# Meteoric iron

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**Meteoric iron**, sometimes **meteoritic iron**,[1] is a [native metal](/source/Native_metal) and [early-universe protoplanetary-disk remnant](/source/Primitive_rock) found in [meteorites](/source/Meteorites) and made from the elements [iron](/source/Iron) and [nickel](/source/Nickel), mainly in the form of the [mineral](/source/Mineral) phases [kamacite](/source/Kamacite) and [taenite](/source/Taenite). Meteoric iron makes up the bulk of [iron meteorites](/source/Iron_meteorite) but is also found in other meteorites. Apart from minor amounts of [telluric iron](/source/Telluric_iron), meteoric iron is the only naturally occurring native metal of the element iron (in metallic form rather than in an [ore](/source/Ore)) on the Earth's surface.[2]

## Mineralogy

The bulk of meteoric iron consists of [taenite](/source/Taenite) and [kamacite](/source/Kamacite). Taenite is a face-centered cubic and kamacite a body-centered cubic iron-nickel [alloy](/source/Alloy). Meteoric iron can be distinguished from [telluric iron](/source/Telluric_iron) by its microstructure and perhaps by its chemical composition also, since meteoritic iron contains more nickel and less carbon.[2] Trace amounts of [gallium](/source/Gallium) and [germanium](/source/Germanium) in meteoric iron can be used to distinguish different meteorite types. The meteoric iron in [stony iron meteorites](/source/Stony_Iron_Meteorite) is identical to the "gallium-germanium group" of the [iron meteorites](/source/Iron_meteorite).[3]

Overview over meteoric iron mineral phases Mineral Formula Nickel (Mass-% Ni) Crystal structure Notes & references Antitaenite γLow Spin-(Ni,Fe) 20–40 face centered cubic Only approved as a variety of taenite by the IMA Kamacite α-(Fe,Ni); Fe0+0.9Ni0.1 5–10 body centered cubic Same structure as ferrite Taenite γ-(Ni,Fe) 20–65 face centered cubic Same structure as austenite Tetrataenite (FeNi) 48–57 tetragonal [4]

### Structures

Meteoric iron forms a few different structures that can be seen by [etching](/source/Etching) or in [thin sections](/source/Thin_section) of meteorites. The [Widmanstätten pattern](/source/Widmanst%C3%A4tten_pattern) forms when meteoric iron cools and [kamacite](/source/Kamacite) is [exsolved](/source/Exsolution) from [taenite](/source/Taenite) in the form of lamellas.[5] [Plessite](/source/Plessite) is a more fine-grained intergrowth of the two minerals in between the lamella of the Widmanstätten pattern.[6] [Neumann lines](/source/Neumann_lines) are fine lines running through [kamacite](/source/Kamacite) crystals that form through impact-related deformation.[7]

## Cultural and historical usage

Before the advent of iron [smelting](/source/Smelting), meteoric iron was the only source of iron metal apart from minor amounts of [telluric iron](/source/Telluric_iron). Meteoric iron was already used before the beginning of the [Iron Age](/source/Iron_Age) to make cultural objects, tools and weapons.[8]

### Bronze Age

Many examples of iron working from the [Bronze Age](/source/Bronze_Age) have been confirmed to be meteoritic in origin.[9]

- In ancient Egypt an iron metal bead was found in a graveyard near [Gerzeh](/source/Gerzeh) that contained 7.5% Ni.[10][11] Dated to around 3200 BC, [geochemical](/source/Geochemistry) analysis of the Gerzeh iron beads, based on the ratio of nickel to iron and [cobalt](/source/Cobalt), confirms that the iron was meteoritic in origin.[9]
- In [Mesopotamia](/source/Mesopotamia), [Sumer](/source/Sumer) and [Akkadian Empire](/source/Akkadian_Empire), meteoric iron was considered a sacred material, used to create special ritual objects, and used long before the systematic processing of terrestrial iron. There was a special term for it, an-bar.[12]
- Dated to around 2500 BC, an iron dagger from [Alaca Höyük](/source/Alaca_H%C3%B6y%C3%BCk) was confirmed to be meteoritic in origin through geochemical analysis.[9]
- Dated to around 2300 BC, an iron pendant from [Umm el-Marra](/source/Umm_el-Marra) in Syria was confirmed to be meteoritic in origin through geochemical analysis.[9]
- Dated to around 1400 BC, an iron axe from [Ugarit](/source/Ugarit) in Syria was found to be meteoritic in origin.[9]
- Dated to around 1400 BC, several iron axes from [Shang dynasty](/source/Shang_dynasty) China were confirmed to be meteoritic in origin.[9]
- Dated to around 1350 BC, an iron dagger, bracelet and headrest from the tomb of [Tutankhamun](/source/Tutankhamun) were confirmed to be meteoritic in origin.[9] The [Tutankhamun dagger](/source/Tutankhamun's_iron_dagger_blade) consists of similar proportions of metals ([iron](/source/Iron), [nickel](/source/Nickel) and [cobalt](/source/Cobalt)) to a meteorite discovered in the area, deposited by an ancient meteor shower.[13][14][15]
- Dated to around 900 BC, an [arrowhead](/source/M%C3%B6rigen_Arrowhead) from [Mörigen](/source/M%C3%B6rigen) in Switzerland was confirmed to be made of meteoric iron[16] whose composition suggested that it originated from the [Kaali meteorite crater](/source/Kaali_crater) in [Saaremaa](/source/Saaremaa), Estonia.[17]

### The Americas

- The [Inuit](/source/Inuit) used parts of the [Cape York meteorite](/source/Cape_York_meteorite) to make knives, harpoon tips, and lance heads.[18][19][20] Large quantities of meteoric iron were known and used long before European contact.[21]

### Africa

- Fragments from the [Gibeon](/source/Gibeon_(meteorite)) meteorite were used for centuries by the [Nama people](/source/Nama_people) of Namibia.

### Asia

- There are reports of the use of meteorites for manufacture of various items in Tibet (see [Thokcha](/source/Thokcha)). *The [*Iron Man*](/source/Iron_Man_(Buddhist_statue)), a purported Tibetan Buddhist statue of [Vaiśravaṇa](/source/Vai%C5%9Brava%E1%B9%87a), was likely carved from an ataxite meteorite.[22] It has been speculated that it may be made from a fragment of the [Chinga meteorite](/source/Chinga_meteorite).[23][24] Even after the invention of [smelting](/source/Smelting), meteoric iron was sometimes used where this technology was not available or metal was scarce. A piece of the [Cranbourne meteorite](/source/Cranbourne_meteorite) was made into a horseshoe around 1854.[25] Today meteoritic iron is used in niche jewellery and knife production, but most of it is used for research, educational or [collecting](/source/Collecting) purposes.

## Atmospheric phenomena

Meteoric iron also has an effect on the Earth's atmosphere. When meteorites descend through the atmosphere, outer parts are [ablated](/source/Ablation). Meteoric ablation is the source of many elements in the upper atmosphere. When meteoric iron is ablated, it forms a free iron atom that can react with [ozone](/source/Ozone) (O3) to form [FeO](/source/Iron(II)_oxide). This FeO may be the source of the orange spectrographic bands in the spectrum of the upper atmosphere.[26]

## See also

- [Glossary of meteoritics](/source/Glossary_of_meteoritics)

## References

1. Rehren, Thilo; Belgya, Tamás; Jambon, Albert; Káli, György; Kasztovszky, Zsolt; Kis, Zoltán; Kovács, Imre; Maróti, Boglárka; Martinón-Torres, Marcos; Miniaci, Gianluca; Pigott, Vincent C.; Radivojević, Miljana; Rosta, László; Szentmiklósi, László; Szőkefalvi-Nagy, Zoltán (2013). ["5,000 years old Egyptian iron beads made from hammered meteoritic iron"](http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1430496/1/Rehren_et_al_2013_Petrie_iron_beads_JAS_40.pdf). *Journal of Archaeological Science*. **40** (12): 4785–4792. [doi:10.1016/j.jas.2013.06.002](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2013.06.002)

1. Fleming, Stuart J. & Schenck, Helen R. (1989). [*History of Technology: The Role of Metals*](https://books.google.com/books?id=NKCpAVR011MC&pg=PA67). UPenn Museum of Archaeology. p. 67. ISBN 978-0-924171-95-6.

1. Lovering, John F.; Nichiporuk, Walter; Chodos, Arthur; Brown, Harrison (31 December 1956). "The distribution of gallium, germanium, cobalt, chromium, and copper in iron and stony-iron meteorites in relation to nickel content and structure". *Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta*. **11** (4): 263–278. [Bibcode:1957GeCoA..11..263L](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1957GeCoA..11..263L). [doi:10.1016/0016-7037(57)90099-6](https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(57)90099-6)

1. Clarke, Roy S. & Edward R. D. Scott (1980). ["Tetrataenite - ordered FeNi, a new mineral in meteorites"](http://www.minsocam.org/ammin/AM65/AM65_624.pdf). *American Mineralogist*. **65**: 624–630. [Bibcode:1980AmMin..65..624C](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1980AmMin..65..624C)

1. Yang, J. & J. I. Goldstein (2005). "The formation of the Widmanstätten structure in meteorites". *Meteoritics & Planetary Science*. **40** (2): 239–253. [Bibcode:2005M&PS...40..239Y](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005M%26PS...40..239Y). [doi:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2005.tb00378.x](https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1945-5100.2005.tb00378.x)

1. Goldstein, J. I. & J. R. Michael (2006). "The formation of plessite in meteoritic metal". *Meteoritics & Planetary Science*. **41** (4): 553–570. [Bibcode:2006M&PS...41..553G](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006M%26PS...41..553G). [doi:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2006.tb00482.x](https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1945-5100.2006.tb00482.x)

1. Rosenhain, Walter & Jean McMinn (1925). "The Plastic Deformation of Iron and the Formation of Neumann Lines". *Proceedings of the Royal Society*. **108** (746): 231–239. [Bibcode:1925RSPSA.108..231R](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1925RSPSA.108..231R). [doi:10.1098/rspa.1925.0071](https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1925.0071)

1. Waldbaum, J. C. and James D. Muhly; *The first archaeological appearance of iron and the transition to the iron age* chapter in *The coming of the age of iron,* Theodore A. Wertme. ed., Yale University Press, 1980, ISBN 978-0300024258

1. Jambon, Albert (2017). ["Bronze Age iron: Meteoritic or not? A chemical strategy."](https://hal.sorbonne-universite.fr/hal-01614724/file/Jambon_Bronze_Age_iron.pdf). *Journal of Archaeological Science*. **88**: 47–53. [doi:10.1016/j.jas.2017.09.008](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2017.09.008). [ISSN 0305-4403](https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0305-4403)

1. ["Pre-Dynastic Iron Beads from Gerzeh, Egypt"](http://www.ucl.ac.uk/iams/newsletter/accordion/journals/iams_19/iams_19_1995_el_gayer). ucl.ac.uk. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150407045128/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/iams/newsletter/accordion/journals/iams_19/iams_19_1995_el_gayer) 7 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 28 December 2012.

1. Rehren, Thilo; Belgya, Tamás; Jambon, Albert; Káli, György et al. (31 July 2013). "5,000 years old Egyptian iron beads made from hammered meteoritic iron". *Journal of Archaeological Science*. **40** (12): 4785–4792. [doi:10.1016/j.jas.2013.06.002](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2013.06.002). [hdl:11568/908268](https://hdl.handle.net/11568/908268)

1. Wertime, Theodore A. (1980). [*The Coming of the Age of Iron*](https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Coming_of_the_Age_of_Iron.html?id=Q9wp0AEACAAJ) (in German). New Haven USA; Conn. & London.

1. Bjorkman, Judith Kingston (1973). "Meteors and Meteorites in the ancient Near East". *Meteoritics*. **8** (2): 91–132. [Bibcode:1973Metic...8...91B](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973Metic...8...91B). [doi:10.1111/j.1945-5100.1973.tb00146.x](https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1945-5100.1973.tb00146.x)

1. Daniela Comelli; Massimo D'orazio; Luigi Folco; Mahmud El-Halwagy; Tommaso Frizzi; Roberto Alberti; Valentina Capogrosso; Abdelrazek Elnaggar; Hala Hassan; Austin Nevin; Franco Porcelli; Mohamed G. Rashed; Gianluca Valentini (2016). "The meteoritic origin of Tutankhamun's iron dagger blade". *Meteoritics & Planetary Science*. **51** (7): 1301–1309. [Bibcode:2016M&PS...51.1301C](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016M%26PS...51.1301C). [doi:10.1111/maps.12664](https://doi.org/10.1111/maps.12664). [hdl:11568/794614](https://hdl.handle.net/11568/794614)

1. Walsh, Declan (2 June 2016). ["King Tut's Dagger Made of 'Iron From the Sky,' Researchers Say"](https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/03/world/middleeast/king-tuts-dagger-made-of-iron-from-the-sky-researchers-say.html). *[The New York Times](/source/The_New_York_Times)*. Retrieved 4 June 2016. ...the blade's composition of iron, nickel and cobalt was an approximate match for a meteorite that landed in northern Egypt. The result "strongly suggests an extraterrestrial origin"

1. Guy, Jack (8 August 2023). ["Arrowhead made from meteorite 3,000 years ago found near lake in Europe"](https://edition.cnn.com/style/article/arrowhead-meteoritic-iron-scli-intl-scn/index.html). *[CNN](/source/CNN)*. Retrieved 9 August 2023.

1. Hofmann, Beda A.; Schreyer, Sabine Bolliger; Biswas, Sayani; Gerchow, Lars; Wiebe, Daniel; Schumann, Marc; Lindemann, Sebastian; García, Diego Ramírez; Lanari, Pierre; Gfeller, Frank; Vigo, Carlos; Das, Debarchan; Hotz, Fabian; von Schoeler, Katharina; Ninomiya, Kazuhiko (September 2023). "An arrowhead made of meteoritic iron from the late Bronze Age settlement of Mörigen, Switzerland and its possible source". *Journal of Archaeological Science*. **157**. [Bibcode:2023JArSc.157j5827H](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023JArSc.157j5827H). [doi:10.1016/j.jas.2023.105827](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2023.105827). [hdl:20.500.11850/625369](https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11850/625369)

1. *Iron and steel in ancient times* by Vagn Fabritius Buchwald - Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab 2005

1. T. A. Rickard (1941). "The Use of Meteoric Iron". *Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute*. **71** (1/2): 55–66. [doi:10.2307/2844401](https://doi.org/10.2307/2844401). [JSTOR 2844401](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2844401)

1. Buchwald, V. F. (1992). "On the Use of Iron by the Eskimos in Greenland". *Materials Characterization*. **29** (2): 139–176. [doi:10.1016/1044-5803(92)90112-U](https://doi.org/10.1016/1044-5803(92)90112-U). [JSTOR 2844401](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2844401)

1. Buchwald, Vagn F. (1975). [*Handbook of Iron Meteorites: Their History, Distribution, Composition and Structure*](https://books.google.com/books/about/Handbook_of_Iron_Meteorites.html?id=acGPYgEACAAJ). University of California Press.

1. [Der Lama mit der Hose: "Buddha from space" ist offenbar eine Fälschung (Telepolis 13.10.2012)](http://www.heise.de/tp/blogs/6/152974)

1. ["Ancient Buddhist Statue Made of Meteorite, New Study Reveals"](https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/09/120926104255.htm). Science Daily. Retrieved 26 December 2012.

1. Buchner, Elmar; Schmieder, Martin; Kurat, Gero; Brandstätter, Franz et al. (1 September 2012). "Buddha from space-An ancient object of art made of a Chinga iron meteorite fragment*". *Meteoritics & Planetary Science*. **47** (9): 1491–1501. [Bibcode:2012M&PS...47.1491B](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012M%26PS...47.1491B). [doi:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2012.01409.x](https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1945-5100.2012.01409.x)

1. ["The Cranbourne Meteorites"](http://www.casey.vic.gov.au/include/downloadAttachment.asp?file=/doclib/document3059.pdf&saveAs=History_of_the_Cranbourne_Meteorites_v15Jan12.pdf). City of Casey. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20130510160257/http://www.casey.vic.gov.au/include/downloadAttachment.asp?file=%2Fdoclib%2Fdocument3059.pdf&saveAs=History_of_the_Cranbourne_Meteorites_v15Jan12.pdf) 10 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 29 December 2012.

1. Evans, W. F. J.; Gattinger, R. L.; Slanger, T. G.; Saran, D. V. et al. (20 November 2010). "Discovery of the FeO orange bands in the terrestrial night airglow spectrum obtained with OSIRIS on the Odin spacecraft". *Geophysical Research Letters*. **37** (22): L22105. [Bibcode:2010GeoRL..3722105E](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010GeoRL..3722105E). [doi:10.1029/2010GL045310](https://doi.org/10.1029/2010GL045310). [S2CID 130887275](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:130887275)

## External links

- [Pictures of the iron beads of Gerzeh and other artifacts from tomb number 67](http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/gerzeh/tomb67/finds.html)

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Meteoric iron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteoric_iron) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteoric_iron?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.