|2y=1990|2p=31|3a1=McCauley|3y=1998|3p=23 |4a1=Taubman|4y=2017|4p=98}} in April 1958 he was made deputy head of the Komsomol for the entire region.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=23|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=100}} He was given better accommodation: a two-room flat with its own private kitchen, toilet, and bathroom.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=89}} In Stavropol, he formed a discussion club for youths,{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=23|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=99}} and helped mobilize local young people to take part in Khrushchev's agricultural and development campaigns.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=100}} [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-1986-1126-307, LPG Golßen, Besuch durch KPdSU Delegation.jpg|thumb|Gorbachev on a visit to [East Germany](/source/East_Germany) in 1966]] In March 1961, Gorbachev became First Secretary of the regional Komsomol,{{sfnm|1a1=Medvedev|1y=1986|1p=49|2a1=McCauley|2y=1998|2p=23}} in which position he went out of his way to appoint women as city and district leaders.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=102}} In 1961, Gorbachev played host to the Italian delegation for the [World Youth Festival](/source/World_Youth_Festival) in Moscow;{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=149}} that October, he attended the [22nd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union](/source/22nd_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union).{{sfnm|1a1=Medvedev|1y=1986|1p=50 |2a1=Doder|2a2=Branson|2y=1990|2p=24 |3a1=McCauley|3y=1998|3p=24}} In January 1963, Gorbachev was promoted to personnel chief for the regional party's agricultural committee,{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=107}} and in September 1966 became First Secretary of the Stavropol City Party Organization ("Gorkom").{{sfnm|1a1=Medvedev|1y=1986|1p=61|2a1=McCauley|2y=1998|2p=26}} By 1968 he was frustrated with his job—in large part because Khrushchev's reforms were stalling or being reversed—and he contemplated leaving politics to work in academia.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=116}} However, in August 1968, he was named Second Secretary of the Stavropol Kraikom, making him the deputy of First Secretary Leonid Yefremov and the second most senior figure in Stavropol Krai.{{sfnm|1a1=Medvedev|1y=1986|1p=63 |2a1=Doder|2a2=Branson|2y=1990|2p=32 |3a1=McCauley|3y=1998|3p=28 |4a1=Taubman|4y=2017|4p=119}} In 1969, he was elected as a deputy to the [Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union](/source/Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union) and made a member of its Standing Commission for the Protection of the Environment.{{sfn|Medvedev|1986|p=64}} Cleared for travel to [Eastern Bloc](/source/Eastern_Bloc) countries, in 1966 he was part of a delegation which visited [East Germany](/source/East_Germany), and in 1969 and 1974 visited [Bulgaria](/source/People's_Republic_of_Bulgaria).{{sfn|McCauley|1998|p=30}} In August 1968 [the Soviet Union led an invasion](/source/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia) of [Czechoslovakia](/source/Czechoslovakia) to put an end to the Prague Spring. Although Gorbachev later stated that he had had private concerns about the invasion, he publicly supported it.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=123–124}} In September 1969 he was part of a Soviet delegation sent to Czechoslovakia, where he found the people largely unwelcoming.{{sfnm|1a1=Medvedev|1y=1986|1pp=64–65 |2a1=McCauley|2y=1998|2p=30|3a1=Taubman|3y=2017|3p=124}} That year, the Soviet authorities ordered him to punish Fagim B. Sadygov, a philosophy professor of the Stavropol agricultural institute whose ideas were regarded as critical of Soviet agricultural policy; Gorbachev ensured that Sadykov was fired from teaching but ignored calls for him to face tougher punishment.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1pp=28–29 |2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=125}} Gorbachev later related that he was "deeply affected" by the incident; "my conscience tormented me" for overseeing Sadykov's persecution.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=125–126}} === 1970–1977: heading the Stavropol region === [[File:Stavropol. Celebrating the 200th anniversary of the city. Gorbachev M.S., Suslov M.A. 1978.png|thumb|left|Gorbachev and [Suslov](/source/Mikhail_Suslov) at Stavropol's 200th anniversary celebrations, 1978]] In April 1970, Yefremov was promoted to a higher position in Moscow and Gorbachev succeeded him as the First Secretary of the Stavropol kraikom. This granted Gorbachev significant power over the Stavropol region.{{sfnm|1a1=Medvedev|1y=1986|1p=65 |2a1=Doder|2a2=Branson|2y=1990|2p=32 |3a1=McCauley|3y=1998|3p=29|4a1=Taubman|4y=2017|4p=120}} He had been vetted for the position by senior [Kremlin](/source/Kremlin) leaders and was informed of their decision by the Soviet leader, [Leonid Brezhnev](/source/Leonid_Brezhnev).{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=121–122}} Aged 39, he was considerably younger than his predecessors.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=121}} As head of the Stavropol region, he automatically became a member of the [Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union](/source/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union) ([24th term](/source/Central_Committee_of_the_24th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union)) in 1971.{{sfnm|1a1=Medvedev|1y=1986|1p=73|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=121}} According to biographer [Zhores Medvedev](/source/Zhores_Medvedev), Gorbachev "had now joined the Party's super-elite".{{sfn|Medvedev|1986|p=65}} As regional leader, Gorbachev initially attributed economic and other failures to "the inefficiency and incompetence of cadres, flaws in management structure or gaps in legislation", but eventually concluded that they were caused by an excessive centralization of decision making in Moscow.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=127}} He began reading translations of restricted texts by Western Marxist authors such as [Antonio Gramsci](/source/Antonio_Gramsci), [Louis Aragon](/source/Louis_Aragon), [Roger Garaudy](/source/Roger_Garaudy), and [Giuseppe Boffa](/source/Giuseppe_Boffa), and came under their influence.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=127}} [[File:Stavropol region. Gorbachev M.S. construction of the Great Stavropol Canal.png|thumb|right|Gorbachev inspecting the construction of the [Great Stavropol Canal](/source/Great_Stavropol_Canal)]] [[File:Михаил Горбачев и Юрий Андропов (1973).jpg|thumb|left|Gorbachev (right) with his mentor [Yuri Andropov](/source/Yuri_Andropov) in 1973]] Gorbachev's main task as regional leader was to raise agricultural production levels, a task hampered by severe droughts in 1975 and 1976.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=129}} He oversaw the expansion of irrigation systems through construction of the [Great Stavropol Canal](/source/Great_Stavropol_Canal).{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1pp=31–32|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=130}} For overseeing a record grain harvest in [Ipatovsky](/source/Ipatovsky) district, in March 1972 he was awarded the [Order of the October Revolution](/source/Order_of_the_October_Revolution) by Brezhnev in a Moscow ceremony.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=33 |2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2pp=131–132}} Gorbachev sought to maintain Brezhnev's trust;{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=123}} as regional leader, he repeatedly praised Brezhnev in his speeches, for instance referring to him as "the outstanding statesman of our time".{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=128–129}} Gorbachev and his wife holidayed in Moscow, Leningrad, Uzbekistan, and resorts in the North Caucasus;{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=157}} he holidayed with the head of the [KGB](/source/KGB), [Yuri Andropov](/source/Yuri_Andropov), who was favorable towards him and who became an important patron.{{sfnm|1a1=Doder|1a2=Branson|1y=1990|1pp=35–36 |2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2pp=138–139}} Gorbachev developed good relationships with senior figures including the Soviet prime minister, [Alexei Kosygin](/source/Alexei_Kosygin),{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=35|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2pp=145–146}} and the longstanding senior party member [Mikhail Suslov](/source/Mikhail_Suslov).{{sfnm|1a1=Medvedev|1y=1986|1pp=108, 113|2a1=McCauley|2y=1998|2p=35}} The government considered Gorbachev sufficiently reliable to be sent in Soviet delegations to Western Europe; he made five trips there between 1970 and 1977.{{sfnm|1a1=Medvedev|1y=1986|1p=78|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=149}} In September 1971 he was part of a delegation to Italy, where they met with representatives of the [Italian Communist Party](/source/Italian_Communist_Party); Gorbachev loved Italian culture but was struck by the poverty and inequality he saw there.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=149–150}} In 1972, he visited Belgium and the Netherlands, and in 1973 [West Germany](/source/West_Germany).{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=30|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2pp=150–151}} Gorbachev and his wife visited France in 1976 and 1977, on the latter occasion touring the country with a guide from the [French Communist Party](/source/French_Communist_Party).{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=151–152}} He was surprised by how openly West Europeans offered their opinions and criticized their political leaders, something absent from the Soviet Union, where most people did not feel safe speaking so openly.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=152}} He later related that for him and his wife, these visits "shook our a prior belief in the superiority of socialist over bourgeois democracy".{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=153}} Gorbachev had remained close to his parents; after his father became terminally ill in 1974, Gorbachev traveled to be with him in Privolnoe shortly before his death.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=153–154}} His daughter, Irina, married fellow student Anatoly Virgansky in April 1978.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=156}} In 1977, the Supreme Soviet appointed Gorbachev to chair the Standing Commission on Youth Affairs due to his experience with mobilizing young people in Komsomol.{{sfn|Medvedev|1986|p=77}} ==Secretary of the Central Committee of CPSU== [[File:Gorbachev M.S., Shevardnadze E.A. Georgia in 1983.png|thumb|left|Gorbachev, accompanied by First Secretary of the Georgian Communist Party [Eduard Shevardnadze](/source/Eduard_Shevardnadze), during a visit to the [Georgian SSR](/source/Georgian_SSR) in 1983]] In November 1978, Gorbachev was appointed a secretary of the Central Committee.{{sfnm|1a1=Medvedev|1y=1986|1p=92|2a1=McCauley|2y=1998|2p=36|3a1=Taubman|3y=2017|3p=157}} His appointment was approved unanimously by the Central Committee's members.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=161}} To fill this position, Gorbachev and his wife moved to Moscow, where they were initially given an old [dacha](/source/dacha) outside the city. They then moved to another, at [Sosnovka](/source/Sosnovka), before being allocated a newly built brick house.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=164–175}} He was given an apartment inside the city, but gave that to his daughter and son-in-law; Irina had begun work at Moscow's [Second Medical Institute](/source/Russian_National_Research_Medical_University).{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=165, 166}} As part of the Moscow political elite, Gorbachev and his wife now had access to better medical care and to specialized shops; they were given cooks, servants, bodyguards, and secretaries, many of these spies for the KGB.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=165}} In his new position, Gorbachev often worked twelve to sixteen hour days.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=165}} He and his wife socialized little, but liked to visit Moscow's theaters and museums.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=40|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=166}} thumb|Gorbachev was skeptical of the deployment of Soviet troops in Afghanistan (pictured here in 1986). In 1978, Gorbachev was appointed to the Central Committee's Secretariat for Agriculture ([25th term](/source/Secretariat_of_the_25th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union)), replacing his old patron Kulakov, who had died of a heart attack.{{sfnm|1a1=Medvedev|1y=1986|1pp=95–96 |2a1=Doder|2a2=Branson|2y=1990|2pp=38–39}} Gorbachev concentrated his attentions on agriculture: the harvests of 1979, 1980, and 1981 were all poor, due largely to weather conditions,{{sfnm|1a1=Medvedev|1y=1986|1pp=7, 102–103, 106–107 |2a1=Doder|2a2=Branson|2y=1990|2p=40 |3a1=Galeotti|3y=1997|3p=32|4a1=Taubman|4y=2017|4pp=175–177}} and the country had to import increasing quantities of grain.{{sfnm|1a1=Medvedev|1y=1986|1p=107|2a1=Doder|2a2=Branson|2y=1990|2p=40}} He had growing concerns about the country's agricultural management system, coming to regard it as overly centralized and requiring more bottom-up decision making;{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=177–78}} he raised these points at his first speech at a Central Committee Plenum, given in July 1978.{{sfn|McCauley|1998|p=34}} He began to have concerns about other policies too. In December 1979, the Soviets sent the [armed forces](/source/Soviet_Armed_Forces) into [neighboring Afghanistan to support](/source/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War) its [Soviet-aligned government](/source/Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan) against [Islamist insurgents](/source/Afghan_mujahideen); Gorbachev privately thought it a mistake.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=173}} At times he openly supported the government position; in October 1980 he for instance endorsed Soviet calls for Poland's Marxist–Leninist government to crack down on [growing internal dissent in that country](/source/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)).{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=173}} That same month, he was promoted from a candidate member to a full member of the [Politburo](/source/Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union) ([25th term](/source/Politburo_of_the_25th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union)), becoming the youngest member of the highest decision-making authority in the Communist Party.{{sfn|Medvedev|1986|p=107}} After Brezhnev's death in November 1982, Andropov succeeded him as [General Secretary of the Communist Party](/source/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union), the ''de facto'' leader in the Soviet Union. Gorbachev was enthusiastic about the appointment.{{sfnm|1a1=Medvedev|1y=1986|1pp=118, 121–122 |2a1=Doder|2a2=Branson|2y=1990|2p=43|3a1=McCauley|3y=1998|3p=41|4a1=Taubman|4y=2017|4pp=179–180}} However, although Gorbachev hoped that Andropov would introduce liberalizing reforms, the latter carried out only personnel shifts rather than structural change.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=180}} Gorbachev became Andropov's closest ally in the Politburo;{{sfn|Medvedev|1986|p=123}} with Andropov's encouragement, Gorbachev sometimes chaired Politburo meetings.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=181, 191}} Andropov encouraged Gorbachev to expand into policy areas other than agriculture, preparing him for future higher office.{{sfnm|1a1=Galeotti|1y=1997|1p=32 |2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=181}} In April 1983, in a sign of growing ascendancy, Gorbachev delivered the annual speech marking the birthday of the Soviet founder Vladimir Lenin;{{sfnm|1a1=Medvedev|1y=1986|1p=123 |2a1=Galeotti|2y=1997|2p=32|3a1=Taubman|3y=2017|3p=181}} this required him re-reading many of Lenin's later writings, in which the latter had called for reform in the context of the [New Economic Policy](/source/New_Economic_Policy) of the 1920s, and encouraged Gorbachev's own conviction that reform was needed.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=182}} In May 1983, Gorbachev was sent to Canada, where he met Prime Minister [Pierre Trudeau](/source/Pierre_Trudeau) and spoke to the [Canadian Parliament](/source/Parliament_of_Canada).{{sfnm|1a1=Medvedev|1y=1986|1p=124 |2a1=Doder|2a2=Branson|2y=1990|2pp=46–47 |3a1=McCauley|3y=1998|3p=31 |4a1=Taubman|4y=2017|4pp=182–185}} There, he met and befriended the Soviet ambassador, [Aleksandr Yakovlev](/source/Aleksandr_Yakovlev), who later became a key political ally.{{sfnm|1a1=Doder|1a2=Branson|1y=1990|1p=47 |2a1=McCauley|2y=1998|2p=31 |3a1=Taubman|3y=2017|3p=182}} In February 1984, Andropov died; on his deathbed he indicated his desire that Gorbachev succeed him.{{sfnm|1a1=Doder|1a2=Branson|1y=1990|1p=50|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2pp=190–191}} Many in the Central Committee nevertheless thought the 53-year-old Gorbachev was too young and inexperienced.{{sfnm|1a1=Medvedev|1y=1986|1p=138|2a1=Doder|2a2=Branson|2y=1990|2p=56}} Instead, [Konstantin Chernenko](/source/Konstantin_Chernenko)—a longstanding Brezhnev ally—was appointed general secretary, but he too was in very poor health.{{sfnm|1a1=Medvedev|1y=1986|1pp=138–139|2a1=Doder|2a2=Branson|2y=1990|2pp=51–52|3a1=McCauley|3y=1998|3p=43|4a1=Taubman|4y=2017|4p=192}} Chernenko was often too sick to chair Politburo meetings, with Gorbachev stepping in last minute.{{sfnm|1a1=Doder|1a2=Branson|1y=1990|1p=57|2a1=McCauley|2y=1998|2p=43|3a1=Taubman|3y=2017|3p=193}} Gorbachev continued to cultivate allies both in the Kremlin and beyond,{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=193}} and gave the main speech at a conference on Soviet ideology, where he angered party hardliners by implying that the country required reform.{{sfnm|1a1=Medvedev|1y=1986|1pp=158–159|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2pp=193–195}} In April 1984, Gorbachev was appointed chair of the Foreign Affairs Committee of the [highest organ of state authority in the Soviet Union](/source/Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union), a largely honorific position.{{sfnm|1a1=Medvedev|1y=1986|1p=142|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=196}} In June he traveled to Italy as a Soviet representative for the funeral of Italian Communist Party leader [Enrico Berlinguer](/source/Enrico_Berlinguer),{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=44|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=195}} and in September to [Sofia](/source/Sofia), Bulgaria to attend celebrations of the fortieth anniversary of its liberation from the Nazis by the Red Army.{{sfn|Medvedev|1986|p=155}} In December, he visited Britain at the request of its prime minister [Margaret Thatcher](/source/Margaret_Thatcher); she was aware that he was a potential reformer and wanted to meet him.{{sfnm|1a1=Medvedev|1y=1986|1p=159 |2a1=Doder|2a2=Branson|2y=1990|2p=59 |3a1=McCauley|3y=1998|3p=44 |4a1=Taubman|4y=2017|4p=196}} At the end of the visit, Thatcher said: "I like Mr. Gorbachev. We can do business together".{{sfnm|1a1=Medvedev|1y=1986|1p=159 |2a1=McCauley|2y=1998|2p=44 |3a1=Taubman|3y=2017|3p=201}} He felt that the visit helped to erode [Andrei Gromyko](/source/Andrei_Gromyko)'s dominance of Soviet foreign policy and sent a signal to the United States government that he wanted to improve [Soviet–US relations](/source/Soviet%E2%80%93US_relations).{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=197}} == Leader of the Soviet Union (1985–1991) == {{Main|General secretaryship of Mikhail Gorbachev}} [[File:Mikhail Gorbachev 1985 Geneva Summit.jpg|thumb|upright|Gorbachev in 1985 at a summit in [Geneva](/source/Geneva), Switzerland]] On 11 March 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev was elected the eighth [general secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union](/source/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union) by the [Politburo of the CPSU](/source/Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union) after the death of [Konstantin Chernenko](/source/Konstantin_Chernenko).{{sfn|Medvedev|1986|p=22}} While Gorbachev wanted to preserve the Soviet Union and Marxist-Leninist ideals, he recognized the need for significant reforms. He decided to withdraw troops from the [Soviet–Afghan War](/source/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War){{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=272–273}} and met with [United States](/source/United_States) president [Ronald Reagan](/source/Ronald_Reagan) at the [Reykjavik Summit](/source/Reykjav%C3%ADk_Summit) to discuss the limitation of [nuclear weapon](/source/nuclear_weapon)s production and ending the [Cold War](/source/Cold_War). He also proposed a three-stage program for [abolishing](/source/Nuclear_disarmament) the [world's nuclear weapons](/source/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons) by the end of the 20th century.{{sfnm|1a1=Doder|1a2=Branson|1y=1990|1pp=159–162 |2a1=McCauley|2y=1998|2p=81 |3a1=Taubman|3y=2017|3p=294}} Domestically, his policy of ''[glasnost](/source/glasnost)'' ("openness") allowed for the improvement of [freedom of speech](/source/freedom_of_speech) and [free press](/source/Freedom_of_the_press),{{sfn|Doder|Branson|1990|pp=75, 140, 142}} while his ''[perestroika](/source/perestroika)'' ("restructuring") sought to decentralize economic decision-making to improve its efficiency.{{sfn|McCauley|1998|pp=50, 55}} Ultimately, Gorbachev's [democratization](/source/Democratization_(Soviet_Union)) efforts and formation of the elected [Congress of People's Deputies](/source/Congress_of_People's_Deputies_of_the_Soviet_Union) undermined the supremacy the [CPSU](/source/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union) had in Soviet governance.{{Country study}} - [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/rutoc.html Russia] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120711211231/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/rutoc.html |date=11 July 2012 }}, section ''Demokratizatsiya''. Data as of July 1996 (retrieved 25 December 2014){{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=431–434}} When various [Warsaw Pact](/source/Warsaw_Pact) countries [abandoned Marxist–Leninist governance in 1989](/source/Revolutions_of_1989), he declined to intervene militarily. Growing [nationalist](/source/nationalist) sentiment within [constituent republics](/source/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union) threatened to break up the Soviet Union, leading the hardliners within the Communist Party to launch [an unsuccessful coup](/source/1991_Soviet_coup_d'%C3%A9tat_attempt) against Gorbachev in August 1991. == Unraveling of the USSR == {{further|Dissolution of the Soviet Union}} In the [Revolutions of 1989](/source/Revolutions_of_1989), most of the Marxist–Leninist states of Central and Eastern Europe held multi-party elections resulting in regime change.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=465}} In most countries, like Poland and Hungary, this was achieved peacefully, but in Romania, the [revolution turned violent](/source/Romanian_Revolution), and led to Romanian leader [Nicolae Ceaușescu](/source/Nicolae_Ceau%C8%99escu)'s overthrow and execution.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=465}} {{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=133|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=481}} In 1989, he visited East Germany for the fortieth anniversary of its founding;{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1pp=35–36|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2pp=484–485}} shortly after, in November, the East German government allowed its citizens to cross the [Berlin Wall](/source/Berlin_Wall), a decision Gorbachev praised. Over the following years, much of the wall was demolished.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=462–463}} Neither Gorbachev nor Thatcher or Mitterrand wanted a swift reunification of Germany, aware that it would likely become the dominant European power. Gorbachev wanted a gradual process of German integration but [Helmut Kohl](/source/Helmut_Kohl) began calling for rapid reunification.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=488–494}} With German reunification in 1990, many observers declared the Cold War over.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=427}} === 1990–1991: presidency of the Soviet Union === [[File:RIAN archive 485307 Mikhail Gorbachev.jpg|thumb|upright|Gorbachev addressing the [United Nations General Assembly](/source/United_Nations_General_Assembly) in 1988. During the speech, he dramatically announced deep unilateral cuts in Soviet military forces in Eastern Europe.]] In February 1990, both liberalizers and Marxist–Leninist hardliners intensified their attacks on Gorbachev.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=505}} A liberalizer march took place in Moscow criticizing Communist Party rule,{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=505–506}} while at a Central Committee meeting, the hardliner [Vladimir Brovikov](/source/Vladimir_Brovikov) accused Gorbachev of reducing the country to "anarchy" and "ruin" and of pursuing Western approval at the expense of the Soviet Union and the Marxist–Leninist cause.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=506–507}} Gorbachev was aware that the Central Committee could still oust him as general secretary, and so decided to reformulate the role of head of government to a presidency from which he could not be removed.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1pp=160–161|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=507}} He decided that the presidential election should be held by the Congress of People's Deputies. He chose this over a public vote because he thought the latter would escalate tensions and feared that he might lose it;{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=165|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2pp=508–509}} a spring 1990 poll nevertheless still showed him as the most popular politician in the country.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=509}} In March, the Congress of People's Deputies held the first (and only) [Soviet presidential election](/source/1990_Soviet_Union_presidential_election), in which Gorbachev was the only candidate. He secured 1,329 in favor to 495 against; 313 votes were invalid or absent. He therefore became the first (and only) executive [president of the Soviet Union](/source/president_of_the_Soviet_Union).{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1pp=164–165|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=509}} A new 18-member [Presidential Council](/source/Presidential_Council_(USSR)) ''de facto'' replaced the Politburo.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1pp=165–166|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=511}} At the same Congress meeting, he presented the idea of repealing Article 6 of the Soviet constitution, which had ratified the Communist Party as the "ruling party" of the Soviet Union. The Congress passed the reform, undermining the ''de jure'' nature of the one-party state.{{sfnm|1a1=Doder|1a2=Branson|1y=1990|1p=408|2a1=McCauley|2y=1998|2p=161|3a1=Taubman|3y=2017|3pp=510–522}} In the [1990 elections](/source/1990_Russian_Supreme_Soviet_election) for the [Russian Supreme Soviet](/source/Supreme_Soviet_of_Russia), the Communist Party faced challengers from an alliance of liberalizers known as "[Democratic Russia](/source/Democratic_Russia)"; the latter did particularly well in urban centers.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=170|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=513}} Yeltsin was elected the chair of the [supreme state organ of power](/source/supreme_state_organ_of_power), something Gorbachev was unhappy about.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=169|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2pp=513–514}} That year, opinion polls showed Yeltsin overtaking Gorbachev as the most popular politician in the Soviet Union.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=509}} Gorbachev struggled to understand Yeltsin's growing popularity, commenting: "he drinks like a fish ... he's inarticulate, he comes up with the devil knows what, he's like a worn-out record".{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=515}} The Russian Supreme Soviet was now out of Gorbachev's control;{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=515}} in June 1990, it declared that in the Russian Republic, its laws took precedence over those of the Soviet central government.{{sfn|McCauley|1998|p=172}} Amid a growth in [Russian nationalist](/source/Russian_nationalism) sentiment, Gorbachev had reluctantly allowed the formation of a [Communist Party of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic](/source/Communist_Party_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic) as a branch of the larger Soviet Communist Party. Gorbachev attended its first congress in June, but soon found it dominated by hardliners who opposed his reformist stance.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1pp=174–175|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2pp=500–501, 515–516}} ==== German reunification and the Gulf War ==== In January 1990, Gorbachev privately agreed to permit East German reunification with West Germany, but rejected the idea that a unified Germany could retain West Germany's NATO membership.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=543}} His compromise that Germany might retain both NATO and Warsaw Pact memberships did not attract support.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=552}} On 9 February 1990 in a phone conversation with [James Baker](/source/James_Baker), then the US secretary of state, he said that "a broadening of the NATO zone is not acceptable" to which Baker agreed. {{cite book |last1=Savranskaya |first1=Svetlana |last2=Blanton |first2=Thomas |last3=Zubok |first3=Vladislav |title=MASTERPIECES OF HISTORY |url=https://books.openedition.org/ceup/2906?lang=en |chapter=Document No. 119: Record of Conversation between Mikhail Gorbachev and James Baker, February 9, 1990 |series=National Security Archive Cold War Readers |publisher=Central European University Press |date=2010 |pages=675–684 |isbn=978-615-5211-88-1 |archive-date=20 February 2023 |access-date=20 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230220220436/https://books.openedition.org/ceup/2906?lang=en |url-status=live }} In May 1990, he visited the US for talks with President Bush;{{sfnm|1a1=Doder|1a2=Branson|1y=1990|1p=422|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=550}} there, he agreed that an independent Germany would have the right to choose its international alliances.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=552}} Ultimately he acquiesced to the reunification on the condition that NATO troops not be posted to the territory of Eastern Germany.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=546}} There remains [some confusion](/source/Treaty_on_the_Final_Settlement_with_Respect_to_Germany) over whether US secretary of state James Baker led Gorbachev to believe that NATO would not expand into other countries in Eastern Europe. There was no oral or written US promise that explicitly said so. Gorbachev stated that he was only made such a promise regarding East Germany and that it was kept.{{cite web |title=Mikhail Gorbachev: I am against all walls |url=http://rbth.com/international/2014/10/16/mikhail_gorbachev_i_am_against_all_walls_40673.html |access-date=31 January 2022 |website=Russia Beyond |date=16 October 2014 |archive-date=31 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220131025347/https://www.rbth.com/international/2014/10/16/mikhail_gorbachev_i_am_against_all_walls_40673.html |url-status=live |last1=Kórshunov |first1=Maxim }}{{Cite news|last=Eckel|first=Mike|date=20 May 2021|title=Did The West Promise Moscow That NATO Would Not Expand? Well, It's Complicated.|language=en|publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/nato-expansion-russia-mislead/31263602.html|access-date=28 May 2023|archive-date=23 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423112504/https://www.rferl.org/a/nato-expansion-russia-mislead/31263602.html|url-status=live}} In July, Kohl visited Moscow and Gorbachev informed him that the Soviets would not oppose a reunified Germany's being part of NATO.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=564}} Domestically, Gorbachev's critics accused him of betraying the national interest;{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=565}} more broadly, they were angry that Gorbachev had allowed the Eastern Bloc to move away from direct Soviet influence.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=540–541}} [[File:Bush Gorba P15623-25A.jpg|thumb|left|In September 1990, Gorbachev met repeatedly with US president George H. W. Bush at the [Helsinki Summit](/source/Helsinki_Summit_(1990)).]] In August 1990, [Saddam Hussein](/source/Saddam_Hussein)'s Iraqi government [invaded Kuwait](/source/Iraqi_invasion_of_Kuwait); Gorbachev endorsed President Bush's condemnation of it.{{cite web |title=Oral History – Mikhail Gorbachev |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/gulf/oral/gorbachev/1.html |publisher=PBS |access-date=29 January 2022 |archive-date=1 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220701012210/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/gulf/oral/gorbachev/1.html |url-status=live}} This brought criticism from many in the Soviet state apparatus, who saw Hussein as a key ally in the [Persian Gulf](/source/Persian_Gulf) and feared for the safety of the 9,000 Soviet citizens in Iraq, although Gorbachev argued that the Iraqis were the clear aggressors.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=213 |2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2pp=540–541, 566–567}} In November the Soviets endorsed [a UN Resolution](/source/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_660) permitting force to be used in expelling the Iraqi Army from Kuwait.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=567–568}} Gorbachev later called it a "watershed" in world politics, "the first time the superpowers acted together in a regional crisis".{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=568}} However, when the US announced plans for [a ground invasion](/source/Gulf_War), Gorbachev opposed it, urging instead a peaceful solution.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=588–589}} In October 1990, Gorbachev was awarded the [Nobel Peace Prize](/source/Nobel_Peace_Prize); he was flattered but acknowledged "mixed feelings" about the accolade.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=220 |2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=572}} Polls indicated that 90% of Soviet citizens disapproved of the award, widely seen as an anti-Soviet accolade.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=572}} With the Soviet budget deficit climbing and no domestic money markets to provide the state with loans, Gorbachev looked elsewhere.{{sfn|McCauley|1998|p=214}} Throughout 1991, Gorbachev requested sizable loans from Western countries and Japan, hoping to keep the Soviet economy afloat and ensure the success of perestroika.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=568–569}} Although the Soviet Union had been excluded from the [G7](/source/G7), Gorbachev secured an invitation to [its London summit](/source/17th_G7_summit) in July 1991.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1pp=218–219 |2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=593}} There, he continued to call for financial assistance; Mitterrand and Kohl backed him,{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=570}} while Thatcher—no longer in office—urged Western leaders to agree.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=215|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2pp=595–596}} Most G7 members were reluctant, instead offering technical assistance and proposing the Soviets receive "special associate" status—rather than full membership—of the [World Bank](/source/World_Bank) and [International Monetary Fund](/source/International_Monetary_Fund).{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1pp=218–219|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=595}} Gorbachev was frustrated that the US would spend $100 billion on the Gulf War but would not offer his country loans.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=214|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=595}} Other countries were more forthcoming; West Germany had given the Soviets [DM](/source/Deutsche_Mark)60 billion by mid-1991.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=569}} Bush visited Moscow in late July, when he and Gorbachev concluded ten years of negotiations by signing the [START I](/source/START_I) treaty, a bilateral agreement on the reduction and limitation of strategic offensive arms.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=221|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2pp=596–598}} ==== August coup and government crises ==== {{Further|1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt}} thumb|upright|Gorbachev in October 1991 At the [28th Communist Party Congress](/source/28th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union) in July 1990, hardliners criticized the reformists, but Gorbachev was re-elected party leader.{{sfnm|1a1=Doder|1a2=Branson|1y=1990|1p=425|2a1=McCauley|2y=1998|2p=178|3a1=Taubman|3y=2017|3pp=519–520}} Seeking compromise with the liberalizers, Gorbachev assembled a team of his own and Yeltsin's advisers to come up with an economic reform package: the result was the "[500 Days](/source/500_Days)" program. This called for further decentralization and some privatization.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1pp=183–185|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2pp=521–528}} In September, Yeltsin presented the plan to the Russian Supreme Soviet, which backed it.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1pp=185–186|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=529}} Many in the Communist Party and state apparatus warned against it, and it was abandoned.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=529–531}} By mid-November 1990, much of the press was calling for Gorbachev to resign and predicting civil war.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=532}} In November, he announced an eight-point program with governmental reforms, among them the abolition of the presidential council.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=188|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=533}} By this point, Gorbachev was isolated from many of his former close allies and aides.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=536}} Yakovlev had moved out of his inner circle and [Eduard Shevardnadze](/source/Eduard_Shevardnadze) had resigned.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1pp=193–194|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2pp=534–535}} Amid growing dissent in [the Baltics](/source/the_Baltics), in January 1991 Gorbachev demanded that the [Lithuanian Supreme Council](/source/Lithuanian_Supreme_Council) rescind its pro-independence reforms.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=575}} Soviet troops occupied buildings in [Vilnius](/source/Vilnius) and [attacked protesters](/source/January_Events),{{cite news |title=The January bloodbath in Lithuania 25 years on |url=https://www.dw.com/en/the-january-bloodbath-in-lithuania-25-years-on/a-18976152 |publisher=[Deutsche Welle](/source/Deutsche_Welle) |date=13 January 2021}} 15 of whom were killed.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1pp=199–200|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=575}} A [referendum on the issue](/source/1991_Soviet_Union_referendum) brought 76.4% in favor of continued federation; the six rebellious republics had not taken part.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1pp=206–207|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=580}} Negotiations took place to decide what form the new constitution would take; it was planned to be signed in August.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=580–582}} [[File:August 1991 coup - awaiting the counterattack outside the White House Moscow - panoramio.jpg|thumb|left|Tens of thousands of anti-coup protesters surrounding the [White House](/source/White_House_(Moscow)) in [Moscow](/source/Moscow)]] In August, Gorbachev holidayed at his dacha in [Foros, Crimea](/source/Foros%2C_Crimea).{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=233|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2pp=602, 605}} Two weeks into his holiday, a group of senior Communist Party figures—the "[Gang of Eight](/source/Gang_of_Eight_(Soviet_Union))" launched a [coup d'état](/source/1991_Soviet_coup_d'%C3%A9tat_attempt).{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=607–608}} The coup leaders demanded that Gorbachev declare a state of emergency, but he refused.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=608}} He was kept under [house arrest](/source/house_arrest) in the dacha.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=608–610}} The coup plotters publicly announced that Gorbachev was ill and thus Vice President Yanayev would take charge of the country.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=237|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=610}} Yeltsin entered the Moscow [White House](/source/White_House_(Moscow)). Protesters prevented troops storming the building to arrest him.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1pp=237–238|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=611}} In front of the White House, Yeltsin, atop a tank, gave a memorable speech condemning the coup.{{Cite web |date=26 June 2023 |title=1991 Soviet coup attempt |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/1991-Soviet-coup-attempt |access-date=10 August 2023 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |archive-date=27 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230727054402/https://www.britannica.com/topic/1991-Soviet-coup-attempt |url-status=live }} The coup's leaders realized that they lacked sufficient support and ended their efforts.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=612}} Gorbachev returned to Moscow and thanked Yeltsin.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=614–615}} Two days later, he resigned as general secretary.{{Cite web |url=http://www.illuminats.ru/component/content/article/29-new/1198-statement-by-mikhail-gorbachev-on-the-addition-of-duties-the-secretary-general-of-the-cpsu-24-august-1991?directory=29 |title=Заявление М. С. Горбачева о сложение обязанностей генерального секретаря КПСС (24 августа 1991) |website=illuminats.ru |access-date=25 November 2020 |archive-date=21 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721014247/http://www.illuminats.ru/component/content/article/29-new/1198-statement-by-mikhail-gorbachev-on-the-addition-of-duties-the-secretary-general-of-the-cpsu-24-august-1991?directory=29 |url-status=live}}{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=244|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=621}} === Final days and collapse === {{main|Dissolution of the Soviet Union|Revolutions of 1989}} After the coup, the Supreme Soviet indefinitely suspended all Communist Party activity, effectively ending communist rule in the Soviet Union.{{Cite web |date=7 December 2013 |title=Page 1. Постановление Верховного Совета СССР от 29 августа 1991 г. N 2371-I "О ситуации, возникшей в стране в связи с имевшим место государственным переворотом" |url=http://www.ruspravo.org/list/89358/1.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131207002848/http://www.ruspravo.org/list/89358/1.html |archive-date=7 December 2013}}{{Cite web |title=Указ Президента РСФСР от 06.11.1991 г. № 169 |url=http://kremlin.ru/acts/bank/385 |website=Президент России |access-date=30 August 2022 |archive-date=1 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301170411/http://kremlin.ru/acts/bank/385 |url-status=live}} [[File:RIAN archive 848095 Signing the Agreement to eliminate the USSR and establish the Commonwealth of Independent States.jpg|thumb|[Leaders of the Soviet Republics](/source/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union) sign the [Belovezha Accords](/source/Belovezha_Accords), which eliminated the USSR and established the [Commonwealth of Independent States](/source/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States), 1991]] On 30 October, Gorbachev attended [a conference](/source/Madrid_Conference_of_1991) in Madrid trying to revive the [Israeli–Palestinian peace process](/source/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_peace_process). The event was co-sponsored by the US and Soviet Union. There, he again met with Bush.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1pp=248–249|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2pp=631–632}} En route home, he traveled to France where he stayed with Mitterrand at the latter's home near [Bayonne](/source/Bayonne).{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=249|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=633}} To maintain unity, Gorbachev continued to plan for a union treaty, but met opposition to the continuation of a federal state as the leaders of several Soviet republics bowed to nationalist pressure.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=624}} Yeltsin stated that he would veto any idea of a unified state, instead favoring a [confederation](/source/confederation) with little central authority.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=252|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=627}} Only the leaders of [Kazakhstan](/source/Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic) and [Kirghizia](/source/Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic) supported Gorbachev's approach.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=628}} The [referendum in Ukraine](/source/1991_Ukrainian_independence_referendum) on 1 December with a 90% turnout for secession from the Union was a fatal blow; Gorbachev had expected Ukrainians to reject independence.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=253|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2pp=628–629}} [[File:Cold War border changes.png|thumb|upright=1.13|Changes in national boundaries after the end of the [Cold War](/source/Cold_War) and the [dissolution of the Soviet Union](/source/dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union) in 1991]] Without Gorbachev's knowledge, Yeltsin met with Ukrainian president [Leonid Kravchuk](/source/Leonid_Kravchuk) and Belarusian president [Stanislav Shushkevich](/source/Stanislav_Shushkevich) in [Belovezha Forest](/source/Belovezha_Forest), near [Brest, Belarus](/source/Brest%2C_Belarus), on 8 December and signed the [Belavezha Accords](/source/Belavezha_Accords), which declared the Soviet Union had ceased to exist and formed the [Commonwealth of Independent States](/source/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States) (CIS) as its successor.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1pp=254–255|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2pp=629–630}} Gorbachev only learned of this development when Shushkevich phoned him; Gorbachev was furious.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=255|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=630}} He desperately looked for an opportunity to preserve the Soviet Union, hoping that the media and intelligentsia would rally against its dissolution.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=634–635}} Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Russian Supreme Soviets then ratified the establishment of the CIS.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=256|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=625}} On 9 December, Gorbachev issued a statement calling the CIS agreement "illegal and dangerous".{{Cite web |url=http://www.gorby.ru/userfiles/file/zayavlenie_prezidenta_sssr_09_12_91.pdf |title=Заявление Президента СССР М. С. Горбачёва 9 декабря 1991 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924023311/http://www.gorby.ru/userfiles/file/zayavlenie_prezidenta_sssr_09_12_91.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2015 |publisher=gorby.ru |access-date=16 January 2015 |url-status=live}}{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=636}} On 20 December, the leaders of 11 of the 12 remaining republics—all except Georgia—met in Kazakhstan and signed the [Alma-Ata Protocol](/source/Alma-Ata_Protocol), agreeing to dismantle the Soviet Union and formally establish the CIS. They provisionally accepted Gorbachev's resignation as president of what remained of the Soviet Union. Accepting the ''fait accompli'', Gorbachev said he would resign as soon as he saw that the CIS was a reality.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=637}}{{cite web |author-first=Francis X. |author-last=Clines |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/12/22/world/end-soviet-union-11-soviet-states-form-commonwealth-without-clearly-defining-its.html |title=11 Soviet States Form Commonwealth Without Clearly Defining Its Powers |website=The New York Times |date=22 December 1991 |access-date=27 December 2019 |archive-date=14 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170414022306/http://www.nytimes.com/1991/12/22/world/end-soviet-union-11-soviet-states-form-commonwealth-without-clearly-defining-its.html |url-status=live}}. Gorbachev reached a deal with Yeltsin that called for Gorbachev to announce his resignation as Soviet president and Commander-in-Chief on 25 December, vacating the Kremlin by 29 December.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=638}} Yakovlev, Chernyaev and Shevardnadze joined Gorbachev to help him write a resignation speech.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=637}} Gorbachev gave his speech in the Kremlin in front of television cameras, for international broadcast.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=257|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=645}} In it, he announced, "I hereby discontinue my activities at the post of President of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics." He expressed regret for the breakup of the Soviet Union but cited what he saw as the achievements of his administration: political and religious freedom, the end of totalitarianism, the introduction of democracy and a market economy, and an end to the arms race and Cold War.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=646}} Gorbachev was the third out of eight Soviet leaders, after [Malenkov](/source/Malenkov) and [Khrushchev](/source/Khrushchev), not to die in office.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=651}}{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/12/26/world/end-of-the-soviet-union-text-of-gorbachev-s-farewell-address.html |title=End of the Soviet Union: Text of Gorbachev's Farewell Address |website=The New York Times |date=26 December 1991 |access-date=27 December 2019 |archive-date=4 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200104205652/https://www.nytimes.com/1991/12/26/world/end-of-the-soviet-union-text-of-gorbachev-s-farewell-address.html |url-status=live}} The following day, 26 December, the [Soviet of the Republics](/source/Soviet_of_the_Republics), the upper house of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, voted the country out of existence.{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vt5OLD3vp4UC&q=26+december+1991+ussr&pg=PR5 |title=Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States: Documents, Data, and Analysis |isbn=978-1-56324637-1 |author-last1=Brzezinski |author-first1=Zbigniew |author-last2=Brzezinski |author-first2=Zbigniew K. |author-last3=Sullivan |author-first3=Paige |date=1997 |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |access-date=24 October 2020 |archive-date=17 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201217230805/https://books.google.com/books?id=Vt5OLD3vp4UC&q=26+december+1991+ussr&pg=PR5 |url-status=live}} As of 31 December 1991, all Soviet institutions that had not been taken over by Russia ceased to function.{{cite book |author=Plokhy, S. | year=2015 | title=The Last Empire: The Final Days of the Soviet Union | publisher=Basic Books | chapter=Chapter 18: Christmas in Moscow }}{{sfn|McCauley|1998|p=258}} == Post-USSR life == {{Social democracy sidebar|people}} === 1991–1999: Initial years === [[File:Reagan and Gorbachev in western hats 1992.jpg|thumb|Gorbachev visiting Reagan, at [Reagan's ranch and vacation home](/source/Rancho_del_Cielo) in 1992]] [[File:Mikhail Gorbachev speech at Legislative Yuan (1994) 02.jpg|thumb|Gorbachev giving a speech at the [Legislative Yuan](/source/Legislative_Yuan) in Taiwan, 1994]] Out of office, he and Raisa initially lived in their dilapidated dacha on Rublevskoe Shosse, and were allowed to privatize their smaller apartment on Kosygin Street.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=653}} He focused on establishing [his foundation](/source/International_Foundation_for_Socio-Economic_and_Political_Studies), launched in March 1992;{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1p=258|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2pp=651, 654}} Yakovlev and Revenko were its first vice presidents.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=654}} Its initial tasks were analyzing and publishing material on the history of perestroika, and defending the policy. The foundation tasked itself with monitoring and critiquing life in post-Soviet Russia, presenting alternative development forms to Yeltsin's.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=654}} To finance his foundation, Gorbachev began lecturing internationally, charging large fees.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=654}} On a visit to Japan, he was given multiple honorary degrees.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=656}} In 1992, he toured the US in a [Forbes](/source/Forbes) private jet to raise money for his foundation, meeting the Reagans for a social visit.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=656}} From there he went to Spain, where he met with his friend Prime Minister [Felipe González](/source/Felipe_Gonz%C3%A1lez).{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=656–657}} He further visited Israel and Germany, where he was received warmly for his role in facilitating [German reunification](/source/German_reunification).{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=657}} To supplement his lecture fees and book sales, Gorbachev appeared in [television commercials](/source/Mikhail_Gorbachev_Pizza_Hut_commercial){{Cite web |title="Perestroika in den ÖBB"? – Michail Gorbatschow dreht für die ÖBB einen Werbefilm |url=https://www.derstandard.at/story/223420/perestroika-in-den-oebb---michail-gorbatschow-dreht-fuer-die-oebb-einen-werbefilm |url-status=live |access-date=12 March 2021 |website=[Der Standard](/source/Der_Standard) |language=de-AT |archive-date=13 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210313202036/https://www.derstandard.at/consent/tcf/story/223420/perestroika-in-den-oebb---michail-gorbatschow-dreht-fuer-die-oebb-einen-werbefilm}} and photograph advertisements,{{Cite web |date=7 October 1994 |title=The first advertisement to feature Mikhail Gorbachev will also... |url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1994/10/07/The-first-advertisement-to-feature-Mikhail-Gorbachev-will-also/1663781502400/ |access-date=3 March 2022 |website=[United Press International](/source/United_Press_International) |archive-date=3 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303121144/https://www.upi.com/Archives/1994/10/07/The-first-advertisement-to-feature-Mikhail-Gorbachev-will-also/1663781502400/ |url-status=live}} enabling him to keep the foundation afloat.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=654–655}}{{Cite web |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/11/28/mikhail-gorbachev-pizza-hut-ad-thanksgiving-miracle/ |title=Mikhail Gorbachev's Pizza Hut Thanksgiving Miracle |author-last=Musgrave |author-first=Paul |website=Foreign Policy |date=28 November 2019 |access-date=29 November 2019 |archive-date=1 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191201001221/https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/11/28/mikhail-gorbachev-pizza-hut-ad-thanksgiving-miracle/ |url-status=live}} With his wife's assistance, he worked on his memoirs, which were published in Russian in 1995 and in English the following year.{{sfnm|1a1=McCauley|1y=1998|1pp=258–259|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=664}} He began writing a monthly syndicated column for ''[The New York Times](/source/The_New_York_Times)''.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=675}} In 1993, Gorbachev launched [Green Cross International](/source/Green_Cross_International), which focused on encouraging sustainable futures, and then the World Political Forum.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=652}} In 1995, he initiated the [World Summit of Nobel Peace Laureates](/source/World_Summit_of_Nobel_Peace_Laureates).{{cite journal |author-last=Roche |author-first=Douglas |title=World Summit on Nobel Peace laureates |journal=[UN Chronicle](/source/UN_Chronicle) |volume=40 |issue=1 |date=March–May 2003 |pages=76–77}} {{external media |float=right |width=230px |video1=[https://www.c-span.org/video/?76259-1/memoirs ''Booknotes'' interview with Gorbachev on his memoirs, 24 November 1996], [C-SPAN](/source/C-SPAN)}} Gorbachev and Yeltsin soon resumed their criticism of each other,{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=655}} for example when Yeltsin lifted price caps and plunged many Russians into poverty.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=655}} In 1995, his foundation held a conference on "The Intelligentsia and Perestroika", proposing to the [Duma](/source/State_Duma) a law that would reduce many of the presidential powers established by Yeltsin's [1993 constitution](/source/Constitution_of_Russia).{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=659}} [[File:Mikhail Gorbachev with Carlos Menem.jpg|thumb|right|Gorbachev with Argentine president [Carlos Menem](/source/Carlos_Menem) in 1999]] In contrast to her husband's political activities, Raisa focused on campaigning for children's charities.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=663–664}} In 1997, she founded a sub-division of the Gorbachev Foundation known as Raisa Maksimovna's Club to improve women's welfare in Russia.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=664–665}} The Foundation had initially been housed in the former Social Science Institute building, but Yeltsin introduced limits to the number of rooms it could use there;{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=658–659}} the American philanthropist [Ted Turner](/source/Ted_Turner) donated over $1 million to enable the foundation to build new premises on the [Leningradsky Prospekt](/source/Leningradsky_Avenue).{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=665}} In 1999, Gorbachev visited Australia, giving a speech to the [country's parliament](/source/Parliament_of_Australia).{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=666–667}} Shortly after, in July, Raisa was diagnosed with [leukemia](/source/leukemia). With the assistance of German chancellor [Gerhard Schröder](/source/Gerhard_Schr%C3%B6der), she was transferred to a cancer center in [Münster](/source/M%C3%BCnster), Germany, and underwent [chemotherapy](/source/chemotherapy).{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=668}} She died in September,{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=272}} and Gorbachev's daughter Irina and his two granddaughters moved into his Moscow home to live with him.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=674}} thumb|left|Gorbachev, daughter Irina and his wife's sister Lyudmila at the funeral of Raisa, 1999 ====1996 presidential campaign==== {{main|Mikhail Gorbachev 1996 presidential campaign}} The [Russian presidential elections](/source/1996_Russian_presidential_election) were scheduled for June 1996, and although he was urged not to run, Gorbachev decided to do so.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=660}} He never expected to win outright, but thought a centrist bloc could be formed around either himself or one of the other candidates with similar views, such as [Grigory Yavlinsky](/source/Grigory_Yavlinsky), [Svyatoslav Fyodorov](/source/Svyatoslav_Fyodorov), or [Alexander Lebed](/source/Alexander_Lebed).{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=660–661}} After securing the necessary one million signatures of nomination, he announced his candidacy in March.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=661}} Launching [his campaign](/source/Mikhail_Gorbachev_1996_presidential_campaign), he traveled across Russia giving rallies in twenty cities.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=661}} He repeatedly faced anti-Gorbachev protesters, while some pro-Yeltsin local officials tried to hamper his campaign by banning local media from covering it or by refusing him access to venues.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=662}} In the election, Gorbachev came seventh with approximately 386,000 votes, or around 0.5% of the total.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=663}} Yeltsin and Zyuganov went through to the second round, where the former was victorious.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=663}} === 1999–2008: Promoting social democracy in Putin's Russia === [[File:Inauguration of Vladimir Putin 7 May 2000-13.jpg|thumb|Gorbachev attended the [inauguration of Vladimir Putin](/source/First_inauguration_of_Vladimir_Putin) in May 2000.]] In December 1999, Yeltsin resigned and was succeeded by his deputy, Vladimir Putin, who won the [March 2000 presidential election](/source/2000_Russian_presidential_election).{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=676}} Gorbachev initially welcomed Putin's rise, seeing him as an anti-Yeltsin figure.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=652}} Although he spoke out against some of the Putin government's actions, Gorbachev praised the new government in 2002.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=679}} At the time, he believed Putin to be a committed democrat who nevertheless had to use "a certain dose of authoritarianism" to stabilize the economy and rebuild the state after the Yeltsin era.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=677}} At Putin's request, Gorbachev became co-chair of the "Petersburg Dialogue" project between high-ranking Russians and Germans.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=676}} In 2000, Gorbachev helped form the [Russian United Social Democratic Party](/source/Russian_United_Social_Democratic_Party).{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=678}} In June 2002, he participated in a meeting with Putin, who praised the venture.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=679}} In 2003, Gorbachev's party merged with the Social Democratic Party to form the [Social Democratic Party of Russia](/source/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Russia_(2001)),{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=678}} but it failed to gain traction with voters.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=678}} Gorbachev resigned as party leader in May 2004 after the [2003 election campaign](/source/2003_Russian_legislative_election). The party was banned in 2007 by the [Supreme Court of the Russian Federation](/source/Supreme_Court_of_the_Russian_Federation) due to its failure to establish local offices with at least 500 members in the majority of Russian regions.{{cite web |url=http://mosnews.com/news/2007/04/13/nogorbyparty.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070423024223/http://mosnews.com/news/2007/04/13/nogorbyparty.shtml |archive-date=23 April 2007 |title=Russia Bans Party Founded by Gorbachev |date=23 April 2007 |website=MosNews |url-status=usurped |access-date=27 December 2019}} Later that year, Gorbachev founded a new movement, the Union of Social Democrats, stating that it would not contest the forthcoming elections.{{cite news |title=Gorbachev sets up Russia movement |website=BBC News |date=20 October 2007 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7054274.stm |access-date=7 May 2019 |archive-date=4 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104021656/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7054274.stm |url-status=live}} Gorbachev was critical of US hostility to Putin, arguing that the US government "doesn't want Russia to rise" again as a global power, but wanted to be "the sole superpower".{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=680}} Gorbachev was critical of US policy following the Cold War, arguing that the West had attempted to "turn [Russia] into some kind of backwater".{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=685}} He rejected Bush's claim that the US had "won" the Cold War, arguing that both sides had cooperated to end the conflict.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=685}} He was critical of how the US had broken its word and expanded NATO right up to Russia's borders.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=685}}{{cite news |author-last1=Blomfield |author-last2=Smith |author-first1=Adrian |author-first2=Mike |title=Gorbachev: US could start new Cold War |newspaper=The Telegraph |date=6 May 2008 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/1933223/Gorbachev-US-could-start-new-Cold-War.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/1933223/Gorbachev-US-could-start-new-Cold-War.html |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=11 March 2015}}{{cbignore}} He spoke out against the 1999 [NATO bombing of Yugoslavia](/source/NATO_bombing_of_Yugoslavia) because it lacked UN backing, and the [2003 invasion of Iraq](/source/2003_invasion_of_Iraq) led by the US.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=685}} === 2008–2022: Growing criticism of Vladimir Putin === In September 2008, Gorbachev and business oligarch [Alexander Lebedev](/source/Alexander_Lebedev) announced they would form the [Independent Democratic Party of Russia](/source/Independent_Democratic_Party_of_Russia).{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/sep/30/russia |title=Gorbachev launches political party with Russian billionaire |website=The Guardian |date=30 September 2008 |access-date=1 October 2008 |author-last=Gray |author-first=Sadie |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130226081230/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/sep/30/russia |url-status=live }}{{Cite news |url=http://mosnews.com/politics/2009/05/13/gorbiedem/ |title=Mikhail Gorbachev will found new political party |publisher=mosnews.com |date=13 May 2009 |access-date=13 June 2009 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716085011/http://mosnews.com/politics/2009/05/13/gorbiedem/ |archive-date=16 July 2011}} After the outbreak of the [Russo-Georgian War](/source/Russo-Georgian_War), Gorbachev spoke out against US support for Georgian president [Mikheil Saakashvili](/source/Mikheil_Saakashvili).{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/08/11/AR2008081101372.html |title=A Path to Peace in the Caucasus |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=12 August 2008 |access-date=12 August 2008 |author-first=Mikhail |author-last=Gorbachev |archive-date=22 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101022143231/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/08/11/AR2008081101372.html |url-status=live}}{{cite news |author-last=Gorbachev |author-first=Mikhail |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/20/opinion/20gorbachev.html |title=Russia Never Wanted a War |website=The New York Times |date=19 August 2008 |access-date=9 December 2011 |archive-date=1 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501111808/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/20/opinion/20gorbachev.html |url-status=live}} Gorbachev nevertheless remained critical of Russia's government.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=681}} [[File:Barack Obama & Joe Biden with Mikhail Gorbachev 3-20.09.jpg|thumb|left|Gorbachev (right) being introduced to US president [Barack Obama](/source/Barack_Obama) by US vice president [Joe Biden](/source/Joe_Biden), March 2009. US ambassador to Russia [Michael McFaul](/source/Michael_McFaul) is pictured in the background.]] In 2009, he met with US president [Barack Obama](/source/Barack_Obama) to "reset" strained US–Russian relations.{{cite web |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-usa-gorbachev/obama-met-gorbachev-in-run-up-to-medvedev-talks-idUSTRE52M2RG20090323 |title=Obama met Gorbachev in run-up to Medvedev talks |date=23 March 2009 |work=[Reuters](/source/Reuters) |access-date=30 January 2019 |archive-date=30 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190130110149/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-usa-gorbachev/obama-met-gorbachev-in-run-up-to-medvedev-talks-idUSTRE52M2RG20090323 |url-status=live}} In 2011, Medvedev awarded him the [Order of St Andrew the Apostle the First-Called](/source/Order_of_St._Andrew).{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=681}} Gorbachev opposed Putin's decision to run for president in the [2012 election](/source/2012_Russian_presidential_election).{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=684}}{{cite web |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Latest-News-Wires/2011/0302/Mikhail-Gorbachev-says-Putin-should-not-run-for-Russian-presidency-again |title=Mikhail Gorbachev says Putin should not run for Russian presidency again |website=[The Christian Science Monitor](/source/The_Christian_Science_Monitor) |date=2 March 2011 |access-date=9 December 2011 |archive-date=21 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111221192249/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Latest-News-Wires/2011/0302/Mikhail-Gorbachev-says-Putin-should-not-run-for-Russian-presidency-again |url-status=live}}{{cite news |title=Gorbachev says Putin 'castrated' democracy in Russia |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-14580709 |website=BBC News |access-date=18 August 2011 |date=18 August 2011 |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407173151/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-14580709 |url-status=live}} In 2014, he defended the [Crimean status referendum](/source/2014_Crimean_status_referendum) and [Russia's annexation of Crimea](/source/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation) that began the [Russo-Ukrainian War](/source/Russo-Ukrainian_War).{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=685}} He spoke out against the sanctions placed on Russia as a result of the annexation.{{cite web |url=http://www.dw.de/former-soviet-leader-gorbachev-warns-against-new-cold-war-in-ukraine-crisis/a-17999860 |title=Former Soviet leader Gorbachev warns against 'new Cold War' in Ukraine crisis |publisher=[Deutsche Welle](/source/Deutsche_Welle) |date=16 October 2014 |access-date=8 November 2014 |archive-date=20 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020204527/http://www.dw.de/former-soviet-leader-gorbachev-warns-against-new-cold-war-in-ukraine-crisis/a-17999860 |url-status=live}} {{Quote box | quote = Russia can succeed only through democracy. Russia is ready for political competition, a real multiparty system, fair elections and regular rotation of government. This should define the role and responsibility of the president. | source = – Gorbachev, 2017{{cite news |author-last=Nelson |author-first=Louis |title=Gorbachev throws shade at Putin: 'Russia can succeed only through democracy' |url=https://www.politico.com/story/2017/04/20/gorbachev-putin-time-100-2017-237396 |website=Politico |date=20 April 2017 |access-date=27 December 2019 |archive-date=12 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190612155355/https://www.politico.com/story/2017/04/20/gorbachev-putin-time-100-2017-237396 |url-status=live}} | align = right | width = 25em }} At a 2014 event marking 25 years since the fall of the Berlin Wall, Gorbachev warned that the ongoing [war in Donbas](/source/War_in_Donbas_(2014%E2%80%932022)) had brought the world to the brink of a [new Cold War](/source/Second_Cold_War), and he accused the US of adopting an attitude of "triumphalism" towards Russia.{{cite news |author-last=Buchanan |author-first=Rose Troup |date=9 November 2014 |title=Mikhail Gorbachev warns global powers have put the world 'on the brink of a new Cold War' |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/gorbachev-warns-global-powers-have-put-the-world-on-the-brink-of-a-new-cold-war-9848946.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220514/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/gorbachev-warns-global-powers-have-put-the-world-on-the-brink-of-a-new-cold-war-9848946.html |archive-date=14 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |newspaper=The Independent |access-date= 9 May 2016}}{{cite news |author-last=Johnston |author-first=Chris |date=9 November 2014 |title=Mikhail Gorbachev: world on brink of new cold war over Ukraine |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/nov/08/gorbachev-new-cold-war-ukraine-soviet-union-us-russia |website=The Guardian |access-date=9 May 2016 |archive-date=5 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160605102939/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/nov/08/gorbachev-new-cold-war-ukraine-soviet-union-us-russia |url-status=live}} In 2016, he said that "Politicians who think that problems and disputes can be solved by using military force... should be rejected by society, they should clear the political stage."{{cite news |title=Mikhail Gorbachev: "Never again war" |url=https://www.sonnenseite.com/en/franz-alt-en/comments-interviews/mikhail-gorbachev-never-again-war/ |work=Sonnenseite |date=13 March 2022 |access-date=15 July 2022 |archive-date=15 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220715102506/https://www.sonnenseite.com/en/franz-alt-en/comments-interviews/mikhail-gorbachev-never-again-war/ |url-status=live}} In June 2018, he welcomed the [Russia–United States summit in Helsinki](/source/2018_Russia%E2%80%93United_States_Summit) between Putin and US president [Donald Trump](/source/Donald_Trump).{{cite news |title=The Latest: Gorbachev has high hopes for Putin-Trump summit |url=https://apnews.com/a8cad273fde84304a2aa31c6cd5cf7a6 |work=Associated Press News |date=28 June 2018 |access-date=27 December 2019 |archive-date=17 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180717154114/https://apnews.com/a8cad273fde84304a2aa31c6cd5cf7a6 |url-status=live}} After the [January 6 United States Capitol attack](/source/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack), Gorbachev declared, "The storming of the capitol was clearly planned in advance, and it's obvious by whom."{{cite news |author= |date=7 January 2021 |title=Горбачев увидел угрозу судьбе США как государства |language=ru |agency=[Interfax](/source/Interfax) |url=https://www.interfax.ru/world/744285 |url-status=live |access-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110212641/https://www.interfax.ru/world/744285 |archive-date=10 January 2021 |quote=По его мнению, произошедшие в Вашингтоне беспорядки "поставили под вопрос дальнейшую судьбу США как государства". |trans-quote=In Gorbachev's opinion, the riots that took place in Washington "called into question the future fate of the United States as a nation".}} In July 2022, Gorbachev's close friend, journalist [Alexei Venediktov](/source/Alexei_Venediktov), said that Gorbachev was very upset when he found out about the [2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine](/source/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine). According to Venediktov, Gorbachev believed that Putin "destroyed his life's work",{{Cite web |last=Родионов |first=Эдуард |date=24 July 2022 |title=Первый президент СССР Горбачёв прокомментировал спецоперацию – Solenka.info – Мировые новости и светская хроника шоу-бизнеса |url=https://solenka.info/pervyj-prezident-sssr-gorbachjov-prokommentiroval-specoperaciju.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831120038/https://solenka.info/pervyj-prezident-sssr-gorbachjov-prokommentiroval-specoperaciju.html |archive-date=31 August 2022 |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=solenka.info |language=ru}} and was calling for "an early cessation of hostilities and immediate start of peace negotiations".{{cite news |last=Borger |first=Julian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/aug/30/gorbachev-political-legacy-destroyed-by-putin | title=How Gorbachev's political legacy was destroyed by Putin | work=The Guardian | date=30 August 2022 | access-date=31 March 2025}} == Political ideology == {{main|Political views of Mikhail Gorbachev}} In the early 1950s, Gorbachev was conventionally Stalinist.{{sfn|Doder|Branson|1990|p=11}} By the mid-1980s, when he took power, Gorbachev argued that the Communist Party had to adapt and engage in creative thinking much as Lenin had earlier creatively interpreted and adapted the writings of [Karl Marx](/source/Karl_Marx) and [Friedrich Engels](/source/Friedrich_Engels) to the situation of early 20th-century Russia.{{sfn|Doder|Branson|1990|pp=116–117}} However, the changes that Gorbachev proposed fitted completely within Marxist-Leninist ideology.{{sfn|Gooding|1990|p=197}} According to Doder and Branson, Gorbachev's outlook was shaped in part by his long provincial career in Stavropol{{sfn|Doder|Branson|1990|p=22}}, where he held regional party posts for 23 years.{{Cite news |last=J.Church |first=George |date=1985-09-09 |title=Moscow's Vigorous Leader |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,959763-3,00.html |access-date=2026-05-18 |work=[Time](/source/Time_(magazine)) |language=en-US |issn=0040-781X}} Perestroika was harder to define, and its meaning shifted with time.{{sfn|McCauley|1998|pp=262–263}} It originally meant "radical reform of the economic and political system".{{sfn|McCauley|1998|p=264}} Later, Gorbachev began to consider market mechanisms and co-operatives.{{sfn|McCauley|1998|p=264}} Gorbachev however remained a believer in socialism, if not in the actual Soviet system.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=215}} During the 1980s, his thought radically shifted,{{sfn|Doder|Branson|1990|p=386}} to the extent that by 1989 or 1990, he was effectively a social democrat.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=678}}{{Additional citation needed|date=July 2025}} == Personal life == [[File:Gorbachev Party Document of the CPSU.gif|right|thumb|The official Soviet portrait of Gorbachev. Many official photographs and visual depictions of Gorbachev removed the [port-wine birthmark](/source/port-wine_stain) from his head.{{sfn|Medvedev|1986|p=160}}|354x354px]] Gorbachev spoke in a southern Russian accent,{{sfnm|1a1=Doder|1a2=Branson|1y=1990|1p=50|2a1=Taubman|2y=2017|2p=44}} and sang both folk and pop songs.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=94}} He frequently [referred to himself in the third person](/source/Illeism).{{Cite web|url=https://www.simonandschuster.com.au/c/Gorbachev|title=Gorbachev: A great leader or tragic hero? | Simon & Schuster AU|website=www.simonandschuster.com.au}} Throughout his life, he tried to dress fashionably.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=179}} Having an aversion to hard liquor,{{sfn|McCauley|1998|p=18}} he drank sparingly and did not smoke.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=142}} He was protective of his private life{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=153}} and cherished his wife and family.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=4–5}} He sent his daughter, his only child, to a local school in Stavropol rather than to one for the children of party elites.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=155}} Unlike many of his contemporaries in the Soviet administration, he treated women respectfully.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=102}} Gorbachev was baptized Russian Orthodox; his grandparents had been practicing Christians.{{sfn|Doder|Branson|1990|p=290}} In 2008, after he visited the tomb of [St Francis of Assisi](/source/St_Francis_of_Assisi), he clarified that he was an atheist.{{Cite news |title=Gorbachev a closet Christian? |author-first=Alex |author-last=Rodriguez |website=Chicago Tribune |date=23 March 2008 |url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-out_there_gorbachev_rodriguez_23mar24,1,4698255.story |archive-date=11 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511153411/http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-out_there_gorbachev_rodriguez_23mar24%2C1%2C4698255.story |access-date=27 December 2019}} Gorbachev considered himself an intellectual;{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=44}} Doder and Branson thought that "his intellectualism was slightly self-conscious",{{sfn|Doder|Branson|1990|p=16}} noting that unlike most Russian intelligentsia, Gorbachev was not closely connected "to the world of science, culture, the arts, or education".{{sfn|Doder|Branson|1990|p=150}} When living in Stavropol, he and his wife collected hundreds of books.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=114–115}} Among his favorite authors were [Arthur Miller](/source/Arthur_Miller), [Dostoevsky](/source/Fyodor_Dostoevsky), and [Chinghiz Aitmatov](/source/Chinghiz_Aitmatov), while he also enjoyed reading detective fiction.{{sfn|Doder|Branson|1990|p=17}} He enjoyed going for walks,{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=137}} having a love of natural environments,{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=163}} and was also a fan of association football.{{sfn|Doder|Branson|1990|p=347}} He favored small gatherings where the assembled discussed topics like art and philosophy rather than the large, alcohol-fueled parties common among Soviet officials.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=136–137}} == Death == {{Main|Death and funeral of Mikhail Gorbachev}} [[File:Mikhail Gorbachev Lying in repose.jpg|thumb|Gorbachev [lying in state](/source/lying_in_state) at the [House of Unions](/source/House_of_Unions)]] Gorbachev died at the [Central Clinical Hospital](/source/Central_Clinical_Hospital) in Moscow on 30 August 2022,{{cite web |author-last=Ljunggren |author-first=David |date=30 August 2022 |title=Last Soviet leader Gorbachev, who ended Cold War and won Nobel prize, dies aged 91 |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/mikhail-gorbachev-who-ended-cold-war-dies-aged-92-agencies-2022-08-30/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220830203925/https://www.reuters.com/world/mikhail-gorbachev-who-ended-cold-war-dies-aged-92-agencies-2022-08-30/ |archive-date=30 August 2022 |access-date=30 August 2022 |work=[Reuters](/source/Reuters) |language=en}} at the age of 91.{{Cite news |author-last=Heintz |author-first=Jim |date=30 August 2022 |title=Mikhail Gorbachev, who steered Soviet breakup, dead at 91 |work=Associated Press News |url=https://apnews.com/article/russia-ukraine-mikhail-gorbachev-obituaries-5cb7a604243668f08dfaed953c09559e |access-date=30 August 2022 |archive-date=31 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831022338/https://apnews.com/article/russia-ukraine-mikhail-gorbachev-obituaries-5cb7a604243668f08dfaed953c09559e |url-status=live }} He died after a "severe and prolonged illness".{{cite web |first1=Susannah |last1=Cullinane |first2=Laura |last2=Smith-Spark |date=30 August 2022 |title=Mikhail Gorbachev, former Soviet president who took down the Iron Curtain, dies |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/08/30/europe/mikhail-gorbachev-dies-intl/index.html |access-date=30 August 2022 |publisher=[CNN](/source/CNN) |archive-date=30 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220830212933/https://www.cnn.com/2022/08/30/europe/mikhail-gorbachev-dies-intl/index.html |url-status=live}}{{Cite web |date=20 June 2022 |title=Источник: ухудшения здоровья Горбачева нет |trans-title=Source: no deterioration in Gorbachev's health |url=https://tass.ru/obschestvo/14974527 |access-date=30 August 2022 |agency=TASS |language=ru |archive-date=21 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621201717/https://tass.ru/obschestvo/14974527 |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |author-last=Вишнева |author-first=Светлана |date=20 June 2022 |title=Представитель Горбачева подтвердил наличие проблем с почками у политика |url=https://radiokp.ru/obschestvo/predstavitel-gorbacheva-podtverdil-chto-politik-prokhodit-gemodializ_nid633575_au57449au |access-date=30 August 2022 |website=radiokp.ru |language=ru |archive-date=30 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220830203329/https://radiokp.ru/obschestvo/predstavitel-gorbacheva-podtverdil-chto-politik-prokhodit-gemodializ_nid633575_au57449au |url-status=live }} He had suffered from severe [diabetes](/source/diabetes) and underwent several surgeries and hospital stays.{{Cite web |title=Mikhail Gorbachev was hospitalized in the Central Clinical Hospital |url=https://www.forbes.ru/news/240490-mihail-gorbachev-gospitalizirovan-v-tskb |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=Forbes.ru |date=11 June 2013 |language=ru |archive-date=7 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207082609/https://www.forbes.ru/news/240490-mihail-gorbachev-gospitalizirovan-v-tskb |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |title=Михаил Горбачев перенес сложную операцию на позвоночнике |url=https://rg.ru/2011/04/15/gorbachev.html |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=Российская газета |date=14 April 2011 |language=ru |archive-date=7 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207082606/https://rg.ru/2011/04/15/gorbachev.html |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |title=Горбачев находится в Германии на плановом обследовании в одной из клиник |url=https://www.interfax.ru/russia/336404 |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=Interfax.ru |date=22 October 2013 |language=ru |archive-date=7 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207082606/https://www.interfax.ru/russia/336404 |url-status=live }} His funeral was held on 3 September 2022 in the Column Hall of the [House of Unions](/source/House_of_Unions). The ceremony included an [honor guard](/source/honor_guard), but was not a [state funeral](/source/state_funeral).{{Cite web |last=Сарджвеладзе |first=София |date=31 August 2022 |title=Прощание с Горбачевым пройдет 3 сентября в Колонном зале |url=https://rtvi.com/news/proshhanie-s-gorbachevym-projdet-31-avgusta-v-kolonnom-zale/ |access-date=3 September 2022 |website=RTVI |language=ru |archive-date=31 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831195820/https://rtvi.com/news/proshhanie-s-gorbachevym-projdet-31-avgusta-v-kolonnom-zale/ |url-status=live }} The service included rites administered by a Russian Orthodox priest.{{Cite web |last=Zemlianichenko |first=Alexander |title=Gorbachev buried in Moscow in funeral snubbed by Putin |url=https://www.telegraphherald.com/ap/business/image_426ae5a6-ec81-51d8-9ec6-d79e5aef60bc.html |access-date=4 September 2022 |website=TelegraphHerald.com |date=3 September 2022 |language=en |archive-date=4 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220904212810/https://www.telegraphherald.com/ap/business/image_426ae5a6-ec81-51d8-9ec6-d79e5aef60bc.html |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |title=Gorbachev buried in Moscow in funeral snubbed by Putin |url=https://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/ny-gorbachev-buried-moscow-funeral-snubbed-putin-20220903-py6dpgdlfnduhfu3sncuij5oe4-story.html |access-date=4 September 2022 |website=Daily News |date=3 September 2022 |location=New York |archive-date=3 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220903234301/https://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/ny-gorbachev-buried-moscow-funeral-snubbed-putin-20220903-py6dpgdlfnduhfu3sncuij5oe4-story.html |url-status=live }} He is buried at Moscow's [Novodevichy Cemetery](/source/Novodevichy_Cemetery), in the same grave as his wife Raisa, as requested by his will.{{cite web|url=https://m-necropol.ru/gorbachev-ms.html|title=Горбачёв Михаил Сергеевич (1931—2022)|publisher=Могилы знаменитостей|lang=ru|website=m-necropol.ru}} == Reception and legacy == Opinions on Gorbachev are deeply divided.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=1}} According to a 2017 survey carried out by the independent institute [Levada Center](/source/Levada_Center), 46% of Russian citizens have a negative opinion towards Gorbachev, 30% are indifferent, while only 15% have a positive opinion.{{Cite web |url=https://www.levada.ru/2017/02/15/15388/ |title=ПРАВИТЕЛИ |date=15 February 2017 |access-date=2 March 2021 |website=levada.ru |archive-date=4 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304161956/https://www.levada.ru/2017/02/15/15388/ |url-status=live}} Many, particularly in Western countries, see him as the greatest statesman of the second half of the 20th century.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|pp=1, 539}} US press referred to the presence of "Gorbymania" in Western countries during the late 1980s and early 1990s, as represented by large crowds that turned out to greet his visits,{{sfnm|1a1=Doder|1a2=Branson|1y=1990|1p=286|2a1=McCauley|2y=1998|2p=138}} with ''[Time](/source/Time_(magazine))'' naming him its "Man of the Decade" in the 1980s.{{sfn|Doder|Branson|1990|p=391}} In the Soviet Union itself, during Gorbachev's time as General Secretary, opinion polls indicated that he was the most popular politician from 1985 through to late 1989.{{sfn|McCauley|1998|p=267}} His domestic supporters saw him as a reformer trying to modernize the Soviet Union,{{sfn|Doder|Branson|1990|p=396}} and to build democratic socialism.{{sfn|Doder|Branson|1990|p=410}} Taubman characterized Gorbachev as "a visionary who changed his country and the world—though neither as much as he wished".{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=688}} Taubman regarded Gorbachev as being "exceptional ... as a Russian ruler and a world statesman", highlighting that he avoided the "traditional, authoritarian, anti-Western norm" of both predecessors like Brezhnev and successors like Putin.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=687}} McCauley thought that in allowing the Soviet Union to move away from Marxism–Leninism, Gorbachev gave the Soviet people "something precious, the right to think and manage their lives for themselves", with inevitable uncertainty and risk.{{sfn|McCauley|1998|pp=278–279}} The Lithuanian foreign minister [Gabrielius Landsbergis](/source/Gabrielius_Landsbergis) said that Lithuanians would not glorify Gorbachev or forget about the 1991 [January Events](/source/January_Events). {{Quote box | quote = Gorbachev succeeded in destroying what was left of totalitarianism in the Soviet Union; he brought freedom of speech, of assembly, and of conscience to people who had never known it, except perhaps for a few chaotic months in 1917. By introducing free elections and creating parliamentary institutions, he laid the groundwork for democracy. It is more the fault of the raw material he worked with than of his own real shortcomings and mistakes that Russian democracy will take much longer to build than he thought. | source = — Gorbachev biographer William Taubman, 2017{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=688}} | align = left | width = 25em }} {{external media| float = left| width=280px|video1 = [https://www.c-span.org/video/?433793-1/qa-william-taubman ''Q&A'' interview with William Taubman on ''Gorbachev: His Life and Times'', 15 October 2017], [C-SPAN](/source/C-SPAN)}} Gorbachev's negotiations with the US helped bring an end to the Cold War and reduced the threat of nuclear conflict.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=688}} His decision to allow the Eastern Bloc to break apart prevented significant bloodshed in Central and Eastern Europe; as Taubman noted, this meant that the "[Soviet Empire](/source/Soviet_Empire)" ended in a far more peaceful manner than the [British Empire](/source/British_Empire) several decades before.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=688}} Similarly, under Gorbachev, the Soviet Union broke apart without falling into civil war, as happened during the [breakup of Yugoslavia](/source/breakup_of_Yugoslavia) at the same time.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunce|1y=1992|1p=205|2a1=McCauley|2y=1998|2p=275}} McCauley noted that in facilitating the merger of East and West Germany, Gorbachev was "a co-father of German unification", assuring him long-term popularity among the German people.{{sfn|McCauley|1998|p=197}} He faced domestic criticism during his rule. He attracted the admiration of some colleagues, but others came to hate him.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=134}} Across society, his inability to reverse the decline in the Soviet economy brought discontent.{{sfn|Doder|Branson|1990|p=388}} Liberals thought he lacked the radicalism to break from Marxism–Leninism and establish a free market liberal democracy.{{sfnm|1a1=Doder|1a2=Branson|1y=1990|1p=416|2a1=Steele|2y=1996|2p=145}} Conversely, many of his Communist Party critics thought his reforms were reckless and threatened the survival of Soviet socialism;{{sfn|Doder|Branson|1990|p=324}} some believed he should have followed the example of China's Communist Party and restricted himself to economic rather than governmental reforms.{{sfn|Steele|1996|p=145}} Many Russians saw his emphasis on persuasion rather than force as a sign of weakness.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=690}} The Communist Party nomenklatura saw the Soviet Union's dissolution as disastrous, as it resulted in their loss of power.{{sfn|McCauley|1998|p=276}} In Russia, he is widely despised for his role in the collapse of the Soviet Union and the ensuing [economic collapse](/source/economic_collapse) in the 1990s.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=1}} [General Varennikov](/source/Valentin_Varennikov), one of those who orchestrated the 1991 coup attempt against Gorbachev, for instance called him "a renegade and traitor to your own people".{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=659}} His critics attacked him for allowing the Marxist–Leninist governments across Eastern Europe to fall,{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=268}} and for allowing a reunited Germany to join NATO, something they deem contrary to Russia's national interest.{{sfn|Taubman|2017|p=691}} The leader of the Communist Party, Gennady Zyuganov, stated that Gorbachev was a leader whose rule brought "absolute sadness, misfortune and problems" for "all the peoples of our country".{{cite news |date=31 August 2022 |title=Praise and Blame: How Russia Reacted to the Death of Gorbachev |work=Moscow Times |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2022/08/31/praise-and-blame-how-russia-reacted-to-the-death-of-gorbachev-a78690 |archive-date=31 August 2022 |access-date=31 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831181251/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2022/08/31/praise-and-blame-how-russia-reacted-to-the-death-of-gorbachev-a78690 |url-status=live }} The historian [Mark Galeotti](/source/Mark_Galeotti) stressed the connection between Gorbachev and his predecessor, Andropov. In Galeotti's view, Andropov was "the godfather of the Gorbachev revolution", because—as a former head of the KGB—he was able to put forward the case for reform without having his loyalty to the Soviet cause questioned.{{sfn|Galeotti|1997|p=35}} According to McCauley, Gorbachev "set reforms in motion without understanding where they could lead. Never in his worst nightmare could he have imagined that perestroika would lead to the destruction of the Soviet Union".{{sfn|McCauley|1998|pp=257–258}} According to ''The New York Times'', "Few leaders in the 20th century, indeed in any century, have had such a profound effect on their time. In little more than six tumultuous years, Mr. Gorbachev lifted the Iron Curtain, decisively altering the political climate of the world."{{Cite news |author-last=Berger |author-first=Marilyn |date=30 August 2022 |title=Mikhail S. Gorbachev, Reformist Soviet Leader, Is Dead at 91 |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/30/world/europe/mikhail-gorbachev-dead.html |access-date=30 August 2022 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=30 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220830205301/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/30/world/europe/mikhail-gorbachev-dead.html |url-status=live}} == Awards and honors == [[File: President Ronald Reagan Presents Reagan Freedom Medal to Mikhail Gorbachev at Reagan Library - DPLA - a1833b6a8988e8bf11481bbd1622bd81.jpg |thumb|right|Former US president [Ronald Reagan](/source/Ronald_Reagan) awards the first [Ronald Reagan Freedom Award](/source/Ronald_Reagan_Freedom_Award) to Gorbachev at the [Reagan Library](/source/Reagan_Library), 1992]] In 1988, India awarded Gorbachev the [Indira Gandhi Prize for Peace, Disarmament and Development](/source/Indira_Gandhi_Prize_for_Peace%2C_Disarmament_and_Development);{{sfn|Doder|Branson|1990|p=366}} in 1990, he was given the Nobel Peace Prize for "his leading role in the peace process which today characterizes important parts of the international community".{{cite web |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1990/press.html |title=The Nobel Peace Prize 1990 |publisher=Nobel Foundation |date=15 October 1990 |access-date=3 November 2010 |archive-date=8 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101108202031/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1990/press.html |url-status=live}} Out of office he continued to receive honors. In 1992, he was the first recipient of the [Ronald Reagan Freedom Award](/source/Ronald_Reagan_Freedom_Award),{{cite web |url=http://www.reaganfoundation.org/programs/cpa/awards.asp |title=Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation & Library |access-date=24 February 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610173410/http://www.reaganfoundation.org/programs/cpa/awards.asp |archive-date=10 June 2008}} and in 1994 was given the [Grawemeyer Award](/source/Grawemeyer_Award) by the [University of Louisville](/source/University_of_Louisville), Kentucky.{{cite web |title=1994– Mikhail Gorbachev |url=http://grawemeyer.org/worldorder/previous-winners/1994-mikhail-gorbachev.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013203704/http://grawemeyer.org/worldorder/previous-winners/1994-mikhail-gorbachev.html |archive-date=13 October 2011}} In 1995, he was awarded the Grand-Cross of the [Order of Liberty](/source/Order_of_Liberty) by Portuguese president [Mário Soares](/source/M%C3%A1rio_Soares),{{cite web |url=http://www.ordens.presidencia.pt/?idc=154&list=1 |title=Cidadãos Estrangeiros Agraciados com Ordens Portuguesas – Página Oficial das Ordens Honoríficas Portuguesas |website=ordens.presidencia.pt |language=pt |access-date=7 August 2017 |archive-date=3 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130303144739/http://www.ordens.presidencia.pt/?idc=154|url-status=live}} and in 1998 the Freedom Award from the [National Civil Rights Museum](/source/National_Civil_Rights_Museum) in [Memphis, Tennessee](/source/Memphis%2C_Tennessee).{{cite web |url=http://www.civilrightsmuseum.org/Freedom-Awards-Winners.aspx#sthash.eEo0oFeS.dpbs |title=NCRM: Freedom Awards Winners |access-date=28 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140330065715/http://civilrightsmuseum.org/Freedom-Awards-Winners.aspx |archive-date=30 March 2014}} In 2002, Gorbachev received the [Freedom of the City of Dublin](/source/Freedom_of_the_City_of_Dublin) from [Dublin City Council](/source/Dublin_City_Council).{{cite web |url=http://www.dublincity.ie/main-menu-your-council-lord-mayor-about-lord-mayor-freedom-city/previous-recipients-keys-city |title=Previous Recipients of Keys to the City|website=dublincity.ie |publisher=Dublin City Council |language=en |access-date=14 December 2017 |archive-date=15 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171215053619/http://www.dublincity.ie/main-menu-your-council-lord-mayor-about-lord-mayor-freedom-city/previous-recipients-keys-city |url-status=live}} In 2002, Gorbachev was awarded the [Charles V Prize](/source/Charles_V_European_Award) by the European Academy of Yuste Foundation.{{cite web |url=http://www.fundacionyuste.org/en/project/mijail-gorbachov/ |title=Mikhail Gorbachev |publisher=European Academy of Yuste Foundation |access-date=16 September 2017 |archive-date=17 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170917032406/http://www.fundacionyuste.org/en/project/mijail-gorbachov/ |url-status=live}} Gorbachev, together with [Bill Clinton](/source/Bill_Clinton) and [Sophia Loren](/source/Sophia_Loren), were awarded the [2004 Grammy Award](/source/46th_Annual_Grammy_Awards) for [Best Spoken Word Album for Children](/source/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Spoken_Word_Album_for_Children) for their recording of [Sergei Prokofiev](/source/Sergei_Prokofiev)'s 1936 ''[Peter and the Wolf](/source/Peter_and_the_Wolf)'' for [Pentatone](/source/Pentatone_(record_label)).{{cite web |url=http://www.pentatonemusic.com/peter-and-the-wolf-wolf-tracks|title=Prokofiev Peter and the Wolf – Beintus Wolf Tracks |website=Pentatone |access-date=18 December 2016 |archive-date=20 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220192411/http://www.pentatonemusic.com/peter-and-the-wolf-wolf-tracks |url-status=live}} In 2005, Gorbachev was awarded the Point Alpha Prize for his role in supporting German reunification.{{cite web |url=http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,1619484,00.html |date=17 June 2005 |title=Reunification Politicians Accept Prize |publisher=Deutsche Welle |access-date=22 May 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105221152/https://www.dw.com/en/reunification-politicians-accept-prize/a-1619484 |archive-date=5 November 2018 |url-status=live}} == Bibliography == {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! Year ! Title ! Co-author ! Publisher |- | 1987 | ''Perestroika – New Thinking for our Country and the World'' | – | Harper & Row |- | 1996 | ''Memoirs'' | – | Doubleday |- | 2005 | ''Moral Lessons of the Twentieth Century: Gorbachev and Ikeda on Buddhism and Communism'' | [Daisaku Ikeda](/source/Daisaku_Ikeda) | I. B. Tauris |- | 2016 | ''The New Russia'' | – | Polity |- | 2018 | ''In a Changing World'' | – | |- |2020 | ''What is at Stake Now: My Appeal for Peace and Freedom'' |– | Polity |- |} ==In popular culture== [[File:InSapphoWeTrust - Ronald Reagan, Margaret Thatcher, and Mikhail Gorbachev at Madame Tussauds London (8480300191).jpg|thumb|upright|Waxworks of Reagan, Thatcher and Gorbachev at the [Madame Tussauds](/source/Madame_Tussauds), museum London]] In 2020 and 2021, the [Theatre of Nations](/source/Theatre_of_Nations) in Moscow, in collaboration with Latvian director [Alvis Hermanis](/source/Alvis_Hermanis), staged a production called ''Gorbachev''.{{Cite video |title=Theatre play "Gorbachev" спектакл "Горбачёв" about Mikhail Gorbachev Михаил Горбачёв |author=Kangarooo |date=8 September 2022 |url=https://rumble.com/v1j9x06-theatre-play-gorbachev-about-mikhail-gorbachev-.html |via=Rumble}} [Yevgeny Mironov](/source/Yevgeny_Mironov_(actor)) and [Chulpan Khamatova](/source/Chulpan_Khamatova) played the roles of Gorbachev and his wife Raisa respectively.{{cite web |url=https://www.broadwayworld.com/russia/article/BWW-Review-GORBACHEV-at-The-State-Theatre-Of-Nations-20210707 |title=Review: Gorbachev at The State Theatre Of Nations |website=BroadwayWorld |quote=The production runs from October, 2020. Next dates: 8 September 2021 |author-first=Ani |author-last=Arutyunyan |date=7 July 2021 |access-date=13 December 2021 |archive-date=13 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211213043934/https://www.broadwayworld.com/russia/article/BWW-Review-GORBACHEV-at-The-State-Theatre-Of-Nations-20210707 |url-status=live}} Gorbachev was portrayed by [David Dencik](/source/David_Dencik) in the 2019 miniseries ''[Chernobyl](/source/Chernobyl_(miniseries))'',[https://deadline.com/2022/08/mikhail-gorbachev-dead-soviet-union-1235103618/ Mikhail Gorbachev Dies: Last Leader Of Soviet Union Was 91] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241225090103/https://deadline.com/2022/08/mikhail-gorbachev-dead-soviet-union-1235103618/ |date=25 December 2024 }}, by Ted Johnson and Erik Pedersen; at ''[Deadline Hollywood](/source/Deadline_Hollywood)''; published 30 August 2022; retrieved 11 April 2024 by [Matthew Marsh](/source/Matthew_Marsh_(actor)) in the 2023 film ''[Tetris](/source/Tetris_(film))''{{Cite news|last=O'Sullivan|first=Michael|title='Tetris': A heady Cold War thriller about the fight over a video game|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/movies/2023/03/22/tetris-movie-review/|date=22 March 2023|access-date=11 November 2023|newspaper=The Washington Post|archive-date=25 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325203447/https://www.washingtonpost.com/movies/2023/03/22/tetris-movie-review/|url-status=live}} and by [Aleksander Krupa](/source/Aleksander_Krupa) in the 2024 biographical drama [''Reagan''](/source/Reagan_(2024_film)).{{cite magazine|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/i-despised-gorbachev-until-i-played-his-role-11615332311|title=I Despised Gorbachev Until I Played His Role On the set of "Reagan," I began to understand the Soviet leader.|author=Olek Krupa|date=9 March 2021|magazine=[The Wall Street Journal](/source/The_Wall_Street_Journal)|access-date=28 December 2024|archive-date=26 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230526031324/https://www.wsj.com/articles/i-despised-gorbachev-until-i-played-his-role-11615332311|url-status=live}} Gorbachev appears in the video game ''[Call of Duty: Black Ops Cold War](/source/Call_of_Duty%3A_Black_Ops_Cold_War)'' during a mission where the playable character infiltrates the [KGB headquarters](/source/Lubyanka_Building). Gorbachev is portrayed by David Agranov.{{cite web|url=https://www.thegamer.com/call-duty-black-ops-cold-war-accident-funny/|title=10 Unintentionally Hilarious Things About Call Of Duty: Black Ops Cold War|last=Wojnar|first=Jason|date=21 November 2020|access-date=4 September 2024|publisher=TheGamer|archive-date=18 December 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241218092852/https://www.thegamer.com/call-duty-black-ops-cold-war-accident-funny/|url-status=live}} Footage of contemporary interviews with Gorbachev was used to create the 2020 film ''Gorbachev''. ''Heaven''.{{Cite web |last=Lodge |first=Guy |date=2020-11-21 |title='Gorbachev. Heaven' Review: The Former Soviet Leader Says His Piece (or Doesn't) in a Moving, Insightful Doc |url=https://variety.com/2020/film/reviews/gorbachev-heaven-review-the-former-soviet-leader-says-his-piece-or-doesnt-in-a-moving-insightful-doc-1234837371/ |access-date=2025-12-05 |website=Variety |language=en-US}} Gorbachev appears in the 1985 film [Rocky IV](/source/Rocky_IV) portrayed by [David Lloyd Austin](/source/David_Lloyd_Austin).https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0042362/ Gorbachev also appears in a [Pizza Hut](/source/Pizza_Hut) commercial in 1997.https://www.ft.com/content/4009a186-c42f-11e9-a8e9-296ca66511c9 == See also == * [List of peace activists](/source/List_of_peace_activists) * [List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates](/source/List_of_Nobel_Peace_Prize_laureates) ==Notes== {{Notelist}} == References == ===Citations=== {{Reflist}} ===Sources=== {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal |author-last=Bunce |author-first=Valerie | author-link = Valerie Bunce |title=On Gorbachev |journal=The Soviet and Post-Soviet Review |volume=19 |issue=1 |year=1992 |pages=199–206 |doi=10.1163/187633292X00108}} * {{cite book |author-first1=Dusko |author-last1=Doder |author-first2=Louise |author-last2=Branson |date=1990 |title=Gorbachev: Heretic in the Kremlin |location=London |publisher=Futura |isbn=978-0-70884940-8}} * {{cite book |author-last=Galeotti |author-first=Mark |date=1997 |title=Gorbachev and his Revolution |location=London |publisher=Palgrave |isbn=978-0-33363855-2}} * {{cite journal |author-last=Gooding |author-first=John |title=Gorbachev and Democracy |journal=Soviet Studies |volume=42 |number=2 |year=1990 |pages=195–231 |doi=10.1080/09668139008411864 |jstor=152078}} * {{cite book |author-last=McCauley |author-first=Martin |date=1998 |title=Gorbachev |url=https://archive.org/details/gorbachev00mcca |url-access=registration |series=Profiles in Power |location=London and New York |publisher=Longman |isbn=978-0-58221597-9}} * {{cite book |author-last=Medvedev |author-first=Zhores |date=1986 |title=Gorbachev |location=Oxford |publisher=Basil Blackwell |isbn=978-0-39302308-4}} * {{cite journal |author-last=Steele |author-first=Jonathan |title=Why Gorbachev Failed |journal=New Left Review |volume=216 |year=1996 |pages=141–152}} * {{cite book |author-first=William |author-last=Taubman |date=2017 |author-link=William Taubman |title=[Gorbachev: His Life and Times](/source/Gorbachev%3A_His_Life_and_Times) |location=New York City |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-47114796-8}} * {{cite journal |author-last=Tuminez |author-first=Astrid S. |title=Nationalism, Ethnic Pressures, and the Breakup of the Soviet Union |journal=Journal of Cold War Studies |volume=5 |number=4 |year=2003 |pages=81–136 |doi=10.1162/152039703322483765 |jstor=26925339 |s2cid=57565508}} {{refend}} ==Further reading== {{See also|Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War|bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union|bibliography of the post-Stalinist Soviet Union}} {{refbegin|30em}} * Brown, Archie. ''The human factor: Gorbachev, Reagan, and Thatcher, and the end of the Cold War'' (Oxford University Press, 2020). {{ISBN|978-0190614898}} * Duncan, W. Raymond, and Carolyn McGiffert Ekedahl. ''Moscow and the third world under Gorbachev'' (Routledge, 2020). {{ISBN|978-0367006914}} * Eklof, Ben. ''Soviet briefing: Gorbachev and the reform period'' (Routledge, 2019). {{ISBN|978-0367288167}} * Kotkin, Stephen. ''Armageddon Averted: The Soviet Collapse, 1970–2000'' (2nd ed. 2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Armageddon-Averted-Soviet-Collapse-1970-2000-dp-0195368649/dp/0195368649/ excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031133512/https://www.amazon.com/Armageddon-Averted-Soviet-Collapse-1970-2000-dp-0195368649/dp/0195368649/ |date=31 October 2021}} * Kramer, Mark. "Mikhail Gorbachev and the Origins of Perestroika: A Retrospective." ''Demokratizatsiya: The Journal of Post-Soviet Democratization'' 29.3 (2021): 255–258. * Lane, David. "The Gorbachev revolution: The role of the political elite in regime disintegration." ''Political studies'' 44.1 (1996): 4–23. * McHugh, James T. "Last of the enlightened despots: A comparison of President Mikhail Gorbachev and Emperor Joseph II." ''Social Science Journal'' 32.1 (1995): 69–85 [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1016/0362-3319%2895%2990020-9 online abstract ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415012036/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1016/0362-3319%2895%2990020-9 |date=15 April 2021}}. * Woodby, Sylvia Babus. ''Gorbachev and the decline of ideology in Soviet foreign policy'' (Routledge, 2019). {{ISBN|978-0367013141}} * Ostrovsky, Alexander (2010). [https://ru.bookshome.net/book/3299571/e53580 Кто поставил Горбачёва? (Who put Gorbachev?)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220807112401/https://ru.bookshome.net/book/3299571/e53580 |date=7 August 2022}} – М.: Алгоритм-Эксмо, 2010. – 544 с. {{ISBN|978-5-699-40627-2}}. * Ostrovsky, Alexander (2011). [https://ru.bookshome.net/book/1137525/d94429 Глупость или измена? Расследование гибели СССР. (Stupidity or treason? Investigation of the death of the USSR)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220830215714/https://ru.bookshome.net/book/1137525/d94429 |date=30 August 2022}} М.: Форум, Крымский мост-9Д, 2011. – 864 с. {{ISBN|978-5-89747-068-6}}. {{refend}} == External links == * {{Official website|https://www.gorby.ru/en/}} * {{New York Times topic|new_id=person/mikhail-s-gorbachev|name=Mikhail S. Gorbachev}} * {{IMDb name|0329784}} * {{Find a Grave|name=Mikhail Gorbachev}} * {{Nobelprize}} {{S-start}} {{S-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=[Leonid Yefremov](/source/Leonid_Yefremov)}} {{s-ttl|title=[First Secretary of the Stavropol CPSU Regional Committee](/source/First_Secretary_of_the_Stavropol_Regional_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party)|years=1970–1978}} {{s-aft|after=[Vsevolod Murakhovsky](/source/Vsevolod_Murakhovsky)}} {{s-bef|before=[Konstantin Chernenko](/source/Konstantin_Chernenko)}} {{s-ttl|title=[General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union](/source/General_Secretary_of_the_Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union)|years = 1985–1991}} {{s-aft|after=[Vladimir Ivashko](/source/Vladimir_Ivashko) {{nobold|(acting)}}}} {{S-off}} {{s-bef|before=[Andrei Gromyko](/source/Andrei_Gromyko)|as=[Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet](/source/Chairman_of_the_Presidium_of_the_Supreme_Soviet)}} {{s-ttl|title={{br entries|[Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet](/source/Chairman_of_the_Presidium_of_the_Supreme_Soviet) {{nobold|(1988–1989)}}|[Chairman of the Supreme Soviet](/source/Chairman_of_the_Supreme_Soviet) {{nobold|(1989–1990)}}|[President of the Soviet Union](/source/President_of_the_Soviet_Union) {{nobold|(1990–1991)}}}}|years=1988–1991}} {{s-non|reason=Office abolished}} {{S-ach}} {{s-bef|before=[14th Dalai Lama](/source/14th_Dalai_Lama)}} {{s-ttl|title=Recipient of the [Nobel Peace Prize](/source/Nobel_Peace_Prize)|years=1990}} {{s-aft|after=[Aung San Suu Kyi](/source/Aung_San_Suu_Kyi)}} {{s-break}} {{s-non|reason= Award established}} {{s-ttl|title=Recipient of the [Ronald Reagan Freedom Award](/source/Ronald_Reagan_Freedom_Award)|years=1992}} {{s-aft|after=[Colin Powell](/source/Colin_Powell)}} {{S-end}} {{Navboxes | title = Articles related to Mikhail Gorbachev | state = collapsed | list1 = {{Stagnation Era}} {{Communist Party of the Soviet Union}} {{Heads of state of the 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Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Category:Members of the Central Committee of the 24th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Category:Members of the Central Committee of the 25th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Category:Members of the Central Committee of the 26th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Category:Members of the Central Committee of the 27th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Category:Members of the Central Committee of the 28th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Category:Club of Rome members Category:Collars of the Order of the White Lion Category:Commandeurs of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres Category:Former Eastern Orthodox Christians from Russia Category:Grammy Award winners Category:Grand Crosses Special Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany Category:Heads of state of the Soviet Union Category:Heads of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Category:Honorary members of the Russian Academy of Arts Category:Illeists Category:Members of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union Category:Moscow State University alumni Category:Nobel Peace Prize laureates Category:People from Stavropol Category:People of the 1991 Soviet coup attempt Category:People of the Cold War Category:People of the Soviet–Afghan War Category:Recipients of the Order of St. Andrew Category:Recipients of the Order of Honour (Russia) Category:Recipients of the Order of Lenin Category:Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner of Labour Category:Recipients of the Ronald Reagan Freedom Award Category:Russian anti–nuclear weapons activists Category:Soviet anti–nuclear weapons activists Category:Russian atheists Category:Russian Nobel laureates Category:Russian democracy activists Category:Russian people of Ukrainian descent Category:Russian social democrats Category:Social Democratic Party of Russia politicians Category:Soviet atheists Category:Soviet Nobel laureates Category:Soviet reformers Category:Soviet democracy activists Category:Time Person of the Year Category:Russian people in the Soviet Union Category:20th-century Russian politicians Category:People associated with the Dissolution of the Soviet Union Category:Members of the Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union --- Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Mikhail Gorbachev](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.