# Maya Region

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First-order subdivision of Mesoamerica

Maya Region Maya Area Maya Realm Historical region The Maya Region / major rivers, mountain ranges, and regions labelled / 2015 map by S. Burchell Maya Region Location of the Maya Region in Mesoamerica Coordinates: 17°N 90°W / 17°N 90°W / 17; -90 Location Belize, Guatemala, western El Salvador, northwestern Honduras, southeastern Mexico Part of Mesoamerica Area • Total 125,000 mi2 (320,000 km2)a Dimensions • Length 540 mi (870 km)b • Width 410 mi (660 km)b Highest elevation 13,845 ft (4,220 m)c (Tajumulco Volcano) Subdivisions Lowlands Highlands Pacific a cf [note 1] b cf [note 2] c cf [note 3]

The **Maya Region** is cultural, first order subdivision of [Mesoamerica](/source/Mesoamerica), located in the eastern half of the latter. Though [first settled](/source/Settlement_of_the_Americas) by [Palaeoindians](/source/Palaeoindians) by at least 10,000 BC, it is now most commonly characterised and recognised as the territory which encompassed the [Maya civilisation](/source/Maya_civilisation) in the [pre-Columbian era](/source/Pre-Columbian_era).

## Extent

The Maya Region is firmly bounded to the north, east, and southwest by the [Gulf of Mexico](/source/Gulf_of_Mexico), the [Caribbean Sea](/source/Caribbean_Sea), and the [Pacific Ocean](/source/Pacific_Ocean), respectively.[1][2] It is less firmly bounded to the west and southeast by 'zones of cultural interaction and transition between Maya and non-Maya peoples.'[3][2] The western transition between Maya and [non-Maya peoples](/source/Classification_of_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas#Mexico_and_Mesoamerica) roughly corresponds to the [Isthmus of Tehuantepec](/source/Isthmus_of_Tehuantepec), while the southeastern one roughly corresponds to a line running northwards from the mouth of the [Lempa River](/source/Lempa_River) to that of the [Ulua River](/source/Ul%C3%BAa_River).[4][2][5][note 4]

## Divisions

The Maya Region is traditionally divided into three cultural and geographic, first order subdivisions, namely, the [Maya Lowlands](/source/Maya_Lowlands), [Maya Highlands](/source/Southern_Maya_area), and the Maya Pacific.[6][note 5] The Region's internal borders, like some of its external ones, are not usually precisely fixed, as they are rather demarcated by 'subtle environmental changes or transitions from one zone to another.'[7][8] Additionally, the Lowlands, Highlands, and Pacific are often further subdivided along similarly imprecise lines, giving rise to a myriad roughly-demarcated second order subdivisions for the Maya Region.[9][10]

### Lowlands

Main article: [Maya Lowlands](/source/Maya_Lowlands)

The Maya Lowlands are a low-lying [karstic plain](/source/Polje) stretching from [Campeche](/source/Campeche) in Mexico through northern Guatemala and into northwestern Honduras, thereby encompassing all of the [Yucatan Peninsula](/source/Yucat%C3%A1n_Peninsula) and its abutting plains (including all of Belize).[11] The plain generally lies below 2,625 feet (800 m).[12][note 6] Mean annual temperatures and rainfall range within 77–95 °F (25–35 °C) and 20–120 inches (510–3,050 mm), respectively.[13] [Wet seasons](/source/Wet_season) range from six to eleven months (usually starting in May or June), with [dry seasons](/source/Dry_season) ranging from one to six months.[13][note 7]

### Highlands

Main article: [Maya Highlands](/source/Maya_Highlands)

The Maya Highlands are a geologically-active east-west band of peaks and valleys stretching from [Tabasco](/source/Tabasco) in Mexico through central Guatemala and into northwestern Honduras, and generally topping 2,625 feet (800 m).[14][15] Mean annual temperatures and rainfall range within 59–77 °F (15–25 °C) and 80–120 inches (2,000–3,000 mm), respectively.[16] Wet seasons typically last eight months (May–December), with dry seasons typically compressed to four (January–April).[16][note 8] The Maya used the highlands to their advantage which they were able to build upon, highlighting their knowledge based on the land, "...food and eco-justice elements were demonstrated in the re-positioning of Indigenous knowledges and their broad connections from a global to a local setting in this community-based educational event."[17]

### Pacific

The Maya Pacific, also known as the Pacific Coastal Plain, is a fertile volcanic-sedimentary plain stretching along the Pacific coast from [Chiapas](/source/Chiapas) in Mexico through southern Guatemala and into western El Salvador.[18] Mean annual temperatures and rainfall range within 77–95 °F (25–35 °C) and 80–120 inches (2,000–3,000 mm), respectively.[19] Wet seasons typically last eight months (May–December), with dry seasons typically compressed to four (January–April).[19]

## Geography

### Physical

The Maya Region is 'one of the most varied environments on earth.'[20] Its terrain ranges from vast sea-level plains to near-inaccessible peaks topping 10,000 feet (3,000 m).[20][21] Its soils range from rich [alluvial](/source/Alluvium) and volcanic types to poor [karstic](/source/Karstic) ones, resulting in vegetation ranging from lush to sparse.[20][8] Mean annual temperatures and rainfall range within 59–95 °F (15–35 °C) and 20–160 inches (500–4,000 mm), respectively.[22][23] Wet seasons range from six to eleven months, with dry seasons ranging from one to six months.[24][note 9] Surface freshwater is readily available year-round in some areas, and virtually absent in others.[7][25] Nonetheless, broadly speaking, the Region is described as featuring two geographic zones , namely, lowlands and highlands, with the former lying below circa 1,000–2,625 feet (305–800 m), and the latter above.[26][27] Naturally, lowlands are predominantly found within the Maya Lowlands and Pacific, with highlands generally restricted to the Maya Highlands.[27]

## Climate

The Maya Region is generally described as having two climes, a cool, temperate one (prevalent in highlands), and a hot, tropical one (prevalent in lowlands).[20] Each of these experiences two seasons, a wet one, and a dry one. Rainfall in the wet season is usually heaviest during June and October, and is thereby described as 'following a double-peaked distribution.'[28]

Scholars had 'usually assumed that the climatic conditions which now [2010s] prevail in the Maya [Region] have always been the same, all through Maya prehistory and history[; b]ut recent palaeoclimatic research has challenged this assumption, revealing far more climatic fluctuation that previously anticipated.'[29][30]

## Geology

### History

#### Pre-Cenozoic

Middle America, including the Maya Region, is thought to have taken shape sometime after 170 million years ago.[31] Its formation is thought to have 'involved [the] complex movement of [various] crustal blocks and terrains between the two pre-existing continental masses [ie North and South America].'[32] Details of the pre-Cenozoic portion of this process (ie 170–67 million years ago), however, are not widely agreed upon.[32][note 10] Nonetheless, it has been proposed that the northern Lowlands were subaerially exposed by some 150 million years ago.[33][34][note 11]

#### Cenozoic

Details of the [Cenozoic](/source/Cenozoic) (ie 66–0 million years ago) geologic history of Middle America, including the Maya Region, are relatively more widely agreed upon.[32] In broad strokes, the Maya Highlands and Pacific are thought to have been subaerially exposed by some 40 million years ago, with these being initially separated from the northern Lowlands by the incipient [Bay of Honduras](/source/Gulf_of_Honduras).[35] The Bay is thought to have closed by at least 20 million years ago, thereby finally linking the northern and southern portions of the Maya Region together.[36][37][note 12]

#### Timeline

Prominent geologic events in or relevant to the Maya Region.[note 13] Start End Unit Epoch Event Notes 165 165 Mya Middle Jurassic Gulf of Mexico seafloor spreading starts inc. exposed northern Lowlands; cf [38] 144 144 Mya Early Cretaceous Caribbean Sea seafloor spreading starts cf [38][note 14] 120 120 Mya Early Cretaceous Chortis Block subduction into southwestern Mexico stops cf [39][note 15] 65 65 Mya Palaeocene Chicxulub impact cf [40] 49 49 Mya Eocene Cayman Trough rifting starts cf [41] 26 20 Mya Oligocene–Miocene Cayman Trough rifting slows down cf [41] 23 22 Mya Miocene Farallon Plate rifting starts cf [42] 22 22 Mya Miocene Cocos Plate subduction into Chortis Block starts inc. end of eastwards migration of Chortis Block; inc. possible uplift of Chortis Block; inc. formation of Bay of Honduras ie initial linking of northern and southern portions of the Maya Region; cf [43]

### Morphology

#### Provinces

The Maya Region is thought to fully or partially encompass at least fourteen geologic provinces.[44][45][note 16]

Geologic provinces within the Maya Region per 21st century literature.[44][45][note 17] USGS No. Name Location Notes 5308 Yucatan Platform northern Lowlands – 6117 Greater Antilles Deformed Belt offshore Lowlands – 6120 Cayman Trough southern Lowlands – 6125 Maya Mountains central Lowlands – 5305 Villahermosa Uplift western Lowlands – 5306 Macuspana Basin western Lowlands – 5304 Saline–Comalcalco Basin western Lowlands – 5302 Veracruz Basin western Lowlands – 5303 Tuxla Uplift western Lowlands – 5311 Chiapas Massif western Lowlands – 5310 Sierra Madre de Chiapas–Peten Foldbelt southern Lowlands, northern Highlands – 6088 Pacific Offshore Basin Pacific – 6122 Chiapas Massif–Nuclear Central America Highlands – 6087 Choco Pacific Basin Highlands –

#### Basins

The Maya Region is believed to fully or partially comprehend at least five sedimentary basins.[46]

Sedimentary basins within the Maya Region per 21st century literature.[46][note 18] Evenick ID Name Location Notes 119 Campeche northern Lowlands – 519 Peten–Corozal central Lowlands – 757 Yucatan northern Lowlands – 647 Sureste western Lowlands – – Limon–Bocas del Toro Pacific, southern Highlands –

### Tectonics

The majority of the Maya Region sits on the [Maya Block](/source/Maya_Block) of the [North American Plate](/source/North_American_Plate), though its southernmost extremes extend beyond this [crustal fragment](/source/Continental_fragment) into the neighbouring [Chortis Block](/source/Chortis_Block) of the [Caribbean Plate](/source/Caribbean_Plate).[47][48][49][note 19] The Region notably houses the active Motagua–Polochic Fault Zone in the south, part of the Central American Volcanic Front in the southwest, and further borders the Eastern Mexican Transform to the west.[50][51][52][note 20]

### Stratigraphy

The Maya Region's pre-Mesozoic crystalline basement is only exposed in the Mixtequita or Guichicovi Complex, the Chiapas Massif, the Altos Cuchumatanes, the Maya Mountains, and along the Chicxulub impact crater.[53] It is elsewhere blanketed by extensive [Mesozoic](/source/Mesozoic) sedimentary cover.[54][55]

## Notes and references

### Explanatory footnotes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** As per [Sharer & Traxler 2006](#CITEREFSharerTraxler2006), p. 23.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** As per [Sharer & Traxler 2006](#CITEREFSharerTraxler2006), p. 24 within 10 mi (16 km) accuracy. However, [Adams & Macleod 2000a](#CITEREFAdamsMacleod2000a), p. 200 give these values as 550 mi (890 km) and 350 mi (560 km), respectively.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** As per [Goldberg 2008](#CITEREFGoldberg2008), para 1 and [Sharer & Traxler 2006](#CITEREFSharerTraxler2006), p. 29, fig. 1.4.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** [Sharer & Traxler 2006](#CITEREFSharerTraxler2006), p. 28 draw the southeastern border as 'a line from the lower Lempa River in central El Salvador northward to [Lake Yojoa](/source/Lake_Yojoa) and along the Ulua River to the [Gulf of Honduras](/source/Gulf_of_Honduras) in the Caribbean Sea.' [Adams & Macleod 2000a](#CITEREFAdamsMacleod2000a), p. 197 give the same as a line 'defined along the valleys of the Ulua [River], flowing north into the Caribbean, and the Lempa [River], running through central El Salvador to the Pacific.'

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** However, [Adams & Macleod 2000a](#CITEREFAdamsMacleod2000a), p. 200 give the Region's traditional first order subdivisions as either (i) the Northern Lowlands, the Southern Lowlands, and the Highlands (including the Pacific), or as (ii) the Northern, Central, and Southern Areas. [Carrasco 2006](#CITEREFCarrasco2006), article 'Mesoamerica' sec. 'Overview' para. 6, for instance, employ the first of these subdivisions (labelled (i)), while [Coe & Houston 2015](#CITEREFCoeHouston2015), ch. 1, fig. 1, and sec. 'Areas' employ the latter (labelled (ii)). Furthermore, some scholars prefer a simpler division of the Region into *two* first order subdivisions, namely, (i) the Lowlands and the Highlands (including the Pacific), or (ii) the Northern and Southern Areas. [Adams & Macleod 2000a](#CITEREFAdamsMacleod2000a), pp. 203–204, for instance, employ the first of these (labelled (i)), while xx employ the latter (labelled (ii)).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** The [Maya Mountains](/source/Maya_Mountains) top the 2,625 feet (800 m) mark, but are nonetheless encompassed by the Lowlands ([Sharer & Traxler 2006](#CITEREFSharerTraxler2006), pp. 42).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** Wet seasons given as lasting eight months, from May through December, in [Coe & Houston 2015](#CITEREFCoeHouston2015), ch. 1, sec. 'Setting,' para. 11.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** Wet seasons given as lasting *seven* months, 'roughly from May through early November,' in [Coe & Houston 2015](#CITEREFCoeHouston2015), ch. 1, sec. 'Setting,' para. 3.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** Though [Adams & Macleod 2000a](#CITEREFAdamsMacleod2000a), p. 202 assert a June–November wet season, without immediately noting variation in its start-date nor duration.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-42)** [Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012](#CITEREFBundschuhAlvarado2012), p. 10 suggest that geologic models of the formation of Middle America differ most significantly in their handling of the Caribbean Plate, with one group of models proposing its formation in the Pacific and subsequent movement to its present location, and another group proposing its formation in its present location.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-45)** However, it has been further proposed that this portion of the Lowlands was subsequently re-submerged during 130–72 million years ago, with thick carbonate deposition beginning by at least 80 million years ago ([DTM 2013](#CITEREFDTM2013), sec. Mesozoic maps nos. NAM_key-130Ma_EarK to NAM_key-72Ma_LateK, [Ahmad & Escalona 2014](#CITEREFAhmadEscalona2014), sec. 'Introduction' and sec. 'Preliminary Results').

1. **[^](#cite_ref-49)** The northern and eastern coasts of the Region, however, are not thought to have been fully subaerially exposed until some 5–2 million years ago ([DTM 2013](#CITEREFDTM2013), sec. Cenozoic maps nos. NAM_key-5Ma_Plio and NAM_key_Pleist_Wisc). The Region's coastlines, which were initially more expansive than its present-day ones, are thought to have reached modern dimensions due to rising sea levels some 11–8 thousand years ago ([DTM 2013](#CITEREFDTM2013), sec. Cenozoic maps nos. NAM_key_Present and NAM_key_Pleist_Holo).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-50)** In the Unit column, [million years ago](/source/Million_years_ago) written as Mya.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-52)** Alternative models date the formation of the present-day Caribbean to during 130–80 million years ago ([Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012](#CITEREFBundschuhAlvarado2012), p. 211).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-54)** Event recorded by 'a well-dated, 120 Ma-old subduction complex along the northern edge of the Chortis block presently exposed on the southern margin of the Motagua valley of Guatemala' ([Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012](#CITEREFBundschuhAlvarado2012), p. 212). Dated to [Late Cretaceous](/source/Late_Cretaceous) by [Gómez-Pompa et al. 2003](#CITEREFGómez-PompaAllenFedickJiménez-Osornio2003), pp. 32–33.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-61)** Alternative divisions of the Maya Region into geologic provinces have been offered, for instance, by [Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012](#CITEREFBundschuhAlvarado2012), p. 77, fig. 3.1.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-62)** USGS No. is the unique USGS province number as per [French & Schenk 2004](#CITEREFFrenchSchenk2004) and [French & Schenk 2006](#CITEREFFrenchSchenk2006).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-64)** Evenick ID is the unique basin identifier ie UBI as per [Evenick 2021](#CITEREFEvenick2021), app. A supp. no. 1. The Evenick ID for the Limon–Bocas del Toro Basin is not given in [Evenick 2021](#CITEREFEvenick2021), app. A supp. no. 1, though falls within 353–365, inclusive, given the alphabetical assignment of identifiers used therein.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-68)** Additionally, a northeastern portion of the Maya Region, in the [Isthmus of Tehuantepec](/source/Isthmus_of_Tehuantepec), might extend beyond the Maya Block into the neighbouring Oaxaquia Block ie the Juarez, Cuicateco, or Oaxaquia Block, Terrane, or microcontinent ([Ross et al. 2021](#CITEREFRossStockliRasmussenGulick2021), p. 243, fig. 1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-72)** It further borders the Salina Cruz Fault to the west, and further houses the Rio Hondo Faults in the east ([Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012](#CITEREFBundschuhAlvarado2012), pp. 278, 280–281, [Gómez-Pompa et al. 2003](#CITEREFGómez-PompaAllenFedickJiménez-Osornio2003), p. 32).

### Short citations

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharerTraxler200624,_26_4-0)** [Sharer & Traxler 2006](#CITEREFSharerTraxler2006), pp. 24, 26.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamsMacleod2000a197_5-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamsMacleod2000a197_5-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamsMacleod2000a197_5-2) [Adams & Macleod 2000a](#CITEREFAdamsMacleod2000a), p. 197.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharerTraxler200624,_26–28_6-0)** [Sharer & Traxler 2006](#CITEREFSharerTraxler2006), pp. 24, 26–28.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharerTraxler200624,_26–28,_32_7-0)** [Sharer & Traxler 2006](#CITEREFSharerTraxler2006), pp. 24, 26–28, 32.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreamer198744_8-0)** [Creamer 1987](#CITEREFCreamer1987), p. 44.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharerTraxler200629–30_10-0)** [Sharer & Traxler 2006](#CITEREFSharerTraxler2006), pp. 29–30.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharerTraxler200630_12-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharerTraxler200630_12-1) [Sharer & Traxler 2006](#CITEREFSharerTraxler2006), p. 30.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamsMacleod2000a203_13-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamsMacleod2000a203_13-1) [Adams & Macleod 2000a](#CITEREFAdamsMacleod2000a), p. 203.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharerTraxler200630–31_14-0)** [Sharer & Traxler 2006](#CITEREFSharerTraxler2006), pp. 30–31.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamsMacleod2000a203–204_15-0)** [Adams & Macleod 2000a](#CITEREFAdamsMacleod2000a), pp. 203–204.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharerTraxler200624,_41–42_16-0)** [Sharer & Traxler 2006](#CITEREFSharerTraxler2006), pp. 24, 41–42.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharerTraxler200642_17-0)** [Sharer & Traxler 2006](#CITEREFSharerTraxler2006), pp. 42.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharerTraxler200645–46,_49_19-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharerTraxler200645–46,_49_19-1) [Sharer & Traxler 2006](#CITEREFSharerTraxler2006), pp. 45–46, 49.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharerTraxler200624,_34_21-0)** [Sharer & Traxler 2006](#CITEREFSharerTraxler2006), pp. 24, 34.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarrasco2006article_'Maya_Highlands'_para._1-2_22-0)** [Carrasco 2006](#CITEREFCarrasco2006), article 'Maya Highlands' para. 1-2.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharerTraxler200634_23-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharerTraxler200634_23-1) [Sharer & Traxler 2006](#CITEREFSharerTraxler2006), p. 34.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Tecun_25-0)** Tecun, Arcia. “A Wīnak Perspective on Cosmovisíon Maya and Eco-Justice Education.” Maya America 6, no. 2 (2024): 1–18. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/48806279](https://www.jstor.org/stable/48806279).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharerTraxler200631_26-0)** [Sharer & Traxler 2006](#CITEREFSharerTraxler2006), p. 31.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharerTraxler200632_27-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharerTraxler200632_27-1) [Sharer & Traxler 2006](#CITEREFSharerTraxler2006), p. 32.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharerTraxler200629_28-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharerTraxler200629_28-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharerTraxler200629_28-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharerTraxler200629_28-3) [Sharer & Traxler 2006](#CITEREFSharerTraxler2006), p. 29.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamsMacleod2000a201–202_29-0)** [Adams & Macleod 2000a](#CITEREFAdamsMacleod2000a), pp. 201–202.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharerTraxler200629–31_30-0)** [Sharer & Traxler 2006](#CITEREFSharerTraxler2006), pp. 29–31.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamsMacleod2000a202_31-0)** [Adams & Macleod 2000a](#CITEREFAdamsMacleod2000a), p. 202.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharerTraxler200631-32,_34,_45-46,_49_32-0)** [Sharer & Traxler 2006](#CITEREFSharerTraxler2006), p. 31-32, 34, 45-46, 49.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamsMacleod2000a202–203_34-0)** [Adams & Macleod 2000a](#CITEREFAdamsMacleod2000a), pp. 202–203.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoeHouston2015ch._1,_sec._'Setting,'_para._2_35-0)** [Coe & Houston 2015](#CITEREFCoeHouston2015), ch. 1, sec. 'Setting,' para. 2.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharerTraxler200630,_32,_34,_42_36-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharerTraxler200630,_32,_34,_42_36-1) [Sharer & Traxler 2006](#CITEREFSharerTraxler2006), pp. 30, 32, 34, 42.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoeHouston2015ch._1,_sec._'Setting,'_para._3_37-0)** [Coe & Houston 2015](#CITEREFCoeHouston2015), ch. 1, sec. 'Setting,' para. 3.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoeHouston2015ch._1,_sec._'Climate_change_and_its_cultural_impact,'_para._1_38-0)** [Coe & Houston 2015](#CITEREFCoeHouston2015), ch. 1, sec. 'Climate change and its cultural impact,' para. 1.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholsPool2012ch._1,_sec._'Ecology_and_environment,'_para._1_39-0)** [Nichols & Pool 2012](#CITEREFNicholsPool2012), ch. 1, sec. 'Ecology and environment,' para. 1.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBundschuhAlvarado20129_40-0)** [Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012](#CITEREFBundschuhAlvarado2012), p. 9.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBundschuhAlvarado201210_41-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBundschuhAlvarado201210_41-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBundschuhAlvarado201210_41-2) [Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012](#CITEREFBundschuhAlvarado2012), p. 10.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDTM2013sec._Mesozoic_maps_nos._NAM_key-170Ma_MJur_and_NAM_key-150Ma_LJur_43-0)** [DTM 2013](#CITEREFDTM2013), sec. Mesozoic maps nos. NAM_key-170Ma_MJur and NAM_key-150Ma_LJur.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBundschuhAlvarado2012210fig._8.4_(a)_to_(b)_44-0)** [Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012](#CITEREFBundschuhAlvarado2012), p. 210, fig. 8.4 (a) to (b).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDTM2013sec._Cenozoic_maps_nos._NAM_key-50Ma_Eocene_and_NAM_key-40Ma_Eocene_46-0)** [DTM 2013](#CITEREFDTM2013), sec. Cenozoic maps nos. NAM_key-50Ma_Eocene and NAM_key-40Ma_Eocene.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDTM2013sec._Cenozoic_maps_nos._NAM_key-35Ma_Eocene_Olig_and_NAM_key-20Ma_Ear_Mio_47-0)** [DTM 2013](#CITEREFDTM2013), sec. Cenozoic maps nos. NAM_key-35Ma_Eocene_Olig and NAM_key-20Ma_Ear_Mio.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBundschuhAlvarado2012215fig._8.4_(g)_to_(h)_48-0)** [Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012](#CITEREFBundschuhAlvarado2012), p. 215, fig. 8.4 (g) to (h).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBundschuhAlvarado2012209–210_51-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBundschuhAlvarado2012209–210_51-1) [Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012](#CITEREFBundschuhAlvarado2012), pp. 209–210.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBundschuhAlvarado2012211–212_53-0)** [Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012](#CITEREFBundschuhAlvarado2012), pp. 211–212.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGómez-PompaAllenFedickJiménez-Osornio200331_55-0)** [Gómez-Pompa et al. 2003](#CITEREFGómez-PompaAllenFedickJiménez-Osornio2003), p. 31.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBundschuhAlvarado2012208,_217_56-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBundschuhAlvarado2012208,_217_56-1) [Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012](#CITEREFBundschuhAlvarado2012), pp. 208, 217.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBundschuhAlvarado2012208,_213,_217_57-0)** [Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012](#CITEREFBundschuhAlvarado2012), pp. 208, 213, 217.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBundschuhAlvarado2012213–215_58-0)** [Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012](#CITEREFBundschuhAlvarado2012), pp. 213–215.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrenchSchenk2004_59-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrenchSchenk2004_59-1) [French & Schenk 2004](#CITEREFFrenchSchenk2004).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrenchSchenk2006_60-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrenchSchenk2006_60-1) [French & Schenk 2006](#CITEREFFrenchSchenk2006).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvenick2021pp._4,_6_and_app._A_supp._no._1_63-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvenick2021pp._4,_6_and_app._A_supp._no._1_63-1) [Evenick 2021](#CITEREFEvenick2021), pp. 4, 6 and app. A supp. no. 1.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBundschuhAlvarado20123fig._1.1_65-0)** [Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012](#CITEREFBundschuhAlvarado2012), p. 3, fig. 1.1.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossStockliRasmussenGulick2021243fig._1_66-0)** [Ross et al. 2021](#CITEREFRossStockliRasmussenGulick2021), p. 243, fig. 1.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartens20096–9_67-0)** [Martens 2009](#CITEREFMartens2009), pp. 6–9.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossStockliRasmussenGulick2021242–243_69-0)** [Ross et al. 2021](#CITEREFRossStockliRasmussenGulick2021), pp. 242–243.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBundschuhAlvarado2012125fig._4.1_70-0)** [Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012](#CITEREFBundschuhAlvarado2012), p. 125, fig. 4.1.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGómez-PompaAllenFedickJiménez-Osornio200333_71-0)** [Gómez-Pompa et al. 2003](#CITEREFGómez-PompaAllenFedickJiménez-Osornio2003), p. 33.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossStockliRasmussenGulick2021242,_244_73-0)** [Ross et al. 2021](#CITEREFRossStockliRasmussenGulick2021), pp. 242, 244.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossStockliRasmussenGulick2021242_74-0)** [Ross et al. 2021](#CITEREFRossStockliRasmussenGulick2021), p. 242.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBundschuhAlvarado201210fig._1.4_75-0)** [Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012](#CITEREFBundschuhAlvarado2012), p. 10, fig. 1.4.

### Full citations

#### Print

1. Adams, Richard E. W.; Macleod, Murdo J., eds. (2000a). [*Mesoamerica, Part 1*](https://doi-org.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/10.1017/CHOL9780521351652). The Cambridge history of the native peoples of the Americas. Vol. 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/CHOL9780521351652](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCHOL9780521351652). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-139-05377-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05377-8). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [163512332](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163512332).

1. Adams, Richard E. W.; Macleod, Murdo J., eds. (2000b). [*Mesoamerica, Part 2*](https://doi-org.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/10.1017/CHOL9780521652049). The Cambridge history of the native peoples of the Americas. Vol. 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/CHOL9780521652049](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCHOL9780521652049). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-139-05346-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05346-4).

1. Braswell, Geoffrey E., ed. (2022). [*3,000 Years of War and Peace in the Maya Lowlands: Identity, Politics, and Violence*](https://doi-org.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/10.4324/9781351268004). Routledge archaeology of the ancient Americas. London: Routledge. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4324/9781351268004](https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781351268004). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-351-26800-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-26800-4). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [246542762](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:246542762).

1. Bundschuh, Jochen; Alvarado, Guillermo E., eds. (2012) [2007]. *Central America: Geology, Resources and Hazards* (Reprint of 1st ed.). London: Taylor & Francis. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1201/9780203947043](https://doi.org/10.1201%2F9780203947043). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-429-07437-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-07437-0). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [905983675](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/905983675).

1. Carrasco, Davíd, ed. (2006) [2001]. [*The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures: The Civilisations of Mexico and Central America*](https://www-oxfordreference-com.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/view/10.1093/acref/9780195108156.001.0001/acref-9780195108156) (Online reprint of 1st print ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/acref/9780195108156.001.0001](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780195108156.001.0001). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-518843-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518843-1).

1. Coe, Michael D.; Houston, Stephen D. (2015) [1966]. *The Maya* (9th ed.). New York: Thames & Hudson. [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [915597000](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/915597000).

1. Demarest, Arthur A., ed. (2007) [2004]. *Ancient Maya: The rise and fall of a rainforest civilization*. Case Studies in Early Societies (Reprint of 1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [717693582](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/717693582). [OL](/source/OL_(identifier)) [3440009M](https://openlibrary.org/books/OL3440009M).

1. Ford, Anabel; Nigh, Ronald (2015). *The Maya forest garden: eight millennia of sustainable cultivation of the tropical woodlands*. New frontiers in historical ecology. Vol. 6. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-61132-997-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61132-997-1). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [894750131](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/894750131).

1. Gómez-Pompa, Arturo; Allen, Michael F.; Fedick, Scott L.; Jiménez-Osornio, Juan J., eds. (2003). *The Lowland Maya Area: Three Millennia at the Human-Wildland Interface*. Binghamton, NY: Food Products Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1-56022-970-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56022-970-5). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [50725221](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/50725221).

1. Houk, Brett A., ed. (2019). [*Approaches to Monumental Landscapes of the Ancient Maya: A Legacy of Human Occupation*](https://muse-jhu-edu.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/book/72232). Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8130-5734-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-5734-7). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [1137019195](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1137019195).

1. Hutson, Scott R.; Ardren, Traci, eds. (2020). *The Maya World*. Routledge worlds. London: Routledge. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4324/9781351029582](https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781351029582). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-351-02958-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-02958-2).

1. Nichols, Deborah L.; Pool, Christopher A., eds. (2012). [*The Oxford Handbook of Mesoamerican Archaeology*](https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-oxford-handbook-of-mesoamerican-archaeology-9780195390933). Oxford Handbooks (1st ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-539093-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-539093-3). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [1109248998](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1109248998).

1. Sharer, Robert J.; Traxler, Loa P., eds. (2006) [1946]. *The Ancient Maya* (6th ed.). Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[2027/mdp.39015062626216](https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fmdp.39015062626216). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8047-4817-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4817-9). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [57577446](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/57577446).

#### Journals

1. Bhattacharya, Tripti; Krause, Samantha; Penny, Dan; Wahl, David (27 September 2022). "Progress report: Drought and water management in ancient Maya society". *Progress in Physical Geography*: 1–16. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/03091333221129784](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F03091333221129784). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [252583845](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:252583845).

1. Coe, William R. (January 1955). "Early Man in the Maya Area". *American Antiquity*. **20** (3): 271–273. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/277005](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F277005). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [277005](https://www.jstor.org/stable/277005).

1. Creamer, Winifred (1987). ["Mesoamerica as a Concept: An Archaeological View from Central America"](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0023879100016423). *Latin American Research Review*. **22** (1): 35–62. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/S0023879100016423](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0023879100016423). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2503542](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2503542). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [131671104](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:131671104).

1. Evenick, J. C. (2021). ["Glimpses into Earth's history using a revised global sedimentary basin map"](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.earscirev.2021.103564). *Earth-Science Reviews*. article no. 103564. **215** (sn) 103564. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2021ESRv..21503564E](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021ESRv..21503564E). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103564](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.earscirev.2021.103564). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [233950439](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:233950439).

1. Franco-Gaviria, Felipe; Caballero-Rodríguez, Dayenari; Correa-Metrio, Alexander; Pérez, Liseth; Schwalb, Antje; Cohuo, Sergio; Macario-González, Laura (April 2018). ["The human impact imprint on modern pollen spectra of the Maya lands"](https://doi.org/10.18268%2Fbsgm2018v70n1a4). *Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana*. **70** (1): 61–78. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2018BSGMx..70...61F](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018BSGMx..70...61F). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.18268/bsgm2018v70n1a4](https://doi.org/10.18268%2Fbsgm2018v70n1a4).

1. Glover, Jeffrey B.; Rissolo, Dominique; Beddows, Patricia A.; Jaijel, Roy; Smith, Derek; Goodman-Tchernov, Beverly (9 June 2022). ["The Proyecto Costa Escondida: Historical ecology and the study of past coastal landscapes in the Maya area"](https://doi-org.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/10.1080/15564894.2022.2061652). *The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology*. **19** (3): 505–524. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/15564894.2022.2061652](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F15564894.2022.2061652).

1. Gunn, Joel D.; Matheny, Ray T.; Folan, William J. (14 August 2002). ["Climate-change Studies in the Maya Area: A diachronic analysis"](https://www-cambridge-org.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/core/journals/ancient-mesoamerica/article/climatechange-studies-in-the-maya-area/AEF54E67D7E28755BF8C7C4FDDAA78C6). *Ancient Mesoamerica*. **13** (1): 79–84. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/S0956536102131105](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0956536102131105). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [29468376](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:29468376).

1. Hartlett, Harley Harris (January 1932). "A Biological Survey of the Maya Area". *Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club*. **59** (1): 7–20. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/2480459](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2480459). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2480459](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2480459).

1. Hodell, David A.; Quinn, Rhonda L.; Brenner, Mark; Kamenov, George (May 2004). ["Spatial variation of strontium isotopes (87Sr/86Sr) in the Maya region: a tool for tracking ancient human migration"](https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/science/article/pii/S0305440303001626). *Journal of Archaeological Science*. **31** (5): 585–601. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2004JArSc..31..585H](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004JArSc..31..585H). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.jas.2003.10.009](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jas.2003.10.009).

1. Kennett, Douglas J.; Lipson, Mark; Prufer, Keith M.; Mora-Marín, David; George, Richard J.; Rohland, Nadin Rohland; Robinson, Mark; Trask, Willa R.; Edgar, Heather H. J.; Hill, Ethan C.; Ray, Erin E.; Lynch, Paige; Moes, Emily; O'Donnell, Lexi; Harper, Thomas K.; Kate, Emily J.; Ramos, Josue; Morris, John; Gutierrez, Said M.; Ryan, Timothy M.; Culleton, Brendan J.; Awe, Jaime J.; Reich, David (22 March 2022). ["South-to-north migration preceded the advent of intensive farming in the Maya region"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8940966). *Nature Communications*. **13** (1): 1–10 of article no. 1530. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2022NatCo..13.1530K](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022NatCo..13.1530K). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1038/s41467-022-29158-y](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-022-29158-y). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [8940966](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8940966). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [35318319](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35318319). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [247617021](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:247617021).

1. Kuil, Linda; Carr, Gemma; [Prskawetz, Alexia](/source/Alexia_F%C3%BCrnkranz-Prskawetz); Salinas, José Luis; Viglione, Alberto; Blöschl, Günter (March 2019). ["Learning from the Ancient Maya: Exploring the Impact of Drought on Population Dynamics"](https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/science/article/pii/S0921800918305871). *Ecological Economics*. **157**: 1–16. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2019EcoEc.157....1K](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019EcoEc.157....1K). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.ecolecon.2018.10.018](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ecolecon.2018.10.018). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [53700665](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53700665).

1. Lohse, Jon C.; Morgan, Molly; Jones, John G.; Brenner, Mark; Curtis, Jason; Hamilton, W. Derek; Cardona, Karla (10 August 2022). ["Early Maize in the Maya Area"](https://www-cambridge-org.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/core/journals/latin-american-antiquity/article/early-maize-in-the-maya-area/EFB6EC1CB89E24B02818E269BC392B3B). *Latin American Antiquity*. **33** (4): 1–16 of FirstView articles. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/laq.2022.55](https://doi.org/10.1017%2Flaq.2022.55). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [251506698](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:251506698).

1. Nooren, Kees; Hoek, Wim Z.; Dermody, Brian J.; Galop, Didier; Metcalfe, Sarah; Islebe, Gerald; Middelkoop, Hans (20 August 2018). ["Climate impact on the development of Pre-Classic Maya civilisation"](https://cp.copernicus.org/articles/14/1253/2018/). *Climate of the Past*. **14** (8): 1253–1273. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2018CliPa..14.1253N](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018CliPa..14.1253N). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.5194/cp-14-1253-2018](https://doi.org/10.5194%2Fcp-14-1253-2018). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [55370409](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55370409).

1. Ross, C. H.; Stockli, D. F.; Rasmussen, C.; Gulick, S. P. S.; Graaff, S. J.; Claeys, P.; Zhao, J. (2021). ["Evidence of Carboniferous arc magmatism preserved in the Chicxulub impact structure"](https://hollis.harvard.edu/permalink/f/1mdq5o5/TN_cdi_proquest_journals_2619486666). *Geological Society of America Bulletin*. **134** (1–2): 241–260. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1130/B35831.1](https://doi.org/10.1130%2FB35831.1). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[10044/1/99016](https://hdl.handle.net/10044%2F1%2F99016). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [238043996](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:238043996).

1. Sharpe, Ashley E.; Emery, Kitty F.; Inomata, Takeshi; Krigbaum, John (19 March 2018). ["Earliest isotopic evidence in the Maya region for animal management and long-distance trade at the site of Ceibal, Guatemala"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5889628). *Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences*. **115** (14): 3605–3610. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2018PNAS..115.3605S](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018PNAS..115.3605S). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1073/pnas.1713880115](https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1713880115). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [5889628](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5889628). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [29555750](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29555750).

1. Sharpe, Ashley E.; Kamenov, George D.; Gilli, Adrian; Hodell, David L.; Emery, Kitty F.; Brenner, Mark; Krigbaum, John (2 November 2016). ["Lead (Pb) Isotope Baselines for Studies of Ancient Human Migration and Trade in the Maya Region"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5091867). *PLOS ONE*. **11** (11): 1–28 of article no. e0164871. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2016PLoSO..1164871S](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016PLoSO..1164871S). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1371/journal.pone.0164871](https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0164871). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [5091867](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5091867). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [27806065](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27806065).

1. Scherer, Andrew K.; de Carteret, Alyce; Newman, Sarah (June 2015). ["Local water resource variability and oxygen isotopic reconstructions of mobility: A case study from the Maya area"](https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/science/article/pii/S2352409X14000133). *Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports*. **2**: 666–676. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2015JArSR...2..666S](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015JArSR...2..666S). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.jasrep.2014.11.006](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jasrep.2014.11.006).

1. Thornton, Ern Kennedy; Emery, Kitty F.; Steadman, David W.; Speller, Camilla; Matheny, Ray; Yang, Dongya (8 August 2012). ["Earliest Mexican turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) in the Maya region; implications for pre-Hispanic animal trade and the timing of turkey domestication"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3414452). *PLOS ONE*. **7** (8): 1–8 of article no. e42630. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2012PLoSO...742630T](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012PLoSO...742630T). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1371/journal.pone.0042630](https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0042630). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [3414452](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3414452). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [22905156](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22905156).

1. Wrobel, Gabriel D.; Hoggarth, Julie A.; Marshall, Aubree (14 December 2021). ["Before the Maya: A Review of Paleoindian and Archaic Human Skeletons Found in the Maya Region"](https://www-cambridge-org.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/core/journals/ancient-mesoamerica/article/before-the-maya-a-review-of-paleoindian-and-archaic-human-skeletons-found-in-the-maya-region/4A6AE1B854E7F0B56D9C09EB41F403E8). *Ancient Mesoamerica*. **32** (3): 475–485. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/S0956536121000250](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0956536121000250). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [245125288](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:245125288).

#### Theses

1. Duarte, Edward Fernando (2022). [*Hydroclimate variability in Central America during the Holocene inferred from lacustrine sediments in Lake Izabal, eastern Guatemala*](https://scholarsmine.mst.edu/doctoral_dissertations/3167) (PhD Thesis). Missouri University of Science and Technology.

1. Harvey, William James (March 2019). [*The Central American Isthmus: ecological dynamics of the middle-late Holocene*](https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:1adb2fc4-71a1-4fea-8e8a-6164658009c2) (DPhil Thesis). University of Oxford.

1. Martens, Uwe (2009). [*Geologic evolution of the Maya Block (southern edge of the North American plate): An example of terrane transferral and crustal recycling*](https://www.proquest.com/docview/304999167) (PhD Thesis). Stanford University. [ProQuest](/source/ProQuest) [304999167](https://www.proquest.com/docview/304999167).

#### Other

1. Ahmad, S. S.; Escalona, A. (June 2014). "Paleogeographic Reconstruction of Northern Caribbean Region from Late Cretaceous to Recent". *Conference Proceedings, 76th EAGE Conference and Exhibition 2014, Jun 2014, Volume 2014*. European Association of Geoscientists and Engineers. pp. 1–3. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3997/2214-4609.20141659](https://doi.org/10.3997%2F2214-4609.20141659). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[11250/224374](https://hdl.handle.net/11250%2F224374).

1. DTM (June 2013). [*Deep Time Maps North America Key Time Slices*](https://web.archive.org/web/20221018215935/https://deeptimemaps.com/north-america/) (Map). 1:1,000,000. Sedona, AZ: Colorado Plateau Geosystems. Archived from [the original](https://deeptimemaps.com/north-america/) on 18 October 2022. Retrieved 16 October 2022.

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1. French, C. D.; Schenk, C. J. (2006). *Map showing geology, oil and gas fields, and geologic provinces of the Gulf of Mexico region* (Map). 1:2,500,000. Open-File Report 97-470-L. Reston, Virg.: U.S. Geological Survey. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3133/ofr97470L](https://doi.org/10.3133%2Fofr97470L).

1. Goldberg, Maren (17 January 2008). ["Tajumulco Volcano"](https://academic-eb-com.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/levels/collegiate/article/Tajumulco-Volcano/71000). *Britannica Academic*. Chicago, Ill.: Encyclopædia Britannica. Britannica ID place/Tajumulco-Volcano.

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