# Management

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Coordinating the efforts of persons

"Manager" redirects here. For other uses, see [Manager (disambiguation)](/source/Manager_(disambiguation)) and [Management (disambiguation)](/source/Management_(disambiguation)).

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**Management** (or **managing**) is the administration of organizations, whether [businesses](/source/Business), [nonprofit organizations](/source/Nonprofit_organization), or [government bodies](/source/Government_agency) through [business administration](/source/Business_administration), [nonprofit management](/source/Nonprofit_studies), or the [political science](/source/Political_science) sub-field of [public administration](/source/Public_administration) respectively. It is the process of managing the resources of businesses, governments, and other organizations.

Larger organizations generally have three [hierarchical](/source/Hierarchy) levels of managers,[1] organized in a pyramid structure:

- [Senior management](/source/Senior_management) roles include the [board of directors](/source/Board_of_directors) and a [chief executive officer](/source/Chief_executive_officer) (CEO) or a [president](/source/President_(corporate_title)) of an organization. They set the organization's strategic goals and policies and make decisions about how the organization will operate. Senior managers are generally executive-level professionals who provide direction to middle management. Compare [governance](/source/Governance).

- [Middle management](/source/Middle_management) roles include branch managers, regional managers, department managers, and section managers. They provide direction to front-line managers and communicate senior management's strategic goals and policies to them.

- [Line management](/source/Line_management) roles include [supervisors](/source/Supervisor) and the frontline managers or [team leaders](/source/Team_leader) who oversee the work of regular employees, or volunteers in some voluntary organizations, and provide direction on their work. Line managers often perform the managerial functions that are traditionally considered the core of management. Despite the name, they are usually considered part of the workforce rather than the organization's management class.

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Management is taught — both as a theoretical subject and as a practical application — across different disciplines at colleges and universities. Prominent degree programs in management include Management, [Business Administration](/source/Bachelor_of_Business_Administration), and [Public Administration](/source/Public_administration). [Social scientists](/source/Social_science) study management as an [academic discipline](/source/Academic_discipline), investigating areas such as [social organization](/source/Social_organization), [organizational adaptation](/source/Organizational_adaptation), and [organizational leadership](/source/Organizational_leadership).[2] In recent decades, there has been a movement for [evidence-based management](/source/Evidence-based_management).[3]

## Etymology

The English verb *manage* has its roots in the fifteenth-century [French](/source/French_language) verb *mesnager*, which often referred in [equestrian](/source/Equestrianism) language "to hold in hand the reins of a horse".[4] Also the [Italian](/source/Italian_language) term *maneggiare* (to handle, especially tools or a horse) is possible. In [Spanish](/source/Spanish_language), *manejar* can also mean to rule the horses.[5] These three terms derive from the two [Latin](/source/Latin) words *manus* (hand) and *agere* (to act).

The word *management* dates back to the 1590s, when it was first used to mean "the act of managing by direction or manipulation," formed from manage plus the suffix -ment. By the 1670s, it had also come to describe "the act of managing by physical manipulation." Later, in 1739, the word was increasingly used to refer to "a governing body" or "the directors of an undertaking collectively," a sense that originally applied to theaters.[6]

## Definitions

Views on the definition and scope of management include:

- [Henri Fayol](/source/Henri_Fayol) (1841–1925) stated: "To manage is to forecast and to plan, to organize, to command, to co-ordinate and to control".[7]

- [Fredmund Malik](/source/Fredmund_Malik) (born 1944) defines management as "the transformation of resources into utility".

- [Ghislain Deslandes](/source/Ghislain_Deslandes) defines management as "a vulnerable force, under pressure to achieve results and endowed with the triple power of constraint, imitation, and imagination, operating on subjective, [interpersonal](/source/Interpersonal_communication), institutional and environmental levels".[8]

- [Peter Drucker](/source/Peter_Drucker) (1909–2005) saw the basic task of management as twofold: [marketing](/source/Marketing) and [innovation](/source/Innovation).

### Theoretical scope

Management involves identifying the [mission](/source/Mission_statement), objective, [procedures](/source/Procedure_(business)), rules and manipulation[9] of the [human capital](/source/Human_capital) of an [enterprise](/source/Business) to contribute to the success of the enterprise.[10] Scholars have focused on the management of individual,[11] organizational,[12] and inter-organizational relationships. This implies effective [communication](/source/Communication): an enterprise environment (as opposed to a physical or mechanical mechanism) implies human [motivation](/source/Motivation) and implies some successful progress or [system](/source/System) outcome.[13][*[failed verification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability)*] As such, management is not the manipulation of a mechanism (machine or automated program), not the herding of animals, and can occur either in a legal or in an illegal enterprise or environment. From an individual's perspective, management does not need to be seen solely from an enterprise point of view, because management is a function in improving one's [life](/source/Personal_life) and [relationships](/source/Social_relationship).[14] Management is seen in various parts of society.[15]Plans, [measurements](/source/Measurements), motivational [psychological](/source/Psychology) tools, goals, and economic measures (profit, etc.) may or may not be necessary components for there to be management. At first, one views management functionally, such as measuring quantity, adjusting [plans](/source/Plan), and meeting [goals](/source/Goal),[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] but this applies even when planning does not take place. From this perspective, [Henri Fayol](/source/Henri_Fayol) (1841–1925)[16] considers management to consist of five [functions](/source/Function_(engineering)):

- planning (forecasting)

- organizing

- commanding

- coordinating

- controlling

In another way of thinking, [Mary Parker Follett](/source/Mary_Parker_Follett) (1868–1933), allegedly defined management as "the art of getting things done through people".[17] She described management as a philosophy.[18]

Some scholars, however, find this definition useful but far too narrow. The phrase "management is what managers do" occurs widely,[19] suggesting the difficulty of defining management without [circularity](/source/Circular_definition), the shifting nature of definitions[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] and the connection of [managerial practices](/source/Managerialism) with the existence of a [managerial cadre](/source/Managerial_class) or of a [class](/source/Social_class).

One habit of thought regards management as equivalent to "[business administration](/source/Business_administration)" and thus excludes management in places outside [commerce](/source/Commerce), for example, in [charities](/source/Charitable_organization) and in the [public sector](/source/Public_sector). More broadly, every organization must "manage" its work, people, processes, technology, and other resources to maximize effectiveness.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] Nonetheless, many people refer to university departments that teach management as "[business schools](/source/Business_school)". Some such institutions (such as the [Harvard Business School](/source/Harvard_Business_School)) use that name, while others (such as the [Yale School of Management](/source/Yale_School_of_Management)) employ the broader term "management".

English-speakers may also use the term "management" or "the management" as a collective word describing the managers of an organization, for example, of a [corporation](/source/Corporation)[20][21] – the *managementariat*.[22]

Historically, the use of the term "management" often contrasted with the term ["labor"](/source/Industrial_relations) – referring to those whom management manages.[23]

## Levels

An [organization chart](/source/Organization_chart) for the [United States Coast Guard](/source/United_States_Coast_Guard) shows the hierarchy of managerial roles in that organization.

### Top management

"Top Management" redirects here. For the video game, see [*Top Management* (video game)](/source/Top_Management_(video_game)).

The board of directors is typically composed primarily of non-executive members who owe a [fiduciary](/source/Fiduciary) duty to shareholders and are not closely involved in the day-to-day activities of the organization. However, this can vary depending on the type (e.g., public versus private), size, and culture of the organization. These directors are theoretically liable for breaches of that duty and are typically insured under [directors and officers liability insurance](/source/Directors_and_officers_liability_insurance). [Fortune 500](/source/Fortune_500) directors are estimated to spend 4.4 hours per week on board duties, and median compensation was $212,512 in 2010. The board sets corporate strategy, makes major decisions such as major acquisitions,[24] and hires, evaluates, and fires the top-level manager ([chief executive officer](/source/Chief_executive_officer) or CEO). The CEO typically hires other positions. However, board involvement in hiring for other positions, such as the [chief financial officer](/source/Chief_financial_officer) (CFO), has increased.[25] In 2013, a survey of over 160 CEOs and directors of public and private companies found that the top weaknesses of CEOs were "[mentoring](/source/Mentoring) skills" and "board engagement", and 10% of companies never evaluated the CEO.[26] The board may also have certain employees (e.g., [internal auditors](/source/Internal_auditor)) report to them or directly hire independent [contractors](/source/General_contractor); for example, the board (through the [audit committee](/source/Audit_committee)) typically selects the [auditor](/source/Auditor).

Helpful skills for top management vary by organization type but typically include a broad understanding of competition, global economies, effective planning, and politics.[27] In addition, the CEO is responsible for implementing and determining (within the board's framework) the broad policies of the organization. Executive management accomplishes the day-to-day details, including instructions for the preparation of department budgets, procedures, and schedules; appointment of middle-level executives such as department managers; coordination of departments; media and governmental relations; and [shareholder](/source/Shareholder) communication.

### Line management

Line managers include [supervisors](/source/Supervisor), section leaders, forepersons, and team leaders. They focus on controlling and directing regular employees, either in direct service delivery or in [back-office](/source/Back_office) areas of work. They are usually responsible for assigning employees tasks, guiding and supervising employees on day-to-day activities, ensuring the quality and quantity of production and/or service, making recommendations and suggestions to employees on their work, and channeling employee concerns that they cannot resolve to mid-level managers or other administrators. Low-level, frontline or "front-line" managers also act as [role models](/source/Role_model) for their team members. Deficits in frontline management can critically impact service delivery and customer satisfaction.[28]

## Training and education

Further information: [Business school](/source/Business_school), [Public policy school](/source/Public_policy_school), and [College of Arts and Sciences](/source/College_of_Arts_and_Sciences)

Colleges and universities worldwide offer bachelor's degrees, graduate programs, diplomas, and professional certificates in management. These programs are most commonly housed within colleges of business, business schools, or faculties of management. Still, they may also be offered in related departments such as economics, public policy, or the social sciences.

Scholars have argued that higher education played a central role in the so-called "managerial revolution" of the 20th century by formalizing managerial skills and expanding the professionalization of management as a discipline.[29]

### Undergraduate

Further information: [Business education § Undergraduate education](/source/Business_education#Undergraduate_education), [Political science](/source/Political_science), and [Public administration](/source/Public_administration)

At the undergraduate level, the most common business programs are the [Bachelor of Business Administration](/source/Bachelor_of_Business_Administration) (BBA) and [Bachelor of Commerce](/source/Bachelor_of_Commerce) (B.Com.). These typically comprise a four-year program that provides students with an overview of managers' roles in planning and directing within an organization. Course topics include accounting, financial management, statistics, marketing, strategy, and other related areas.

Many other undergraduate degrees include the study of management, such as [Bachelor of Arts](/source/Bachelor_of_Arts) and [Bachelor of Science](/source/Bachelor_of_Science) degrees with a major in [business administration](/source/Business_administration) or management and the [Bachelor of Arts](/source/Bachelor_of_Arts) (BA) or [Bachelor of Science](/source/Bachelor_of_Science) (BS) in [political science](/source/Political_science) (PoliSci) with a concentration in [public administration](/source/Public_administration) or the Bachelor of Public Administration (B.P.A), a degree designed for individuals aiming to work as [bureaucrats](/source/Bureaucrat) in the [government jobs](/source/Public_administration). Many colleges and universities also offer certificates and diplomas in business administration or management, which typically require one to two years of full-time study.

To work in technology, one often needs an undergraduate degree in a [STEM area](/source/Science%2C_technology%2C_engineering%2C_and_mathematics#Immigration_policy).

### Graduate

Further information: [Business education § Postgraduate education](/source/Business_education#Postgraduate_education)

At the graduate level students aiming at careers as managers or executives may choose to specialize in major subareas of management or business administration such as [entrepreneurship](/source/Entrepreneurship), [human resources](/source/Human_resources), [international business](/source/International_business), [organizational behavior](/source/Organizational_behavior), [organizational theory](/source/Organizational_theory), [strategic management](/source/Strategic_management),[30] [accounting](/source/Accounting), [corporate finance](/source/Corporate_finance), entertainment, global management, [healthcare management](/source/Healthcare_management), [investment management](/source/Investment_management), sustainability and [real estate](/source/Real_estate).

### Good practices

While management trends can change quickly, the long-term trend in management has been defined by a market that embraces diversity and a growing service industry. Managers are currently being trained to encourage greater [equality of opportunities](/source/Equality_of_opportunities) for minorities and women in the workplace, offering increased flexibility in working hours, better retraining, and innovative (and usually industry-specific) performance markers. Managers destined for the service sector are being trained to use unique measurement techniques, better worker support, and more charismatic leadership styles.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] [Promotion](/source/Promotion_(rank)) prospects can [incentivise](/source/Incentive) performance improvements.[31] [Human resources](/source/Human_resources) finds itself increasingly working with management in a training capacity to help collect management data on the success (or failure) of management actions with employees.[32]

Good practices identified for managers include "walking the shop floor",[33] and, especially for managers who are new in post, identifying and achieving some "quick wins" which demonstrate visible success in establishing appropriate objectives. Leadership writer [John Kotter](/source/John_Kotter) uses the phrase "Short-Term Wins" to express the same idea.[34] As in all work, achieving an appropriate [work-life balance](/source/Work-life_balance) for self and others is an important management practice.[35]

#### Evidence-based management

Main article: [Evidence-based management](/source/Evidence-based_management)

[Evidence-based management](/source/Evidence-based_management) is an emerging movement to use the current, best evidence in management and [decision-making](/source/Decision-making). It is part of the larger movement towards [evidence-based practices](/source/Evidence-based_practices). Evidence-based management entails managerial decisions and organizational practices informed by the best available evidence.[36] As with other evidence-based practice, this is based on the three principles of published peer-reviewed (often in management or social science journals) research evidence that bears on whether and why a particular management practice works; judgment and experience from contextual management practice, to understand the organization and interpersonal dynamics in a situation and determine the risks and benefits of available actions; and the preferences and values of those affected.[37][38]

## History

Some see management as a late-modern (in the sense of late [modernity](/source/Modernity)) conceptualization.[39] With the changing workplaces of the [Industrial Revolution](/source/Industrial_Revolution) in the 18th and 19th centuries, [military](/source/Military) theory and practice contributed approaches to managing the newly popular [factories](/source/Factory).[40]

### Early writing

Written in 1776 by [Adam Smith](/source/Adam_Smith), a [Scottish](/source/Scotland) [moral philosopher](/source/Ethics), *[The Wealth of Nations](/source/The_Wealth_of_Nations)* discussed efficient organization of work through [division of labour](/source/Division_of_labour).[41] Smith described how changes in processes could boost productivity in the manufacture of [pins](/source/Pin_(device)). While individuals could produce 200 pins per day, Smith analyzed the manufacturing steps and, with 10 specialists, enabled the production of 48,000 pins per day.[41]

### 19th century

Classical economists such as [Adam Smith](/source/Adam_Smith) (1723–1790) and [John Stuart Mill](/source/John_Stuart_Mill) (1806–1873) provided a theoretical background to [resource allocation](/source/Resource_allocation), [production (economics)](/source/Production_(economics)), and [pricing](/source/Pricing) issues. About the same time, innovators like [Eli Whitney](/source/Eli_Whitney) (1765–1825), [James Watt](/source/James_Watt) (1736–1819), and [Matthew Boulton](/source/Matthew_Boulton) (1728–1809) developed elements of technical production such as [standardization](/source/Standardization), [quality-control](/source/Quality_control) procedures, [cost-accounting](/source/Cost_accounting), interchangeability of parts, and [work-planning](/source/Plan). Many of these aspects of management existed in the pre-1861 slave-based sector of the US economy. That environment saw 4 million people, as the contemporary usages had it, "managed" in profitable quasi-[mass production](/source/Mass_production)[42] before [wage slavery](/source/Wage_slavery) eclipsed chattel slavery.

Salaried managers as an identifiable group first became prominent in the late 19th century.[43] As large corporations began to overshadow small family businesses, the need for personnel management positions became more necessary.[44] Businesses grew into large corporations and the need for clerks, bookkeepers, secretaries and managers expanded. The demand for trained managers led college and university administrators to consider and implement plans to establish the first schools of business on their campuses.

### 20th century

Frederick Winslow Taylor *circa* 1907

At the turn of the twentieth century, the need for skilled and trained managers had become increasingly apparent.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*][45] The demand occurred as personnel departments began to expand rapidly. In 1915, fewer than 1 in 20 manufacturing firms had a dedicated personnel department. By 1929, that number had grown to over one-third.[46] Formal management education became standardized at colleges and universities.[47] Colleges and universities capitalized on the needs of corporations by forming business schools and corporate-placement departments.[48] This shift toward formal business education marked the creation of a corporate élite in the US.

By about 1900, one finds managers trying to place their theories on what they regarded as a thoroughly scientific basis (see [scientism](/source/Scientism) for perceived limitations of this belief). Examples include [Henry R. Towne](/source/Henry_R._Towne)'s *Science of management* in the 1890s, [Frederick Winslow Taylor](/source/Frederick_Winslow_Taylor)'s *[The Principles of Scientific Management](/source/The_Principles_of_Scientific_Management)* (1911), [Lillian Gilbreth](/source/Lillian_Moller_Gilbreth)'s *Psychology of Management* (1914),[49] [Frank](/source/Frank_Bunker_Gilbreth) and [Lillian Gilbreth](/source/Lillian_Moller_Gilbreth)'s *Applied motion study* (1917), and [Henry L. Gantt](/source/Henry_L._Gantt)'s charts (1910s). J. Duncan wrote the first [college](/source/College) management [textbook](/source/Textbook) in 1911. In 1912 [Yoichi Ueno](/source/Yoichi_Ueno) introduced [Taylorism](/source/Taylorism) to [Japan](/source/Japan) and became the first [management consultant](/source/Management_consultant) of the ["Japanese management style"](/source/Japanese_management_culture). His son Ichiro Ueno pioneered Japanese [quality assurance](/source/Quality_assurance).

The first comprehensive theories of management appeared around 1920.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] The [Harvard Business School](/source/Harvard_Business_School) offered the first [Master of Business Administration](/source/Master_of_Business_Administration) degree (MBA) in 1921. People like [Henri Fayol](/source/Henri_Fayol) (1841–1925) and [Alexander Church](/source/Alexander_Hamilton_Church) (1866–1936) described the various branches of management and their inter-relationships. In the early 20th century, people like Ordway Tead (1891–1973), [Walter Scott](/source/Walter_Dill_Scott) (1869–1955), and J. Mooney applied the principles of [psychology](/source/Psychology) to management. Other writers, such as [Elton Mayo](/source/Elton_Mayo) (1880–1949), [Mary Parker Follett](/source/Mary_Follett) (1868–1933), [Chester Barnard](/source/Chester_Barnard) (1886–1961), [Max Weber](/source/Max_Weber) (1864–1920, who saw what he called the "administrator" as [bureaucrat](/source/Bureaucrat),[50]), [Rensis Likert](/source/Rensis_Likert) (1903–1981), and [Chris Argyris](/source/Chris_Argyris) (born 1923) approached the phenomenon of management from a [sociological](/source/Sociology) perspective.

[Peter Drucker](/source/Peter_Drucker) (1909–2005) wrote one of the earliest books on applied management: *[Concept of the Corporation](/source/Concept_of_the_Corporation)* (published in 1946). It resulted from [Alfred Sloan](/source/Alfred_Sloan) (chairman of [General Motors](/source/General_Motors_Corporation) until 1956) commissioning a study of the [organization](/source/Organization). Drucker went on to write 39 books, many of which were in the same vein.

H. Dodge, [Ronald Fisher](/source/Ronald_Fisher) (1890–1962), and Thornton C. Fry introduced statistical techniques into management studies. In the 1940s, [Patrick Blackett](/source/Patrick_Maynard_Stuart_Blackett) worked on developing the [applied-mathematics](/source/Applied_mathematics) [science](/source/Science) of [operations research](/source/Operations_research), initially for military operations. Operations research, sometimes known as "[management science](/source/Management_science)" (but distinct from Taylor's [scientific management](/source/Scientific_management)), attempts to take a [scientific](/source/Science) approach to solving decision-problems and can apply directly to multiple management problems, particularly in the areas of [logistics](/source/Logistics) and operations.

Some of the later 20th-century developments include the [theory of constraints](/source/Theory_of_constraints) (introduced in 1984), [management by objectives](/source/Management_by_objectives) (systematized in 1954), the [Harzburg Model](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harzburg_Model&action=edit&redlink=1) [[de](https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harzburger_Modell)][51][52] (developed by [Reinhard Höhn](/source/Reinhard_H%C3%B6hn) in post-war Germany), [re-engineering](/source/Business_process_reengineering) (the early 1990s), [Six Sigma](/source/Six_Sigma) (1986), [management by walking around](/source/Management_by_walking_around) (1970s), the [Viable system model](/source/Viable_system_model) (1972), and various [information-technology](/source/Information_technology)-driven theories such as [agile software development](/source/Agile_software_development) (so-named from 2001), as well as group-management theories such as [Cog's Ladder](/source/Cog's_Ladder) (1972) and the notion of ["thriving on chaos"](/source/Tom_Peters)[53] (1987).

As the general recognition of managers as a class solidified during the 20th century, it conferred a certain amount of prestige on perceived practitioners of the art/science of management. Hence, the way opened for [popularised systems of management ideas](/source/Business_philosophies_and_popular_management_theories) to peddle their wares. In this context, many [management fads](/source/Management_fad) may have had more to do with [pop psychology](/source/Pop_psychology) than with scientific theories of management.

Business management includes the following branches:[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

1. [financial management](/source/Finance)

1. [human resource management](/source/Human_resource_management)

1. [management cybernetics](/source/Management_cybernetics)

1. [information technology management](/source/Information_technology_management) (responsible for [management information systems](/source/Management_information_systems) )

1. [marketing management](/source/Marketing_management)

1. [operations management](/source/Operations_management) and [production](/source/Manufacturing) management

1. [strategic management](/source/Strategic_management)

### 21st century

Branches of management theory also exist relating to [nonprofits](/source/Non-profit_organization) and to government: such as [public administration](/source/Public_administration), [public management](/source/Public_management), and [educational management](/source/Educational_management). Further, management programs related to [civil society](/source/Civil_society) organizations have also given rise to programs in nonprofit management and [social entrepreneurship](/source/Social_entrepreneurship).

Many of the assumptions made by management have come under attack from [business-ethics](/source/Business_ethics) viewpoints, [critical management studies](/source/Critical_management_studies), and [anti-corporate activism](/source/Anti-corporate_activism). This could include violations to a company’s [ethics policy.](/source/Ethics_policy)

As one consequence, [workplace democracy](/source/Workplace_democracy) (sometimes referred to as [Workers' self-management](/source/Workers'_self-management)) has become both more common and more advocated, in some places distributing all management functions among workers, each of whom takes on a portion of the work. However, these models predate any current political issue and may occur more naturally than does a [command hierarchy](/source/Command_hierarchy).

## Nature of work

In profitable organizations, management's primary function is to satisfy a range of [stakeholders](/source/Stakeholder_(corporate)). This typically involves making a profit (for the shareholders), creating valued products at a reasonable cost (for customers), and providing great employment opportunities for employees. In nonprofit management, one of the main functions is to keep the faith of donors. In most models of management and [governance](/source/Governance), shareholders vote for the [board of directors](/source/Board_of_directors), and the board then hires senior management. Some organizations have experimented with other methods (such as employee-voting models) of selecting or reviewing managers, but this is rare.

## Topics

### Basics

According to [Fayol](/source/Henri_Fayol), management operates through five basic functions: planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling.

- **Planning**: Deciding what needs to happen in the future and generating action plans (deciding in advance).

- **Organizing** (or staffing): Making sure the human and nonhuman resources are put into place.[54]

- **Commanding** (or leading): Determining what must be done in a situation and getting people to do it.

- **Coordinating**: Creating a structure through which an organization's goals can be accomplished.

- **Controlling**: Checking progress against plans.

## See also

- [Business and economics portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Business_and_economics)

- [Certificate in Management Studies](/source/Certificate_in_Management_Studies)

- [Engineering management](/source/Engineering_management)

- [Outline of management](/source/Outline_of_management)

- [Outline of business management](/source/Outline_of_business_management)

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** DuBrin, Andrew J. (2009). *Essentials of management* (8th ed.). Mason, OH: Thomson Business & Economics. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-324-35389-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-324-35389-1). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [227205643](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/227205643).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** Waring, S.P., 2016. *Taylorism Transformed: Scientific management theory since 1945*. UNC Press Books.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** ["What Is Evidence-Based Management? – Center for Evidence-Based Management"](https://cebma.org/faq/evidence-based-management/). Retrieved 2022-03-03.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** Mintzberg, Henry (2014). *Manager l'essentiel : ce que font vraiment les managers ... et ce qu'ils pourraient faire mieux*. Paris: Vuibert. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-2-311-40094-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-311-40094-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** Real Academia Española, Diccionario de la lengua española. ["manejar | Diccionario de la lengua española"](https://dle.rae.es/manejar) (in Spanish).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** ["Management - Etymology, Origin & Meaning"](https://www.etymonline.com/word/management).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Gulshan_7-0)** SS Gulshan. [*Management Principles and Practices by Lallan Prasad and SS Gulshan*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ky4em-N02tAC&pg=PA6). Excel Books India. pp. 6–. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-93-5062-099-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-5062-099-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** Deslandes G., (2014), “Management in Xenophon's Philosophy: a Retrospective Analysis”, 38th Annual Research Conference, Philosophy of Management, 2014, July 14–16, Chicago

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** Prabbal Frank attempts to make a subtle distinction between management and manipulation: Frank, Prabbal (2007). [*People Manipulation: A Positive Approach*](https://books.google.com/books?id=H9n2vQ7JFVwC) (2 ed.). New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd (published 2009). pp. 3–7. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-207-4352-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-207-4352-6). Retrieved 2015-09-05. There is a difference between management and manipulation. The difference is thin [...] If management is handling, then manipulation is skillful handling. In short, manipulation is skillful management. [...] Manipulation is in essence leveraged management. [...] It is an alive thing while management is a dead concept. It requires a proactive approach rather than a reactive approach. [...] People cannot be managed.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** Powell, Thomas C. (2001). ["Competitive advantage: logical and philosophical considerations"](https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fsmj.173). *Strategic Management Journal*. **22** (9): 875–888. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/smj.173](https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fsmj.173). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1097-0266](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1097-0266).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** Langfred, Claus (2000). "The paradox of self-management: individual and group autonomy in work groups". *Journal of Organizational Behavior*. **21** (5): 563–585. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/1099-1379(200008)21:5<563::AID-JOB31>3.0.CO;2-H](https://doi.org/10.1002%2F1099-1379%28200008%2921%3A5%3C563%3A%3AAID-JOB31%3E3.0.CO%3B2-H).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** Wood, Robert; Bandura, Albert (1989). "Social Cognitive Theory of Organizational Management". *The Academy of Management Review*. **14** (3): 361–384. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/258173](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F258173). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0363-7425](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0363-7425). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [258173](https://www.jstor.org/stable/258173).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** Julie Zink, Ph D.; Zink, Julie (2017). ["Chapter 1: Introducing Organizational Communication"](https://granite.pressbooks.pub/organizationalcommunication/chapter/chapter-1/). {{[cite journal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_journal)}}: Cite journal requires |journal= ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** ["Managerial Skills - 3 Types of Skills Each Manager Will Need"](https://www.entrepreneurshipinabox.com/202/managerial-skills/). *Entrepreneurs Box*. 2021-06-06. Retrieved 2022-06-18.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** ["Management is Universal Process and Phenomenon (Explained)"](https://www.iedunote.com/management-is-universal). *www.iedunote.com*. 2018-06-12. Retrieved 2022-06-18.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** *Administration industrielle et générale – prévoyance organization – commandment, coordination – contrôle*, Paris: Dunod, 1966

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** Jones, Norman L. (2013-10-02). ["Chapter Two: Of Poetry and Politics: The Managerial Culture of Sixteenth-Century England"](https://books.google.com/books?id=nvDQAQAAQBAJ). In Kaufman, Peter Iver (ed.). *Leadership and Elizabethan Culture*. Jepson Studies in Leadership. Palgrave Macmillan (published 2013). p. 17. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-137-34029-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-34029-0). Retrieved 2015-08-29. Mary Parker Follett, the 'prophet of management' reputedly defined management as the 'art of getting things done through people.' [...] Whether or not she said it, Follett describes the attributes of dynamic management as being coactive rather than coercive.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** *Vocational Business: Training, Developing and Motivating People* by Richard Barrett – Business & Economics – 2003. p. 51.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** Compare: Holmes, Leonard (2012-11-28). [*The Dominance of Management: A Participatory Critique*](https://books.google.com/books?id=eWvz_oUFLaMC). Voices in Development Management. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. (published 2012). p. 20. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4094-8866-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-8866-8). Retrieved 2015-08-29. Lupton's (1983: 17) notion that management is 'what managers do during their working hours', if valid, could only apply to descriptive conceptualizations of management, where 'management' is effectively synonymous with 'managing', and where 'managing' refers to an activity, or set of activities carried out by managers.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** Harper, Douglas. ["management"](https://www.etymonline.com/word/management). *[Online Etymology Dictionary](/source/Etymonline)*. Retrieved 2015-08-29. – "Meaning 'governing body' (originally of a theater) is from 1739."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** ["management"](https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=management). *[Oxford English Dictionary](/source/Oxford_English_Dictionary)* (online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or [participating institution membership](https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary) required.) : "6. A governing body of an organization or business, regarded collectively; the group of employees which administers and controls a business or industry, as opposed to the labour force."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** ["Tony Hall appointed new BBC director general - as it happened"](https://www.theguardian.com/media/organgrinder/2012/nov/22/tony-hall-is-new-bbc-director-general-live-coverage), 22 November 2012: "[...] another grey suit without charisma or talent, who has risen without trace in the goobledigook-speaking tribes of the MBA managementariat.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** See for examples Melling, Joseph; McKinlay, Alan, eds. (1996). [*Management, Labour, and Industrial Politics in Modern Europe: The Quest for Productivity Growth During the Twentieth Century*](https://books.google.com/books?id=VP2zAAAAIAAJ). Edward Elgar. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-85898-016-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85898-016-4). Retrieved 2015-08-29.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** [Board of Directors: Duties & Liabilities](http://www.gsb.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/documents/03.Board%20Duties.pdf) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20140324044348/http://www.gsb.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/documents/03.Board%20Duties.pdf) 2014-03-24 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine). Stanford Graduate School of Business.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** DeMars, L. (2006). [Heavy Vetting: Boards of directors now want to talk to would-be CFOs — and vice versa](http://www.cfo.com/article.cfm/7109019). *CFO Magazine*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** [2013 CEO Performance Evaluation Survey](http://www.gsb.stanford.edu/cldr/research/surveys/performance.html). Stanford Graduate School of Business.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** Kleiman, Lawrence S. (2010), [Management and Executive Development](http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/management/Log-Mar/Management-and-Executive-Development.html), *Reference for Business: Encyclopedia of Business*, accessed on 1 November 2024

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** Shaw, D., [Birmingham Prison: Government takes over from G4S](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-birmingham-45240742), *BBC News*, published on 20 August 2018, accessed on 22 July 2025, quote: "ineffective frontline management and leadership were at the heart of the prison's problems".

1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** Nicholas, Tom (2024). ["Human Capital and the Managerial Revolution in the United States: Evidence from General Electric"](https://dx.doi.org/10.1162/rest_a_01400). *Review of Economics and Statistics*: 1–47. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1162/rest_a_01400](https://doi.org/10.1162%2Frest_a_01400). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0034-6535](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0034-6535).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** ["AOM Placement Presentations"](https://web.archive.org/web/20140407062625/http://aom.org/Placement/AOM-Placement-Presentations.aspx). Archived from [the original](http://aom.org/Placement/AOM-Placement-Presentations.aspx) on 2014-04-07. Retrieved 2014-04-03.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-j780_31-0)** Campbell, Dennis (2008). ["Nonfinancial Performance Measures and Promotion-Based Incentives"](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1475-679X.2008.00275.x). *Journal of Accounting Research*. **46** (2): 297–332. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1475-679X.2008.00275.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1475-679X.2008.00275.x). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0021-8456](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8456).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** ["The Role of HR in Uncertain Times"](http://graphics.eiu.com/marketing/pdf/Oracle_HR.pdf) (PDF). *Economist Intelligence Unit*. Retrieved 18 January 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** Verity, J., [Five benefits of walking the 'shop floor'](https://peoplepuzzles.co.uk/news/five-benefits-of-walking-the-shop-floor/), *People Puzzles*, accessed 11 March 2023

1. **[^](#cite_ref-34)** Kotter, J., [The 8-Step Process for Leading Change](https://www.kotterinc.com/8-steps-process-for-leading-change/), accessed 11 March 2023

1. **[^](#cite_ref-35)** Britt, H., [14 Ways To Improve Work-Life Balance](https://www.goskills.com/Office-Productivity/Resources/Work-life-balance-tips), accessed 11 March 2023

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Pfeffer_2006_36-0)** [Pfeffer J](/source/Jeffrey_Pfeffer), [Sutton RI](/source/Robert_I._Sutton) (March 2006). [*Hard Facts, Dangerous Half-Truths And Total Nonsense: Profiting From Evidence-Based Management*](https://archive.org/details/hardfactsdangero00pfef) (first ed.). Boston, Mass: Harvard Business Review Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-59139-862-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59139-862-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** Spring B (July 2007). "Evidence-based practice in clinical psychology: what it is, why it matters; what you need to know". *Journal of Clinical Psychology*. **63** (7): 611–31. [CiteSeerX](/source/CiteSeerX_(identifier)) [10.1.1.456.9970](https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.456.9970). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/jclp.20373](https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjclp.20373). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [17551934](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17551934).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-38)** Lilienfeld SO, Ritschel LA, Lynn SJ, Cautin RL, Latzman RD (November 2013). "Why many clinical psychologists are resistant to evidence-based practice: root causes and constructive remedies". *Clinical Psychology Review*. **33** (7): 883–900. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.cpr.2012.09.008](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cpr.2012.09.008). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [23647856](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23647856).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** Waring, S.P., 2016, Taylorism transformed: Scientific management theory since 1945. UNC Press Books.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-40)** [Giddens, Anthony](/source/Anthony_Giddens%2C_Baron_Giddens) (1981). [*A Contemporary Critique of Historical Materialism*](https://books.google.com/books?id=MVp0tMD_5f0C). Social and Politic Theory from Polity Press. Vol. 1. University of California Press. p. 125. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-520-04490-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04490-6). Retrieved 2013-12-29. In the army barracks, and in the mass co-ordination of men on the battlefield (epitomized by the military innovations of Prince Maurice of Orange and Nassau in the sixteenth century) are to be found the prototype of the regimentation of the factory – as both Marx and Weber noted.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-management_gomez-mejia_p20_41-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-management_gomez-mejia_p20_41-1) Gomez-Mejia, Luis R.; David B. Balkin; Robert L. Cardy (2008). *Management: People, Performance, Change* (3 ed.). New York: [McGraw-Hill](/source/McGraw-Hill). p. 20. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-07-302743-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-302743-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-42)** [Rosenthal, Caitlin](/source/Caitlin_Rosenthal) (2018). [*Accounting for Slavery: Masters and Management*](https://books.google.com/books?id=2eBjDwAAQBAJ). Harvard University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780674988576](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674988576). Retrieved 3 October 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-43)** [Khurana, Rakesh](/source/Rakesh_Khurana) (2010) [2007]. [*From Higher Aims to Hired Hands: The Social Transformation of American Business Schools and the Unfulfilled Promise of Management as a Profession*](https://books.google.com/books?id=v3DfpKEsNREC). Princeton University Press. p. 3. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4008-3086-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-3086-2). Retrieved 2013-08-24. When salaried managers first appeared in the large corporations of the late nineteenth century, it was not obvious who they were, what they did, or why they should be entrusted with the task of running corporations.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-44)** Groeger, Cristina V. (February 2018). ["A "Good Mixer": University Placement in Corporate America, 1890–1940"](https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0018268017000486/type/journal_article). *History of Education Quarterly*. **58** (1): 33–64. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/heq.2017.48](https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fheq.2017.48). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0018-2680](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-2680). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [149037078](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149037078).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-45)** Garicano, Luis (2006). ["The Knowledge Economy at the Turn of the Twentieth Century: The Emergence of Hierarchies"](https://rossihansberg.economics.uchicago.edu/jeea.2006.4.2-3.pdf) (PDF). *Journal of the European Economic Association*. **4** (April-May 2006): 396–403. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1162/jeea.2006.4.2-3.396](https://doi.org/10.1162%2Fjeea.2006.4.2-3.396).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-46)** Jacoby, S.M. (1985). "Employing Bureaucracy: Managers, Unions, and the Transformation of Work in American Industry, 1900-1945". *Columbia University Press*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-47)** Cruikshank, L (1987). "A Delicate Experiment: The Harvard Business School, 1908-1945". *Harvard Business School Press*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-48)** Groeger, Cristina V. (February 2018). ["A "Good Mixer": University Placement in Corporate America, 1890–1940"](https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0018268017000486/type/journal_article). *History of Education Quarterly*. **58** (1): 33–64. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/heq.2017.48](https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fheq.2017.48). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0018-2680](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-2680). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [149037078](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149037078).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-49)** Gilbreth, Lillian Moller. [*The Psychology of Management: The Function of the Mind in Determining, Teaching and Installing Methods of Least Waste*](https://archive.org/details/thepsychologyofm16256gut) – via Internet Archive.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-50)** Legge, David; Stanton, Pauline; Smyth, Anne (October 2005). ["Learning management (and managing your own learning)"](https://books.google.com/books?id=yA2SR4DgU5wC). In Harris, Mary G. (ed.). *Managing Health Services: Concepts and Practice*. Marrickville, NSW: Elsevier Australia (published 2006). p. 13. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7295-3759-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7295-3759-9). Retrieved 2014-07-11. The *manager as bureaucrat* is the guardian of roles, rules, and relationships; his or her style of management relies heavily on working according to the book. In the Weberian tradition, managers are necessary to coordinate the different roles that contribute to the production process and to mediate communication from the head office to the shop floor and back. This style of management assumes a world view in which the bureaucratic role is seen as separate from, and taking precedence over, other constructions of self (including the obligations of citizenship), at least for the working day.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-51)** Yamazaki, Toshio (9 December 2024). "7.2 Deployment of Human Relations in Germany". [*Japanese and German Enterprises: Comparison of Industrial Concentration System and Business Management*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Z-c2EQAAQBAJ). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore. p. 183. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9789819748808](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789819748808). Retrieved 30 April 2025. Original management models, such as the Harzburg model, also had a great effect. [...] Many firms found this model attractive; after the 1950s and 1960s, it was widely adopted in Germany [...].

1. **[^](#cite_ref-52)** Avram, Elena; Avasilcai, Silvia; Bujor, Adriana (23 April 2025). "Elements of the Harzburg Management Model as a vector for Increasing Employee Motivation". In Prostean, Gabriela I.; Lavios, Juan J.; Brancu, Laura; Şahin, Faruk (eds.). [*Management, Innovation and Entrepreneurship in Challenging Global Times: Proceedings of the 16th International Symposium in Management (SIM 2021)*](https://books.google.com/books?id=X9MCMQAACAAJ). Lecture Notes in Management and Industrial Engineering. Cham (Zug): Springer Nature. p. 268. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9783031471643](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783031471643). Retrieved 26 April 2025. [...] six central elements of the Harzburg Model: leadership principles, decentralization of the decision-making process, communication pattern, job description, delegation of responsibility and employee's development and organizational support.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-53)** [Peters, Thomas J.](/source/Tom_Peters) (1987). [*Thriving on Chaos: Handbook for a Management Revolution*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ly4yuwEACAAJ). Perennial Library. Vol. 7184. Knopf. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780394560618](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780394560618). Retrieved 7 September 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Peaucelle2015_54-0)** Jean-Louis Peaucelle (2015). [*Henri Fayol, the Manager*](https://books.google.com/books?id=dLg6CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA55). Routledge. pp. 55–. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-317-31939-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-31939-9).

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