# Mango

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Tropical fruit

This article is about the fruit. For other uses, see [Mango (disambiguation)](/source/Mango_(disambiguation)).

Mango fruits – single and halved

A **mango** is an edible [stone fruit](/source/Drupe) produced by the tropical tree *[Mangifera indica](/source/Mangifera_indica)*. It originated in the northeastern part of the [Indian subcontinent](/source/Indian_subcontinent), in what is now [Bangladesh](/source/Bangladesh), [northeastern India](/source/Northeast_India) and [Myanmar.](/source/Myanmar) *M. indica* has been cultivated in [South](/source/South_Asia) and Southeast Asia since ancient times, resulting in two modern mango cultivar lineages: the "Indian" and the "Southeast Asian" types. Other species in the genus *[Mangifera](/source/Mangifera)* also produce edible fruits called "mangoes," most of which are found in the [Malesian](/source/Malesia) ecoregion.

There are several hundred [cultivars of mango](/source/List_of_mango_cultivars) worldwide. Depending on the cultivar, mango fruit varies in size, shape, sweetness, skin colour, and flesh colour, which may be pale yellow, gold, green, or orange. Mango is the [national fruit](/source/National_fruit) of [India](/source/India), [Pakistan](/source/Pakistan), and the [Philippines](/source/Philippines), while the mango tree is the [national tree](/source/List_of_national_trees) of Bangladesh.

## Etymology

The English word *mango* (plural *mangoes* or *mangos*) originated in the 16th century from the [Portuguese](/source/Portuguese_language) word *manga*, from the [Malayalam](/source/Malayalam) *manga*, and ultimately from the [Tamil](/source/Tamil_language) *mā* (மா, 'mango tree') + *kāy* (ங்காய், 'unripe fruit/vegetable').[1][2][3][4] The scientific name, *[Mangifera indica](/source/Mangifera_indica),* can be translated as "a plant bearing mangoes in India".[3]

## Description

Mango trees grow to 30–40 metres (98–131 feet) tall, with a crown radius of 10–15 m (33–49 ft). The trees are long-lived, as some specimens still fruit after 300 years.[5][6]

In deep soil, the [taproot](/source/Taproot) descends to a depth of 6 m (20 ft), with profuse, wide-spreading feeder roots and anchor roots penetrating deeply into the soil. The [leaves](/source/Leaves) are [evergreen](/source/Evergreen), alternate, simple, 15–35 centimetres (6–14 inches) long, and 6–16 cm (2+1⁄2–6+1⁄2 in) broad; when the leaves are young they are orange-pink, rapidly changing to a dark, glossy red, then dark green as they mature. The [flowers](/source/Flower) are produced in terminal [panicles](/source/Panicle) 10–40 cm (4–15+1⁄2 in) long; each flower is small and white with five petals 5–10 millimetres (3⁄16–3⁄8 in) long, with a mild, sweet fragrance. Over 500 [varieties](/source/Variety_(botany)) of mangoes are known,[5] many of which [ripen](/source/Ripening) in summer, while some give a double crop.[5][6] The fruit takes four to five months from flowering to ripening.[5]

The ripe fruit varies according to cultivar in size, shape, colour, sweetness, and eating quality. Depending on the cultivar, fruits are variously yellow, orange, red, or green. The fruit has a single flat, oblong [stone](/source/Pyrena) that can be [fibrous](/source/Fibre) or hairy on the surface and does not separate easily from the pulp. The fruits may be somewhat round, oval, or [kidney](/source/Kidney)-shaped, ranging from 5–25 centimetres (2–10 in) in length and from 140 grams (5 oz) to 2 kilograms (5 lb) in weight per individual fruit. The skin is leather-like, waxy, smooth, and fragrant, with colours ranging from green to yellow, yellow-orange, yellow-red, or blushed with various shades of red, purple, pink, or yellow when fully ripe.[5]

Ripe intact mangoes give off a distinctive [resinous](/source/Resin), sweet smell.[5] Inside the stone with its 1–2 mm (0.039–0.079 in) thick woody [endocarp](/source/Endocarp) is a single [seed](/source/Seed), 4–7 cm (1.6–2.8 in) long. Mangoes have [recalcitrant seeds](/source/Recalcitrant_seed) which do not survive freezing and drying.[7] Mango trees grow readily from seeds, with [germination](/source/Germination) success highest when seeds are obtained from mature fruits.[5]

		- Tree

		- Flowers and immature fruits

		- Unripe mangoes

		- Fruit with single seed, cut open

		- [Stone](/source/Pyrena) ([endocarp](/source/Endocarp), surrounding the seed)

## Taxonomy

Mangoes originated from the region between northwestern Myanmar, Bangladesh, and northeastern India.[8][9] The mango is considered an [evolutionary anachronism](/source/Evolutionary_anachronism), whereby [seed dispersal](/source/Seed_dispersal) was once accomplished by a now-[extinct](/source/Extinction) evolutionary [forager](/source/Foraging), such as a [megafauna](/source/Megafauna) mammal.[10]

From their center of origin, mangoes diverged into two genetically distinct populations: the subtropical Indian group and the tropical Southeast Asian group. The Indian group is characterized by having [monoembryonic](/source/Monoembryonic) fruits, while the Southeast Asian group is characterized by [polyembryonic](/source/Polyembryonic) fruits.[9][8]

It was previously believed that mangoes originated from a single [domestication](/source/Domestication) event in South Asia before being spread to Southeast Asia, but a 2019 study found no evidence of a center of diversity in India. Instead, it identified a higher unique genetic diversity in Southeast Asian cultivars than in Indian cultivars, indicating that mangoes may have originally been domesticated first in Southeast Asia before being introduced to South Asia. However, the authors cautioned that the diversity in Southeast Asian mangoes might be the result of other reasons (like [interspecific hybridization](/source/Interspecific_hybridization) with other *[Mangifera](/source/Mangifera)* species native to the [Malesian](/source/Malesia) ecoregion). Nevertheless, the existence of two distinct genetic populations identified by the study indicates that the domestication of the mango is more complex than previously assumed and would at least indicate multiple domestication events in Southeast Asia and South Asia.[9][8]Other species in the genus *[Mangifera](/source/Mangifera)* also produce edible fruits called "mangoes," most of which are found in the [Malesian](/source/Malesia) ecoregion.[11]

### Cultivars

Main article: [List of mango cultivars](/source/List_of_mango_cultivars)

There are hundreds of named mango cultivars. In mango [orchards](/source/Orchard), several cultivars are often grown to improve pollination. Many desired cultivars are [monoembryonic](/source/Monoembryony) and must be propagated by [grafting](/source/Grafting), or they do not breed true. A common monoembryonic cultivar is ['Alphonso'](/source/Alphonso_(mango)), an important export product, considered "the king of mangoes".[12]

Cultivars that excel in one climate may fail elsewhere. For example, Indian cultivars such as 'Julie,' a prolific cultivar in Jamaica, require annual [fungicide](/source/Fungicide) treatments to escape the lethal [fungal disease](/source/Fungal_disease) [anthracnose](/source/Anthracnose) in Florida. Asian mangoes are resistant to anthracnose.[13]

The current [western](/source/Western_world) market is dominated by the cultivar ['Tommy Atkins'](/source/Tommy_Atkins_(mango)), a seedling of ['Haden'](/source/Haden_(mango)) that first fruited in 1940 in southern Florida and was initially rejected commercially by Florida researchers.[14] Growers and importers worldwide have embraced the cultivar for its excellent productivity and disease resistance, [shelf life](/source/Shelf_life), transportability, size, and appealing colour.[15] Although the Tommy Atkins cultivar is commercially successful, other cultivars may be preferred by consumers for eating pleasure, such as Alphonso.[12][15]

		- ['Carabao'](/source/Carabao_mango), a typical "Southeast Asian type" [polyembryonic](/source/Polyembryonic) cultivar

		- ['Langra'](/source/Langra_mango), a typical "Indian type" [monoembryonic](/source/Monoembryonic) cultivar

		- Many varieties from India

## Distribution and habitat

From tropical Asia, mangoes were introduced to East Africa by [Arab](/source/Arab) and [Persian](/source/Persia) traders in the ninth to tenth centuries. The 14th-century Moroccan traveler [Ibn Battuta](/source/Ibn_Battuta) reported it at [Mogadishu](/source/Mogadishu).[16] It was spread further into other areas around the world during the [Colonial Era](/source/Colonial_Era). The [Portuguese Empire](/source/Portuguese_Empire) spread the mango from their colony in [Goa](/source/Goa) to East and West Africa. From West Africa, they introduced it to Brazil from the 16th to the 17th centuries. From Brazil, it spread northwards to the [Caribbean](/source/Caribbean) and eastern Mexico by the mid to late 18th century. The [Spanish Empire](/source/Spanish_Empire) also introduced mangoes directly from the Philippines to western Mexico via the [Manila galleons](/source/Manila_galleon) from at least the 16th century. Mangoes were only introduced to Florida by 1833.[8][17]

## Cultivation

The mango is cultivated in most [frost](/source/Frost)-free tropical and warmer subtropical climates. It is cultivated extensively in South Asia, Southeast Asia, [East](/source/East_Africa) and West Africa, the tropical and subtropical Americas, and the [Caribbean](/source/Caribbean).[18] Mangoes are also grown in [Andalusia](/source/Andalusia), Spain (mainly in [Málaga province](/source/Province_of_M%C3%A1laga)), as its coastal subtropical climate is one of the few places in mainland Europe that permits the growth of tropical plants and fruit trees. The [Canary Islands](/source/Canary_Islands) are another notable Spanish producer of the fruit. Other minor cultivators include North America (in South Florida and the California [Coachella Valley](/source/Coachella_Valley)), Hawai'i, and Australia.[19]

Many commercial [cultivars](/source/Cultivar) grown in Europe are grafted onto the cold-hardy rootstock of the *Gomera-1* mango cultivar, originally from Cuba. Its root system is well adapted to a coastal Mediterranean climate.[20]

A breakthrough in mango cultivation was the use of [potassium nitrate](/source/Potassium_nitrate) and [ethrel](/source/Ethrel) to induce flowering in mangoes. The discovery was made by [Filipino](/source/Filipino_people) [horticulturist](/source/Horticulturist) [Ramon Barba](/source/Ramon_Barba) in 1974 and was developed from the unique traditional method of inducing mango flowering using smoke in the Philippines. It allowed mango plantations to induce regular flowering and fruiting year-round. Previously, mangoes were seasonal because they only flowered every 16 to 18 months. The method is now used in most mango-producing countries.[21][22]

### Diseases

Mango trees are subject to [many diseases](/source/List_of_mango_diseases), including [alternaria rot](/source/Alternaria_alternata), [anthracnose](/source/Anthracnose), [bacterial black spot](/source/Xanthomonas_campestris), and [powdery mildew](/source/Oidium_mangiferae).[23][24] Spongy tissue is a ripening disorder correlated with [calcium deficiency](/source/Calcium_deficiency_(plant_disorder)) and characterized by spongy, brown-black flesh beginning near the seeds.[25] It was estimated in 1989 to affect approximately 30% of Alphonso mangoes.[26] Among the pests of the fruit's cultivation is the [mango mealybug](/source/Mango_mealybug); it sucks sap from inflorescences, causing reduced fruit set and seriously harming crop production.[27]

		- [bacterial black spot of mango](/source/Xanthomonas_campestris)

		- [Anthracnose](/source/Anthracnose) in fruit

		- Anthracnose in inflorescence

		- [Powdery mildew](/source/Oidium_mangiferae) causing leaf blight

Mango* production 2023, millions of tonnes India 26.2 Indonesia 4.1 China 3.9 Mexico 2.7 Pakistan 2.6 Brazil 2.3 Malawi 2.1 World 61.1 *Includes mangosteens and guavas; Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[28]

## Production

In 2023, world production of mangoes, [mangosteens](/source/Mangosteen) and [guavas](/source/Guava) was 61 million [tonnes](/source/Tonne), led by India with 43% of the total, and [Indonesia](/source/Indonesia) and China as secondary producers.[28]

## Culinary uses

Mangoes are generally sweet, although the taste and texture of the flesh vary across cultivars; some, such as [Alphonso](/source/Alphonso_(mango)), have a soft, pulpy, juicy texture similar to an overripe [plum](/source/Plum), while others, such as [Tommy Atkins](/source/Tommy_Atkins_(mango)), are firmer with a fibrous texture.[29]

Mangoes are used in many cuisines. Sour, unripe mangoes are used in side dishes in [Indian cuisine](/source/Indian_cuisine) such as [mango chutney](/source/Mango_chutney)[30] and [pickles](/source/Mango_pickle) such as [avakaya](/source/Avakaya).[31]

A summer drink called *[aam panna](/source/Aam_panna)* is made with mangoes.[32] [Mango lassi](/source/Mango_lassi) is consumed throughout South Asia, prepared by mixing ripe mangoes or mango pulp with [buttermilk](/source/Buttermilk) and sugar.[33][34]

In [Indonesian cuisine](/source/Indonesian_cuisine), unripe mango is processed into *[asinan](/source/Asinan)*, *[rujak](/source/Rojak)* and *[sambal pencit/mangga muda](/source/Sambal#Indonesia)*,[35] or eaten with [edible salt](/source/Salt#Edible_salt).[36]

Raw green mangoes can be sliced and eaten like a salad.[37] In most parts of Southeast Asia, they are commonly eaten with [fish sauce](/source/Fish_sauce), vinegar, soy sauce, or with a dash of salt (plain or spicy) – a combination usually known as "mango salad" in English.[38] In the Philippines, green mangoes are eaten with savory condiments such as *[bagoong](/source/Bagoong)* (salty [fish](/source/Seafood) or [shrimp paste](/source/Shrimp_paste)), [soy sauce](/source/Soy_sauce), vinegar, or chilis.[39][40] [Mango float](/source/Mango_float) and [mango cake](/source/Mango_cake), which use slices of ripe mangoes, are eaten in the Philippines.[41]

		- The "hedgehog" style of preparation on [Carabao mangoes](/source/Carabao_mango)

		- Alphonso mango chunks

		- Sliced [Ataulfo](/source/Ataulfo_(mango)) mangoes

		- A glass of mango juice

		- Mango [chutney](/source/Chutney)

		- Sour unripe mangoes eaten with [shrimp paste](/source/Shrimp_paste), salt, chili, vinegar or [soy sauce](/source/Soy_sauce) in the [Philippines](/source/Philippines)

## Phytochemistry

Major flavour chemicals of the 'Alphonso' mango from India

Numerous [phytochemicals](/source/Phytochemical) are present in mango [peel](/source/Peel_(fruit)) and pulp, such as the [triterpene](/source/Triterpene) [lupeol](/source/Lupeol).[42] Mango peel pigments under study include [carotenoids](/source/Carotenoid), such as the [provitamin A](/source/Provitamin_A) compound, [beta-carotene](/source/Beta-carotene), [lutein](/source/Lutein) and [alpha-carotene](/source/Alpha-carotene),[43][44] and [polyphenols](/source/Polyphenols), such as [quercetin](/source/Quercetin), [kaempferol](/source/Kaempferol), [gallic acid](/source/Gallic_acid), [caffeic acid](/source/Caffeic_acid), [catechins](/source/Flavan-3-ol) and [tannins](/source/Tannin).[45][46] Mango contains a unique [xanthonoid](/source/Xanthonoid) called [mangiferin](/source/Mangiferin).[47]

Phytochemical and nutrient content appears to vary across mango [cultivars](/source/Cultivar).[48] Up to 25 different carotenoids have been isolated from mango pulp, the densest of which was beta-carotene, which accounts for the yellow-orange [pigmentation](/source/Pigmentation) of most mango cultivars.[49] Mango leaves also have significant polyphenol content, including [xanthonoids](/source/Xanthonoid), mangiferin and gallic acid.[50]

### Flavor

The [flavor](/source/Flavor_(taste)) of mango fruits is conferred by several volatile organic chemicals, mainly [terpenes](/source/Terpene), [furanones](/source/Furanone), [lactones](/source/Lactone), and [esters](/source/Ester). Different varieties or [cultivars of mangoes](/source/List_of_mango_cultivars) can have flavours made up of different volatile chemicals or the same volatile chemicals in different quantities.[51] In general, [New World](/source/New_World) mango cultivars are characterized by the dominance of δ-3-carene, a monoterpene flavorant; whereas, high concentration of other monoterpenes such as (Z)-ocimene and myrcene, as well as the presence of lactones and furanones, is the unique feature of [Old World](/source/Old_World) cultivars.[52][53] In India, ['Alphonso'](/source/Alphonso_(mango)) is one of the most popular cultivars. In 'Alphonso' mango, the lactones, and furanones are synthesized during ripening, whereas terpenes and the other flavorants are present in both the developing (immature) and ripening fruits.[54][55][56] [Ethylene](/source/Ethylene), a ripening-related hormone well known to be involved in ripening of mango fruits, causes changes in the flavor composition of mango fruits upon exogenous application, as well.[57][58] In contrast to the huge amount of information available on the chemical composition of mango flavour, the biosynthesis of these chemicals has not been studied in depth; only a handful of genes encoding the enzymes of flavour biosynthetic pathways have been characterized to date.[59][60][61][62]

Mango Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy 250 kJ (60 kcal) Carbohydrates 15 g Sugars 13.7 Dietary fiber 1.6 g Fat 0.38 g Saturated 0.092 g Monounsaturated 0.14 g Polyunsaturated omega−3 omega−6 0.071 g 0.051 g 0.019 g Protein 0.82 g Vitamins and minerals Vitamins Quantity %DV† Vitamin A equiv. beta-Carotene lutein zeaxanthin 6% 54 μg 6% 640 μg 23 μg Thiamine (B1) 2% 0.028 mg Riboflavin (B2) 3% 0.038 mg Niacin (B3) 4% 0.669 mg Pantothenic acid (B5) 4% 0.197 mg Vitamin B6 7% 0.119 mg Folate (B9) 11% 43 μg Choline 1% 7.6 mg Vitamin C 40% 36.4 mg Vitamin E 6% 0.9 mg Vitamin K 4% 4.2 μg Minerals Quantity %DV† Calcium 1% 11 mg Copper 12% 0.111 mg Iron 1% 0.16 mg Magnesium 2% 10 mg Manganese 3% 0.063 mg Phosphorus 1% 14 mg Potassium 6% 168 mg Selenium 1% 0.6 μg Sodium 0% 1 mg Zinc 1% 0.09 mg Other constituents Quantity Water 83.5 g Link to USDA Database entry †Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[63] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[64]

### Toxicity

Contact with oils in mango leaves, stems, sap, and skin can cause [dermatitis](/source/Dermatitis) and [anaphylaxis](/source/Anaphylaxis) in susceptible individuals.[5][65][66] Those with a history of contact dermatitis induced by [urushiol](/source/Urushiol) (an allergen found in [poison ivy](/source/Poison_ivy), [poison oak](/source/Poison_oak), or [poison sumac](/source/Poison_sumac)) may be most at risk for mango contact dermatitis.[67] Other mango compounds potentially responsible for dermatitis or allergic reactions include [mangiferin](/source/Mangiferin).[5] Cross-reactions may occur between mango allergens and urushiol.[68] Sensitized individuals may not be able to eat peeled mangoes or drink mango juice safely.[5]

When mango trees are flowering in spring, local people with allergies may experience breathing difficulty, itching of the eyes, or facial swelling, even before flower [pollen](/source/Pollen) becomes airborne. In this case, the irritant is likely to be the [vaporized](/source/Vapor) [essential oil](/source/Essential_oil) from flowers. During the primary ripening season of mangoes, contact with mango plant parts – primarily [sap](/source/Sap), leaves, and fruit skin[5] – is the most common cause of plant dermatitis in Hawaii.[69]

## Nutrition

A raw mango is 84% water, 15% [carbohydrates](/source/Carbohydrate), 1% [protein](/source/Protein_(nutrient)), and has negligible fat (table). In a reference amount of 100 g (3.5 oz), raw mango supplies 60 [calories](/source/Calorie) and is a rich source of [vitamin C](/source/Vitamin_C) (40% of the [Daily Value](/source/Daily_Value), DV) with moderate amounts of [folate](/source/Folate) (11% DV) and [copper](/source/Copper_in_biology) (12% DV), while other [micronutrients](/source/Micronutrient) are low in content (table).

## Culture

The mango is the [national fruit](/source/List_of_national_fruits) of India,[70][71] [Pakistan](/source/Pakistan),[72] and the [Philippines](/source/Philippines).[73]It is the [national tree](/source/List_of_national_trees) of Bangladesh.[74] In India, the harvesting and sale of mangoes is during March–May and this is annually covered by news agencies.[12] In [Tamil Nadu](/source/Tamil_Nadu), the mango is one of the three royal fruits, along with [banana](/source/Banana) and [jackfruit](/source/Jackfruit), for their sweetness and flavour.[75]

The mango has a traditional context in the culture of South Asia. In his [edicts](/source/Edicts_of_Ashoka), the Mauryan emperor [Ashoka](/source/Ashoka) references the planting of fruit- and shade-bearing trees along imperial roads in his Major Pillar Edict No.5:[76]

"On the roads [banyan](/source/Banyan)-trees were caused to be planted by me, (in order that) they might afford shade to cattle and men, (and) mango-groves were caused to be planted."

In medieval India, the Indo-Persian poet [Amir Khusrau](/source/Amir_Khusrau) termed the mango "*Naghza Tarin Mewa Hindustan*" – "the fairest fruit of Hindustan".[77] The Mughal Empire was especially fond of the fruits: the emperor [Babur](/source/Babur) praises the mango in his *[Baburnama](/source/Baburnama)*.[78] Mughal emperor [Akbar](/source/Akbar) (1556–1605) is said to have planted a mango orchard of 100,000 trees near [Darbhanga](/source/Darbhanga), Bihar.[79] Mango flowers and leaves are used in the worship of the [Hindu](/source/Hinduism) goddess [Saraswati](/source/Saraswati) at the spring festival of [Vasant Panchami](/source/Vasant_Panchami).[80] The leaves are used as decorations in celebrations of [Ganesh Chaturthi](/source/Ganesh_Chaturthi) for the elephant-headed god [Ganesha](/source/Ganesha).[81] The [Jain](/source/Jain) goddess [Ambika](/source/Ambika_(Jainism)) is traditionally represented as sitting under a mango tree.[82] The classical Sanskrit poet [Kalidasa](/source/Kalidasa) sang the praises of mangoes.[83]

[Paisley patterns](/source/Paisley_(design)), with a teardrop-shaped motif or *[boteh](/source/Boteh)* on shawls and [saris](/source/Sari), are named for the unripe mango in languages across the [Indian subcontinent](/source/Indian_subcontinent), such as *kalka* in [Bengali](/source/Bengali_language),[84][85] *ambi* in [Punjabi](/source/Punjabi_language),[86] and *kairi* in [Hindi](/source/Hindi).[85] [E. M. Forster](/source/E._M._Forster)'s 1924 novel *[A Passage to India](/source/A_Passage_to_India)* has the character Dr. Aziz suggest to the English character Cyril Fielding "For you I shall arrange a lady with breasts like mangoes".[87] Mangoes were the subject of the [mango cult](/source/Mango_cult) in China during the [Cultural Revolution](/source/Cultural_Revolution) as symbols of chairman [Mao Zedong](/source/Mao_Zedong)'s love for the people.[88]

		- Image of [Ambika](/source/Ambika_(Jainism)) under a mango tree in Cave 34 of the [Ellora Caves](/source/Ellora_Caves)

		- [Paisley patterns](/source/Paisley_(design)) are named for the mango in languages of the [Indian subcontinent](/source/Indian_subcontinent).

## References

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-prakash_3-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-prakash_3-1) Prakash, Om (2005). [*A Tryst with Mango: Retrospect, Aspects, Prospects*](https://books.google.com/books?id=UAc_Pp6ahK8C&dq=mango+tamil+manga&pg=PR14). APH Publishing. pp. xiv. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-7648-912-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7648-912-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-OxfordED_4-0)** ["mango"](https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/6710034543). *[Oxford English Dictionary](/source/Oxford_English_Dictionary)* (online ed.). Oxford University Press. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/OED/6710034543](https://doi.org/10.1093%2FOED%2F6710034543). (Subscription or [participating institution membership](https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary) required.)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Morton_5-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Morton_5-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Morton_5-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Morton_5-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Morton_5-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Morton_5-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-Morton_5-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-Morton_5-7) [***i***](#cite_ref-Morton_5-8) [***j***](#cite_ref-Morton_5-9) [***k***](#cite_ref-Morton_5-10) Morton, Julia F (1987). ["Mango. In: Fruits of Warm Climates"](https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/mango_ars.html). NewCROP, New Crop Resource Online Program, Center for New Crops & Plant Products, Purdue University. pp. 221–239. Retrieved 13 April 2026.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-crfg_6-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-crfg_6-1) ["Mango"](https://web.archive.org/web/20201019172713/http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/mango.html). *California Rare Fruit Growers*. Archived from [the original](http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/mango.html) on 19 October 2020. Retrieved 4 November 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-osu_7-0)** Marcos-Filho, Julio. ["Physiology of Recalcitrant Seeds"](https://web.archive.org/web/20140124220404/http://seedbiology.osu.edu/HCS631_files/12B%20Recalcitrant%20Seeds.pdf) (PDF). Ohio State University. Archived from [the original](http://seedbiology.osu.edu/HCS631_files/12B%20Recalcitrant%20Seeds.pdf) (PDF) on 24 January 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2014.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Warschefsky_8-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Warschefsky_8-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Warschefsky_8-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Warschefsky_8-3) Warschefsky, Emily J.; Wettberg, Eric J. B. (June 2019). ["Population genomic analysis of mango (*Mangifera indica*) suggests a complex history of domestication"](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fnph.15731). *New Phytologist*. **222** (4): 2023–2037. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2019NewPh.222.2023W](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019NewPh.222.2023W). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/nph.15731](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fnph.15731). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[20.500.14849/285](https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14849%2F285). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [30730057](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30730057).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Kuhn_9-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Kuhn_9-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Kuhn_9-2) Kuhn, David N.; Bally, Ian S. E.; Dillon, Natalie L.; Innes, David; Groh, Amy M.; Rahaman, Jordon; Ophir, Ron; Cohen, Yuval; Sherman, Amir (20 April 2017). ["Genetic Map of Mango: A Tool for Mango Breeding"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5397511). *Frontiers in Plant Science*. **8** 577. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2017FrPS....8..577K](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017FrPS....8..577K). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3389/fpls.2017.00577](https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpls.2017.00577). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [5397511](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5397511). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [28473837](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28473837).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** Spengler, Robert N. (April 2020). ["Anthropogenic Seed Dispersal: Rethinking the Origins of Plant Domestication"](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tplants.2020.01.005). *Trends in Plant Science*. **25** (4): 340–348. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2020TPS....25..340S](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020TPS....25..340S). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.tplants.2020.01.005](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tplants.2020.01.005). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[21.11116/0000-0005-C7E0-D](https://hdl.handle.net/21.11116%2F0000-0005-C7E0-D). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [32191870](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32191870).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Sherman_11-0)** Sherman, Amir; Rubinstein, Mor; Eshed, Ravit; Benita, Miri; Ish-Shalom, Mazal; Sharabi-Schwager, Michal; Rozen, Ada; Saada, David; Cohen, Yuval; Ophir, Ron (December 2015). ["Mango (*Mangifera indica* L.) germplasm diversity based on single nucleotide polymorphisms derived from the transcriptome"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4647706). *BMC Plant Biology*. **15** (1): 277. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2015BMCPB..15..277S](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015BMCPB..15..277S). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1186/s12870-015-0663-6](https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12870-015-0663-6). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [4647706](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4647706). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [26573148](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26573148).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-NYTAllen_12-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-NYTAllen_12-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-NYTAllen_12-2) Allen, Jonathan (10 May 2006). ["Mango Mania in India"](https://travel.nytimes.com/2006/05/10/travel/10mumbailetter.html?pagewanted=1&_r=0). *[The New York Times](/source/The_New_York_Times)*. Retrieved 4 September 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** Hunsberger, Adrian; Balerdi, Carlos (February 2012). ["DOORYARD DISEASE CONTROL FOR MANGOS IN FLORIDA"](https://sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu/media/sfylifasufledu/miami-dade/documents/insect-pests-amp-diseases/Mango-Disease-Cntrl-HomeownersF.S..pdf) (PDF). University of Florida/IFAS Miami-Dade County Extension. Retrieved 10 March 2023. Mango varieties that are susceptible to anthracnose are: 'Cogshall', 'Graham', 'Haden', 'Irwin', 'Julie', 'Kent', 'Mallika', 'Valencia Pride', 'Zill', and others. Those that are susceptible to powdery mildew are: 'Alphonso', 'Carrie', 'Glenn', 'Haden', 'Keitt', 'Kent', 'Nam Doc Mai', 'Zill' and a few others. These will most likely need to be sprayed with fungicides each year.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** Susser, Allen (2001). *The Great Mango Book*. New York: [Ten Speed Press](/source/Ten_Speed_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-58008-204-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58008-204-4).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-star_15-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-star_15-1) Mintz, C. (24 May 2008). ["Sweet news: Ataulfos are in season"](https://www.thestar.com/life/2008/05/24/sweet_news_ataulfos_are_in_season.html). *[Toronto Star](/source/Toronto_Star)*. Retrieved 1 August 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-watson_16-0)** [Watson, Andrew J.](/source/Andrew_Watson_(historian)) (1983). *Agricultural innovation in the early Islamic world: the diffusion of crops and farming techniques, 700–1100*. [Cambridge University Press](/source/Cambridge_University_Press). pp. 72–3. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-24711-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24711-5).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-pg_17-0)** Gepts, P. ["PLB143: Crop of the Day: Mango, *Mangifera indica*"](https://web.archive.org/web/20131206095819/http://www.plantsciences.ucdavis.edu/gepts/pb143/CROP/MANGO/mango.htm). *The Evolution of Crop Plants*. Dept. of Plant Sciences, Sect. of Crop & Ecosystem Sciences, [University of California, Davis](/source/University_of_California%2C_Davis). Archived from [the original](http://www.plantsciences.ucdavis.edu/gepts/pb143/crop/mango/mango.htm) on 6 December 2013. Retrieved 8 October 2009.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Altendorf_18-0)** Altendorf, S. (2019). [*Major Tropical Fruits: Market Review 2018*](http://www.fao.org/3/ca5692en/ca5692en.pdf) (PDF). Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** Litz, Richard E. (2009). *The Mango: Botany, Production and Uses*. Wallingford, UK: [Cambridge University Press](/source/Cambridge_University_Press). pp. 606–627. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-84593-489-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84593-489-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** ["actahort.org"](https://web.archive.org/web/20210228000410/http://www.actahort.org/members/showpdf?booknrarnr=820_2). actahort.org. Archived from [the original](http://www.actahort.org/members/showpdf?booknrarnr=820_2) on 28 February 2021. Retrieved 31 January 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** ["The Scientist, the Patent and the Mangoes – Tripling the Mango Yield in the Philippines"](https://www.wipo.int/ipadvantage/en/details.jsp?id=2516). *World Intellectual Property Organization*. Retrieved 9 May 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-nagao_22-0)** Nagao, Mike A.; Nishina, Melvin S. (1993). "Use of Potassium Nitrate on Mango Flowering". In Chia, C.L.; Evans, D.O. (eds.). [*Proceedings, Conference on Mango in Hawaii; March 9-11, 1993*](https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/16493). University of Hawaii. pp. 61–66. [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[10125/16493](https://hdl.handle.net/10125%2F16493).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Prakash_2004_23-0)** Prakash, Om (2004). "Diseases and Disorders of Mango and their Management". *Diseases of Fruits and Vegetables Volume I*. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. pp. 511–619. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/1-4020-2606-4_13](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F1-4020-2606-4_13). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4020-1822-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-1822-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Ploetz_2003_24-0)** Ploetz, R. C. (2003). "Diseases of mango.". *Diseases of tropical fruit crops*. UK: CABI Publishing. pp. 327–363. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1079/9780851993904.0327](https://doi.org/10.1079%2F9780851993904.0327). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-85199-390-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85199-390-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** Ma, Xiaowei; Liu, Bin; Zhang, Yuehua; Su, Muqing; Zheng, Bin; Wang, Songbiao; Wu, Hongxia (2023). "Unraveling correlations between calcium deficiency and spongy tissue in mango fruit flesh". *Scientia Horticulturae*. **309** 111694. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2023ScHor.30911694M](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023ScHor.30911694M). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.scienta.2022.111694](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.scienta.2022.111694).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** Katrodia, J.S. (August 1989). "Spongy Tissue in Mango – causes and control measures". *Acta Horticulturae* (231): 814–826. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.17660/actahortic.1989.231.49](https://doi.org/10.17660%2Factahortic.1989.231.49).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Karar_Sayyed_2010_27-0)** Karar, Haider; Sayyed, Ali H.; Arif, M. Jalal; Ashfaq, M.; Aslam, M. (2010). "Integration of cultural and mechanical practices for management of the mango mealybug Drosicha mangiferae". *Phytoparasitica*. **38** (3): 223–229. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2010Phyto..38..223K](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010Phyto..38..223K). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/s12600-010-0094-8](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12600-010-0094-8).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-faostat_28-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-faostat_28-1) ["Production of mangoes, mangosteens, and guavas in 2023, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)"](https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL). UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT). 2025. Retrieved 14 July 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-clark_29-0)** Clark, Melissa (1 April 2011). ["For everything there is a season, even mangoes"](https://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/06/dining/06appe.html). *[The New York Times](/source/The_New_York_Times)*. Retrieved 24 November 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** ["Recipe: Raw mango chutney"](http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/food/recipes/Recipe-Raw-mango-chutney/articleshow/13034557.cms). *[The Times Of India](/source/The_Times_of_India)*. Retrieved 6 March 2026.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** Ranjan, Hriday (18 March 2019). ["Ode to the humble garlic pickle"](https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/2019/mar/18/ode-to-the-humble-garlic-pickle-1952450.html). *[The New Indian Express](/source/The_New_Indian_Express)*. Retrieved 1 September 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** ["Aam Panna Recipe"](https://food.ndtv.com/recipe-aam-panna-13). NDTV Food. Retrieved 6 March 2026.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** [Kurlansky, Mark](/source/Mark_Kurlansky) (2018). [*Milk! A 10,000-Year Food Fracas*](https://books.google.com/books?id=6htCDwAAQBAJ&pg=PAPA266). New York: [Bloomsbury Publishing](/source/Bloomsbury_Publishing). p. 266. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1632863829](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1632863829).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-34)** Shah, Niraalee (2021). [*Indian Etiquette: A Glimpse Into India's Culture*](https://books.google.com/books?id=7YdUEAAAQBAJ&pg=PAPT289). Notion Press. p. 289.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-35)** Sendari, Anugerah Ayu (8 June 2023). ["8 Resep Olahan Mangga Muda Menyegarkan, dari Manisan Sampai Sambal"](https://www.liputan6.com/lifestyle/read/5307201/8-resep-olahan-mangga-muda-menyegarkan-dari-manisan-sampai-sambal?page=9). *liputan6.com* (in Indonesian). Retrieved 22 August 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** ["7 Khasiat Tidak Terduga Rutin Mengonsumsi Mangga Muda Campur Garam"](https://m.jpnn.com/news/7-khasiat-tidak-terduga-rutin-mengonsumsi-mangga-muda-campur-garam) [7 Unexpected Benefits of Regularly Consuming Unripe Mangoes Mixed with Salt]. *jpnn.com* (in Indonesian). Retrieved 22 August 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Skyhorse_Publishing-2009_37-0)** *The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants*. New York: [Skyhorse Publishing](/source/Skyhorse_Publishing). 2009. p. 66. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-60239-692-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60239-692-0). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [277203364](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/277203364).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Valente_38-0)** Valente, Anabela (2 April 2020). ["Oh, the Fruits in Southeast Asia!"](https://web.archive.org/web/20240920171831/https://www.diariesofmagazine.com/fruits-southeast-asia/). *Diaries of Travel Inspirations*. Archived from [the original](https://www.diariesofmagazine.com/fruits-southeast-asia/) on 20 September 2024. Retrieved 9 May 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** Pedrosa, Kannalyn Joy (25 February 2020). ["Green Mangoes and Shrimp Paste (The mouth-watering food tandem)"](https://web.archive.org/web/20210509050349/https://thevascollections.co/2020/02/25/green-mangoes-and-shrimp-paste-the-most-salivating-food-tandem/). *The VA Collections*. Archived from [the original](https://thevascollections.co/2020/02/25/green-mangoes-and-shrimp-paste-the-most-salivating-food-tandem/) on 9 May 2021. Retrieved 9 May 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-40)** ["Green Mango & Bagoong"](http://www.marketmanila.com/archives/green-mango-bagoong). *Market Manila*. 5 October 2008. Retrieved 9 May 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-41)** Tan, Joanne Catherine (5 June 2015). ["Top 12 Cakes To Try In The Philippines"](https://www.wheninmanila.com/top-12-cakes-to-try-in-the-philippines/6/). *When in Manila*. Retrieved 15 May 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-42)** Chaturvedi, P.K.; Bhui, K.; Shukla, Y. (2008). "Lupeol: connotations for chemoprevention". *Cancer Lett*. **263** (1): 1–13. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.canlet.2008.01.047](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.canlet.2008.01.047). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [18359153](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18359153).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-43)** Berardini, N; Fezer, R.; Conrad, J. (2005). "Screening of mango (*Mangifera indica* L.) cultivars for their contents of flavonol *O* – and xanthone *C*-glycosides, anthocyanins, and pectin". *J Agric Food Chem*. **53** (5): 1563–1570. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2005JAFC...53.1563B](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005JAFC...53.1563B). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1021/jf0484069](https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fjf0484069). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [15740041](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15740041).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-44)** Gouado, I.; Schweigert, F.J.; Ejoh, R.A. (2007). ["Systemic levels of carotenoids from mangoes and papaya consumed in three forms (juice, fresh and dry slice)"](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.ejcn.1602841). *Eur J Clin Nutr*. **61** (10): 1180–1188. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602841](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.ejcn.1602841). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [17637601](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17637601).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-45)** Mahattanatawee, K.; Manthey, J.A.; Luzio, G. (2006). "Total antioxidant activity and fiber content of select Florida-grown tropical fruits". *Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry*. **54** (19): 7355–63. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2006JAFC...54.7355M](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006JAFC...54.7355M). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1021/jf060566s](https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fjf060566s). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [16968105](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16968105).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-46)** Singh, U.P.; Singh, D.P.; Singh, M. (2004). "Characterization of phenolic compounds in some Indian mango cultivars". *International Journal of Food Science and Nutrition*. **55** (2): 163–169. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/09637480410001666441](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09637480410001666441). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [14985189](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14985189).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-47)** Andreu, G.L.; Delgado, R.; Velho, J.A. (2005). "Mangiferin, a natural occurring glucosyl xanthone, increases susceptibility of rat liver mitochondria to calcium-induced permeability transition". *Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics*. **439** (2): 184–193. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.abb.2005.05.015](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.abb.2005.05.015). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [15979560](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15979560).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-48)** Rocha Ribeiro, S.M.; Queiroz, J.H.; Lopes Ribeiro de Queiroz, M.E. (2007). "Antioxidant in mango (*Mangifera indica* L.) pulp". *Plant Foods Hum Nutr*. **62** (1): 13–17. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2007PFHN...62...13R](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PFHN...62...13R). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/s11130-006-0035-3](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11130-006-0035-3). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [17243011](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17243011).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-49)** Chen, J.P.; Tai, C.Y.; Chen, B.H. (2004). "Improved liquid chromatographic method for determination of carotenoids in Taiwanese mango (*Mangifera indica* L.)". *J Chromatogr A*. **1054** (1–2): 261–268. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/S0021-9673(04)01406-2](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0021-9673%2804%2901406-2). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [15553152](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15553152).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-50)** Barreto, J.C.; Trevisan, M.T.; Hull, W.E. (2008). "Characterization and quantitation of polyphenolic compounds in bark, kernel, leaves, and peel of mango (*Mangifera indica* L.)". *J Agric Food Chem*. **56** (14): 5599–5610. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2008JAFC...56.5599B](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008JAFC...56.5599B). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1021/jf800738r](https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fjf800738r). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [18558692](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18558692).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-51)** Pandit, Sagar S.; Chidley, Hemangi G.; Kulkarni, Ram S.; Pujari, Keshav H.; Giri, Ashok P.; Gupta, Vidya S. (2009). "Cultivar relationships in mango based on fruit volatile profiles". *Food Chemistry*. **114** (1): 363–372. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2009FoodC.114..363P](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009FoodC.114..363P). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.09.107](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.foodchem.2008.09.107).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-culti_52-0)** Pandit, Sagar S.; Chidley, Hemangi G.; Kulkarni, Ram S.; Pujari, Keshav H.; Giri, Ashok P.; Gupta, Vidya S. (May 2009). "Cultivar relationships in mango based on fruit volatile profiles". *Food Chemistry*. **114** (1): 363–372. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2009FoodC.114..363P](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009FoodC.114..363P). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.09.107](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.foodchem.2008.09.107).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-53)** Narain, N., Bora, P.S., Narain, R. and Shaw, P.E. (1998). Mango, In: Tropical and Subtropical Fruits, Edt. by Shaw, P.E., Chan, H.T. and Nagy, S. Agscience, Auburndale, Florida, pp. 1–77.[*[ISBN missing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-54)** Pandit, Sagar S.; Kulkarni, Ram S.; Chidley, Hemangi G.; Giri, Ashok P.; Pujari, Keshav H.; Köllner, Tobias G.; Degenhardt, Jörg; Gershenzon, Jonathan; Gupta, Vidya S. (2009). "Changes in volatile composition during fruit development and ripening of 'Alphonso' mango". *Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture*. **89** (12): 2071–2081. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2009JSFA...89.2071P](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009JSFA...89.2071P). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/jsfa.3692](https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjsfa.3692).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-55)** Gholap, Achyut S.; Bandyopadhyay, Chiranjib (October 1977). "Characterisation of green aroma of raw mango (*Mangifera indica* L.)". *Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture*. **28** (10): 885–888. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1977JSFA...28..885G](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977JSFA...28..885G). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/jsfa.2740281003](https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjsfa.2740281003).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-56)** Kulkarni, Ram S.; Chidley, Hemangi G.; Pujari, Keshav H.; Giri, Ashok P.; Gupta, Vidya S. (2012). "Geographic variation in the flavour volatiles of Alphonso mango". *Food Chemistry*. **130**: 58–66. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.06.053](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.foodchem.2011.06.053).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-57)** Lalel, H. J. D.; Singh, Zora; Tan, S. C. (January 2003). "The role of ethylene in mango fruit aroma volatiles biosynthesis". *The Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology*. **78** (4): 485–496. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2003JHSB...78..485L](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003JHSB...78..485L). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/14620316.2003.11511653](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14620316.2003.11511653).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-58)** Chidley, Hemangi G.; Kulkarni, Ram S.; Pujari, Keshav H.; Giri, Ashok P.; Gupta, Vidya S. (2013). "Spatial and temporal changes in the volatile profile of Alphonso mango upon exogenous ethylene treatment". *Food Chemistry*. **136** (2): 585–594. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.08.029](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.foodchem.2012.08.029). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [23122101](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23122101).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-59)** Pandit, S. S.; Kulkarni, R. S.; Giri, A. P.; Köllner, T. G.; Degenhardt, J.; Gershenzon, J.; Gupta, V. S. (June 2010). "Expression profiling of various genes during the development and ripening of Alphonso mango". *Plant Physiology and Biochemistry*. **48** (6): 426–433. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.plaphy.2010.02.012](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.plaphy.2010.02.012). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [20363641](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20363641).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-60)** Singh, Rajesh K.; Sane, Vidhu A.; Misra, Aparna; Ali, Sharique A.; Nath, Pravendra (2010). "Differential expression of the mango alcohol dehydrogenase gene family during ripening". *Phytochemistry*. **71** (13): 1485–1494. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2010PChem..71.1485S](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PChem..71.1485S). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.phytochem.2010.05.024](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.phytochem.2010.05.024). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [20598721](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20598721).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-61)** Kulkarni, Ram; Pandit, Sagar; Chidley, Hemangi; Nagel, Raimund; Schmidt, Axel; et al. (2013). "Characterization of three novel isoprenyl diphosphate synthases from the terpenoid rich mango fruit". *Plant Physiology and Biochemistry*. **71**: 121–131. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2013PlPB...71..121K](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013PlPB...71..121K). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.plaphy.2013.07.006](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.plaphy.2013.07.006). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [23911730](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23911730).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-62)** Kulkarni, R.S., Chidley H.G., Deshpande, A., Schmidt, A., Pujari, K.H., Giri, A.P., Gershenzon, Jonathan, Gupta, V.S., 2013, [An oxidoreductase from 'Alphonso' mango catalyzing biosynthesis of furaneol and reduction of reactive carbonyls](http://www.springerplus.com/content/2/1/494), SpringerPlus, 2, 494.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FDADailyValues_63-0)** [United States Food and Drug Administration](/source/Food_and_Drug_Administration) (2024). ["Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels"](https://www.fda.gov/food/nutrition-facts-label/daily-value-nutrition-and-supplement-facts-labels). *FDA*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20240327175201/https://www.fda.gov/food/nutrition-facts-label/daily-value-nutrition-and-supplement-facts-labels) from the original on 27 March 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-NationalAcademiesPotassium_64-0)** ["TABLE 4-7 Comparison of Potassium Adequate Intakes Established in This Report to Potassium Adequate Intakes Established in the 2005 DRI Report"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545428/table/tab_4_7/). p. 120. In: Stallings, Virginia A.; Harrison, Meghan; Oria, Maria, eds. (2019). "Potassium: Dietary Reference Intakes for Adequacy". *Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium*. pp. 101–124. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.17226/25353](https://doi.org/10.17226%2F25353). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-309-48834-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-48834-1). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [30844154](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30844154). [NCBI](/source/Bookshelf_ID_(identifier)) [NBK545428](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545428).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Sareen_65-0)** Sareen, Richa; Shah, Ashok (2011). ["Hypersensitivity manifestations to the fruit mango"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3206236). *Asia Pacific Allergy*. **1** (1): 43–49. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.5415/apallergy.2011.1.1.43](https://doi.org/10.5415%2Fapallergy.2011.1.1.43). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [3206236](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3206236). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [22053296](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22053296).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-66)** Miell, J.; Papouchado, M.; Marshall, A. (1988). ["Anaphylactic reaction after eating a mango"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1838873). *[British Medical Journal](/source/British_Medical_Journal)*. **297** (6664): 1639–1640. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1136/bmj.297.6664.1639](https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.297.6664.1639). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [1838873](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1838873). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [3147776](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3147776).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-67)** Hershko, K.; Weinberg, I.; Ingber, A. (2005). "Exploring the mango – poison ivy connection: the riddle of discriminative plant dermatitis". *Contact Dermatitis*. **52** (1): 3–5. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.0105-1873.2005.00454.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.0105-1873.2005.00454.x). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [15701120](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15701120).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-68)** Oka, K.; Saito, F.; Yasuhara, T.; Sugimoto, A. (2004). "A study of cross-reactions between mango contact allergens and urushiol". *Contact Dermatitis*. **51** (5–6): 292–296. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.0105-1873.2004.00451.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.0105-1873.2004.00451.x). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [15606656](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15606656).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-McGovern-2001_69-0)** McGovern, T. W.; LaWarre, S. (2001). "Botanical briefs: the mango tree—*Mangifera indica* L.". *Cutis*. **67** (5): 365–366. [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [11381849](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11381849).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-70)** ["National Fruit"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100820044013/http://india.gov.in/knowindia/national_fruit.php). *Know India*. Government of India. Archived from [the original](http://india.gov.in/knowindia/national_fruit.php) on 20 August 2010. Retrieved 17 August 2010.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-71)** ["National Fruit"](https://web.archive.org/web/20200420013005/https://archive.india.gov.in/knowindia/national_symbols.php?id=13). Archived from [the original](http://archive.india.gov.in/knowindia/national_symbols.php?id=13) on 20 April 2020. Retrieved 4 November 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-72)** ["Pakistani mango: The king of fruits"](https://www.arabnews.com/node/1539616/world). ArabNews. 13 August 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-73)** ["Mangoes In The Philippines"](https://croplife.org/news-views/sharing-the-story/mangoes-from-the-philippines/). *CropLife*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-bd_74-0)** ["Mango tree, national tree of Bangladesh"](https://bdnews24.com/bangladesh/mango-tree-national-tree). *bdnews24.com*. 15 November 2010. Retrieved 16 November 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-75)** Subrahmanian, N.; Hikosaka, S.; Samuel, G.J. (1997). [*Tamil Social History*](https://books.google.com/books?id=PXXsAAAAIAAJ). p. 88.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Inscriptions_of_Asoka_p.119_76-0)** [Hultzsch, Eugen](/source/Eugen_Hultzsch) (1925). [*Inscriptions of Asoka. New Edition by E. Hultzsch*](https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch). [Clarendon Press](/source/Clarendon_Press). p. 119.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-77)** Johar, Roshni (16 January 2025). ["The mango reigns supreme"](https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/musings/the-mango-reigns-supreme-411518/). *[The Tribune](/source/The_Tribune_(India))*. Retrieved 6 March 2026.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-78)** ["Mangoes, Mughals, Hindu & Buddhist Traditions"](https://madrascourier.com/insight/mangoes-mughals-hindu-buddhist-traditions/). *Madras Courier*. 13 June 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-MJMorgan_79-0)** Morgan, Curtis (22 June 1995). "The Nation Is Discovering What South Floridans Have Long Known: Mango Is the Sexiest Fruit on Earth". Food. *[Miami Herald](/source/Miami_Herald)*. p. 1E. Mango culture owes much to Akbar, emperor of India's Mogul conquerors from 1556 to 1605, who planted an orchard of 100,000 trees near Darbhanga in Eastern India.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-80)** Dilipsinh, K. S. (2004). "8 The Festival of Spring". *Kutch in Festival and Custom*. Har-Anand Publications. p. 98. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-241-0998-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-241-0998-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-81)** Sami, Adnan; et al. (2025). "Mango: Botany, Importance, and Uses". *Handbook of Research on Mango Fruit: Postharvest Science, Production, Nutrition, and Processing Technology*. Apple Academic Press. pp. 59–88. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1779643384](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1779643384).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-82)** ["Ambika In Jaina Art And Literature"](https://www.exoticindia.com/book/details/ambika-in-jaina-art-and-literature-IDH453/) – via exoticindiaart.com.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-83)** ["His highness, Mango maharaja: An endless obsession – Yahoo! Lifestyle India"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130316215241/http://in.lifestyle.yahoo.com/his-highness--mango-maharaja--an-endless-obsession.html). Yahoo!. 29 May 2012. Archived from [the original](http://in.lifestyle.yahoo.com/his-highness--mango-maharaja--an-endless-obsession.html) on 16 March 2013. Retrieved 14 June 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-84)** Niaz, Zaman (1993). *The Art of Kantha Embroidery* (Second Revised ed.). Dhaka, Bangladesh: The University Press. p. 82. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-984-05-1228-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-984-05-1228-7).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Pathak_2024_85-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Pathak_2024_85-1) Pathak, Anamika (2024). ["Mango-Kairi-Kalka-Paisley: Design in Indian art from architecture to textiles"](https://www.globalinch.org/article/mango-kairi-kalka-paisley-design-inindian-art-from-architecture-to-textiles/). *Asia InCH*. **43** (1). 'Kairi' (unripe mango) was adopted as design ... first seen as the decorative design in architecture ... later on, it was extensively used in textiles ... Kashmiri shawls.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-86)** ["The Punjab Dictionary"](https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/singh_query.py?qs=ambi&matchtype=default). 22 January 1895. Retrieved 10 March 2026.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-87)** [Forster, E. M.](/source/E._M._Forster) (1924). "11". *A Passage to India*. [Edward Arnold](/source/Edward_Arnold_(publisher)).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-tele_HowC_88-0)** Moore, Malcolm (7 March 2013). ["How China came to worship the mango during the Cultural Revolution"](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/9914895/How-China-came-to-worship-the-mango-during-the-Cultural-Revolution.html). *[The Daily Telegraph](/source/The_Daily_Telegraph)*. Additional reporting by Valentina Luo. [Archived](https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/9914895/How-China-came-to-worship-the-mango-during-the-Cultural-Revolution.html) from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 28 September 2015.

## Further reading

- Ensminger, Audrey H.; et al. (1995). [*The Concise Encyclopedia of Foods & Nutrition*](https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope00ensm/page/651). CRC Press. p. [651](https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope00ensm/page/651). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8493-4455-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-4455-8).

- Litz, Richard E. (editor, 2009). *The Mango: Botany, Production and Uses*. 2nd edition. CABI. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-84593-489-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84593-489-7)

- Susser, Allen (2001). *The Great Mango Book: A Guide with Recipes*. Ten Speed Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-58008-204-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58008-204-4)

## External links

**Mango**  at Wikipedia's [sister projects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects)

- [Media](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Mango) from Commons
- [Quotations](https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Mango) from Wikiquote
- [Taxa](https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Mangifera) from Wikispecies

- [Sorting *Mangifera* species](http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Mangifera.html)

- [Pine Island Nursery's Mango Variety viewer](https://web.archive.org/web/20180305150208/http://www.tropicalfruitnursery.com/mango/)

Authority control databases International GND National Japan Latvia Other Yale LUX

v t e Mangoes Mango cultivars Alampur Baneshan Alice Alphonso Amrapali Anderson Angie Anwar Ratol Appemidi Ataulfo Bailey's Marvel Banganapalle Bennet Alphonso Beverly Bombay Brahm Kai Meu Brooks Carabao Carrie Chaunsa Chinna rasalu Chok Anan Coconut Cream Cogshall Cushman Dasheri Dot Duncan Earlygold Edward Eldon Emerald Fairchild Fascell Fazli Florigon Ford Gary Gir Kesar Glenn Goa Mankurad Gold Nugget Golden Lippens Graham Haden Haribhanga Hatcher Himsagar Honey Gold Ice Cream Irwin Ivory Jakarta Jean Ellen Julie Kari Ishad Keitt Kensington Pride Kent Kuttiattoor Lakshmanbhog Lancetilla Langra Lippens Mahachanok Malda Fazli Malihabadi Dusseheri Mallika Manilita Marathwada Kesar Mulgoba Nam Dok Mai Osteen Palmer Panchadara Kalasa Parvin Pico Raspuri Rewa Sunderja Mango Rosigold Ruby Saigon Sammar Bahisht Sensation Shan-e-Khuda Sindhri Sophie Fry Southern Blush Spirit of '76 Springfels Sunset Tommy Atkins Torbert Totapuri Valencia Pride Van Dyke Young Zill Mango Other commercial species Mangifera altissima (Pahutan) Mangifera casturi (Kasturi) Mangifera caesia (Jack mango) Mangifera foetida (Horse mango) Mangifera indica Mangifera laurina (Mangga kopyor) Mangifera sylvatica (Himalayan mango) Mangifera zeylanica (Sri Lankan mango) Mango dishes Amba Amchoor Mango pickle Mango sticky rice Other topics International Mango Festival List of mango diseases Mango cult Category Commons

v t e Lists of countries by agricultural output rankings Cereals Barley Buckwheat Corn/Maize exports Millet Oat Rice exports Rye Sorghum Triticale Wheat exports Fruit Apple Apricot Avocado Banana Cherry Citrus Orange Coconut Cucumber Eggplant Grape Lemon Lime Mango Papaya Pear Pineapple Plum Tomato Watermelon Vegetables Artichoke Carrot Garlic Onion Potato Rapeseed Soybean Turnip Other Cacao Cassava Coffee exports Cotton Fish Meat Milk Palm oil Sugar beet Sugar cane Sunflower seed Tea Tobacco Wine Related Irrigated land area Land use Organic farmland Vegetable production List of international rankings Lists by country

v t e National symbols of Bangladesh Main symbols Amar Sonar Bangla (national anthem) Notuner Gaan (national march) National Emblem Government Seal Red-Green (national flag) Bengali (national language) Monuments and Memorials Shaheed Minar (1952, martyr monument) National Martyrs' Memorial (1971, national monument) Martyred Intellectuals Memorial (1971, martyr monument) Column of Independence (1971, independence monument) People Kazi Nazrul Islam (National poet) Flora and fauna Mango Tree (national tree) Doel (national bird) Water lily (national flower) Royal Bengal Tiger (national animal) Jackfruit (national fruit) Ilish (national fish) Other symbols Kabaddi (national game) Bengali calendar (national calendar)

v t e National symbols of India Constitutional Flag of India (Flag) Emblem of India (Emblem) Satyameva Jayate (Motto) Jana Gana Mana (Anthem) Vande Mataram (Song) National Pledge (Pledge) Flora and fauna Bengal tiger (Animal) Indian peafowl (Bird) Lotus (Flower) Banyan (Tree) Mango (Fruit) Indian elephant (Heritage animal) Ganges river dolphin (Aquatic animal) King cobra (Reptile) Lactobacillus bulgaricus (Microbe) Days Independence Day Republic Day Gandhi Jayanti Others Indian rupee (Currency) Ganges (River) Indian Calendar (Calendar)

v t e National symbols of the Philippines Official Arnis Coat of arms Filipino language Filipino Sign Language Flag Great Seal "Lupang Hinirang" "Maka-Diyos, Maka-tao, Makakalikasan at Makabansa" Narra Philippine eagle Philippine pearl Sampaguita Unofficial Adobo Anahaw Bahay kubo Bakya Balangay Barong and Baro't saya "Bayan Ko" Baybayin Carabao Cariñosa Jeepney Juan dela Cruz Lechon Malacañang Palace Mango Manila Milkfish National Seal Philippine peso Sinigang Sipa Tinikling Waling-waling National heroes Implied Andrés Bonifacio José Rizal Declared from national legislation Benigno Aquino Jr. Martyrs and heroes during the martial law period National Heroes Day Veterans of the Second World War From bills and presidential proclamations José Abad Santos Corazon Aquino Melchora Aquino Emilio Aguinaldo Marcelo H. del Pilar José W. Diokno Sultan Dipatuan Kudarat Lapu-Lapu Josefa Llanes Escoda Vicente Lim Antonio Luna Apolinario Mabini Sergio Osmeña Manuel L. Quezon Manuel Roxas

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Mango](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mango) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mango?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.