# Mahayana

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Branch of Buddhism

An illustration in a manuscript of the *[Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra](/source/A%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADas%C4%81hasrik%C4%81_Praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81_S%C5%ABtra)* from [Nalanda](/source/Nalanda), depicting the bodhisattva [Maitreya](/source/Maitreya), an important figure in Mahāyāna

Part of a series on Mahāyāna Buddhism Teachings Bodhisattva Buddhahood Bodhicitta Buddha-nature Skillful Means Transcendent Wisdom Transcendent Virtues Emptiness Two truths Consciousness-only Three bodies Three vehicles Non-abiding Nirvana One Vehicle Bodhisattva Precepts Bodhisattva vow Bodhisattva stages Pure Lands Luminous mind Dharani Three Turnings Buddhas and Bodhisattvas Shakyamuni Amitabha Adi-Buddha Akshobhya Prajñāpāramitā Devī Bhaiṣajyaguru Mahāvairocana Mañjuśrī Avalokiteśvara Vajrapāṇi Vajrasattva Maitreya Kṣitigarbha Ākāśagarbha Samantabhadra Tara Wrathful deities Mahayana sutras Prajñāpāramitā sūtras Lotus Sūtra Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra Mahāsaṃnipāta Sūtra Vimalakirtinirdeśa Pure Land Sutras Lalitavistara Sūtra Samādhirāja Sūtra Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra Tathāgatagarbha sūtras Śrīmālādevī Sūtra Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra Ghanavyūha sūtra Golden Light Sutra Tathāgataguhyaka Sūtra Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra Main traditions Mādhyamaka Sanlun Yogācāra Weishi Tiantai Tendai Huayan Chan Zen Seon Thiền Shingon Tangmi Pure Land Nichiren Trúc Lâm Vajrayāna Newar Buddhism Tibetan Buddhism Dzogchen Bon Shugendō Humanistic Buddhism Chengshi Niepan Key figures Nāgārjuna Aśvaghoṣa Āryadeva Lokakṣema Kumārajīva Asanga Vasubandhu Sthiramati Buddhapālita Dignāga Bhāvaviveka Dharmakīrti Candrakīrti Sengzhao Jizang Zhiyi Shandao Bodhidharma Huineng Xuanzang Fazang Amoghavajra Zhanran Chengguan Zongmi Saichō Kūkai Shāntideva Shāntarakshita Wohnyo Mazu Daoyi Linji Siming Zhili Jinul Dahui Zonggao Hongzhi Zhengjue Hōnen Shinran Dōgen Nichiren Śaṅkaranandana Virūpa Ratnākaraśānti Abhayākaragupta Nāropā Atisha Sakya Pandita Dolpopa Rangjung Dorje Tsongkhapa Longchenpa Hakuin Hanshan Ouyi Zhuhong Taixu D. T. Suzuki Sheng-yen 14th Dalai Lama Thích Nhất Hạnh Regional traditions China Han Chinese Taiwan Japan Korea North Korea South Korea Vietnam Tibet Nepal Newar Bhutan Mongolia Russia Buryatia Kalmykia Tuva Malaysia Indonesia West v t e

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**Mahayana**[a] is the largest branch of [Buddhism](/source/Buddhism), followed by [Theravada](/source/Therav%C4%81da). It is a broad group of Buddhist traditions, [texts](/source/Buddhist_texts#Mahāyāna_texts), [philosophies](/source/Buddhist_philosophy), and practices that developed in the [Amaravati](/source/Dharanikota) region of [ancient India](/source/Ancient_India) (c. 1st century BCE onwards). Mahāyāna accepts the main scriptures and teachings of [early Buddhism](/source/Early_Buddhist_schools) but also recognizes various doctrines and texts that are not accepted by Theravāda Buddhism as original. These include the [Mahāyāna sūtras](/source/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na_s%C5%ABtras) and their emphasis on the *bodhisattva* path and [*Prajñāpāramitā*](/source/Prajnaparamita).[1] [Vajrayana](/source/Vajrayana) or Mantra traditions are a subset of Mahāyāna which makes use of numerous [Tantric](/source/Tantra) methods Vajrayānists consider to help achieve [Buddhahood](/source/Buddhahood).[2]

Mahāyāna also refers to the path of the [bodhisattva](/source/Bodhisattva) striving to become a fully awakened Buddha for the benefit of all [sentient](/source/Sentience) beings, and is thus also called the "Bodhisattva Vehicle" (*Bodhisattvayāna*).[3][note 1] Mahāyāna Buddhism generally sees the goal of becoming a Buddha through the bodhisattva path as being available to all and sees the state of the [arhat](/source/Arhat) as incomplete.[4] Mahāyāna also includes numerous Buddhas and bodhisattvas that are not found in Theravāda (e.g. [Amitābha](/source/Amit%C4%81bha) and [Vairocana](/source/Vairocana)) as well as unique conceptions of Buddhahood not found in Theravāda (e.g. [Trikaya](/source/Trikaya) and [Upaya](/source/Upaya)).[5] Mahāyāna Buddhist philosophy also promotes unique theories, such as the [Madhyamaka](/source/Madhyamaka) theory of emptiness (*[śūnyatā](/source/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81)*), the *[Vijñānavāda](/source/Yogachara)* ("the doctrine of consciousness" also called "mind-only"), and the *[Buddha-nature](/source/Buddha-nature)* teaching.

While initially a small movement in India, Mahāyāna eventually grew to become an influential force in [Indian Buddhism](/source/History_of_Buddhism_in_India).[6] Large scholastic centers associated with Mahāyāna such as [Nalanda](/source/Nalanda) and [Vikramashila](/source/Vikramashila) thrived between the 7th and 12th centuries.[6] In the course of its history, Mahāyāna Buddhism spread from [South Asia](/source/South_Asia) to [East Asia](/source/East_Asia), [Southeast Asia](/source/Southeast_Asia) and the [Himalayan regions](/source/Himalayas). Various Mahāyāna traditions are the predominant forms of Buddhism found in [China](/source/China), [Korea](/source/Korea), [Japan](/source/Japan), [Taiwan](/source/Taiwan), [Singapore](/source/Singapore), [Vietnam](/source/Vietnam), the [Philippines](/source/Philippines), [Malaysia](/source/Malaysia) and [Indonesia](/source/Indonesia).[7] Since Vajrayāna is a tantric form of Mahāyāna, Mahāyāna Buddhism is also dominant in [Tibet](/source/Tibet), [Mongolia](/source/Mongolia), [Bhutan](/source/Bhutan), and other Himalayan regions. It has also been traditionally present elsewhere in Asia as a minority among Buddhist communities in [Nepal](/source/Nepal), [Malaysia](/source/Malaysia), [Indonesia](/source/Indonesia) and regions with [Asian diaspora](/source/Asian_diaspora) communities.

As of 2010, the Mahāyāna tradition was the largest major tradition of Buddhism, with 53% of Buddhists belonging to [East Asian Mahāyāna](/source/East_Asian_Buddhism) and 6% to Vajrayāna, compared to 36% to Theravāda.[8]

## Etymology

### Original Sanskrit

The [Five Tathāgatas](/source/Five_Tath%C4%81gatas) in Shishoin Temple (Tokyo). A unique feature of Mahāyāna is the belief that there are multiple Buddhas which are currently teaching the Dharma.

Mahāyāna Buddhist triad, including [Bodhisattva](/source/Bodhisattva) [Maitreya](/source/Maitreya), the Buddha, and Bodhisattva [Avalokiteśvara](/source/Avalokitesvara). 2nd–3rd century CE, [Gandhāra](/source/Gandhara)

According to [Jan Nattier](/source/Jan_Nattier), the term *Mahāyāna* ("Great Vehicle") was originally an honorary synonym for *Bodhisattvayāna* ("[Bodhisattva](/source/Bodhisattva) Vehicle"),[9] the vehicle of a bodhisattva seeking [buddhahood](/source/Buddhahood) for the benefit of all sentient beings.[3] The term *Mahāyāna* (which had earlier been used simply as an epithet for Buddhism itself) was therefore adopted at an early date as a synonym for the path and the teachings of the bodhisattvas. Since it was simply an honorary term for *Bodhisattvayāna*, the adoption of the term *Mahāyāna* and its application to Bodhisattvayāna did not represent a significant turning point in the development of a Mahāyāna tradition.[9]

The earliest Mahāyāna texts, such as the *[Lotus Sūtra](/source/Lotus_Sutra)*, often use the term *Mahāyāna* as a synonym for *Bodhisattvayāna*, but the term *[Hīnayāna](/source/Hinayana)* is comparatively rare in the earliest sources. The presumed dichotomy between *Mahāyāna* and *Hīnayāna* can be deceptive, as the two terms were not actually formed in relation to one another in the same era.[10]

Among the earliest and most important references to *Mahāyāna* are those that occur in the *[Lotus Sūtra](/source/Lotus_Sutra)* (Skt. *Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra*) dating between the 1st century BCE and the 1st century CE.[11] Seishi Karashima has suggested that the term first used in an earlier [Gandhāri](/source/G%C4%81ndh%C4%81r%C4%AB_language) [Prakrit](/source/Prakrit) version of the *Lotus Sūtra* was not the term *mahāyāna* but the Prakrit word *mahājāna* in the sense of *mahājñāna* (great knowing).[12][13] At a later stage when the early Prakrit word was converted into Sanskrit, this *mahājāna*, being phonetically ambivalent, may have been converted into *mahāyāna*, possibly because of what may have been a double meaning in the famous [Parable of the Burning House](/source/Upaya#Parable_of_the_burning_house), which talks of three vehicles or carts (Skt: *yāna*).[note 2][12][14]

### Chinese translation

In [Chinese](/source/Chinese_language), Mahāyāna is called 大乘 (*dàshèng, or dàchéng*), which is a [calque](/source/Calque) of *maha* (great 大) *yana* (vehicle 乘). There is also the transliteration 摩诃衍那.[15][16] The term appeared in some of the earliest Mahāyāna texts, including [Emperor Ling of Han](/source/Emperor_Ling_of_Han)'s translation of the Lotus Sutra.[17] It also appears in the Chinese [Āgamas](/source/%C4%80gama_(Buddhism)), though scholars like Yin Shun argue that this is a later addition.[18][19][20] Some Chinese scholars also argue that the meaning of the term in these earlier texts is different from later ideas of Mahāyāna Buddhism.[21]

## History

Seated [Avalokiteshvara](/source/Avalokiteshvara) bodhisattva. [Gandharan](/source/Gandharan_Buddhism), from Loriyan Tangai. [Kushan](/source/Kushan_Empire) period, 1st – 3rd century CE. Indian Museum, [Calcutta](/source/Kolkata)

Cave complex associated with the [Mahāsāṃghika](/source/Mah%C4%81s%C4%81%E1%B9%83ghika) sect. [Karla Caves](/source/Karla_Caves), [Mahārāṣtra](/source/Maharashtra), India

### Origin

The origins of Mahāyāna are still not completely understood and there are numerous competing theories.[22] The earliest Western views of Mahāyāna assumed that it existed as a separate school in competition with the so-called "[Hīnayāna](/source/Hinayana)" schools. Some of the major theories about the origins of Mahāyāna include the following:

**The lay origins theory** was first proposed by [Jean Przyluski](/source/Jean_Przyluski) and then defended by [Étienne Lamotte](/source/%C3%89tienne_Lamotte) and Akira Hirakawa. This view states that [laypersons](/source/Up%C4%81saka_and_Up%C4%81sik%C4%81) were particularly important in the development of Mahāyāna and is partly based on some texts like the [*Vimalakirti Sūtra*](/source/Vimalakirti_Sutra), which praise lay figures at the expense of monastics.[23] This theory is no longer widely accepted since numerous early Mahāyāna works promote monasticism and asceticism.[24][25]

**The Mahāsāṃghika origin theory**, which argues that Mahāyāna developed within the [Mahāsāṃghika](/source/Mah%C4%81s%C4%81%E1%B9%83ghika) tradition.[24] This is defended by scholars such as [Hendrik Kern](/source/Johan_Hendrik_Caspar_Kern), [A.K. Warder](/source/A.K._Warder) and Paul Williams who argue that at least some Mahāyāna elements developed among Mahāsāṃghika communities (from the 1st century BCE onwards), possibly in the area along the [Kṛṣṇa River](/source/Krishna_River) in the [Āndhra](/source/Andhra_Pradesh#Early_history) region of southern India.[26][27][28][29] The Mahāsāṃghika doctrine of the supramundane ([*lokottara*](/source/Lokottarav%C4%81da)) nature of the Buddha is sometimes seen as a precursor to Mahāyāna views of the Buddha.[5] Some scholars also see Mahāyāna figures like [Nāgārjuna](/source/N%C4%81g%C4%81rjuna), [Dignaga](/source/Dignaga), [Candrakīrti](/source/Candrak%C4%ABrti), [Āryadeva](/source/%C4%80ryadeva), and [Bhāviveka](/source/Bhavaviveka) as having ties to the Mahāsāṃghika tradition of Āndhra.[30] However, other scholars have also pointed to different regions as being important, such as [Gandhara](/source/Gandhara) and northwest India[31][32]. In connection with this, Warder states that "the sudden appearance of large numbers of (Mahāyāna) teachers and texts (in North India in the second century AD) would seem to require some previous preparation and development, and this we can look for in the South."[33]

An argument cited against the Mahāsāṃghika origins theory is the fact that scholarship has revealed how certain Mahāyāna sutras show traces of having developed among other *[nikāyas](/source/Nikaya_School)* or monastic orders (such as the [Dharmaguptaka](/source/Dharmaguptaka)).[34] Because of such evidence, scholars like Paul Harrison and Paul Williams argue that the movement was not sectarian and was possibly pan-buddhist.[24][35] According to Jan Nattier, the concept of Mahāyāna, as used in an early text such as the [Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra](/source/Ugraparip%E1%B9%9Bcch%C4%81_S%C5%ABtra), did not originally refer to a separate formal school or sect of Buddhism, but rather denoted a certain set of ideals, and later doctrines, for aspiring bodhisattvas; only later did the tensions between monks pursuing different paths lead to an "institutional fission generating a separate Mahāyāna community".[17]

**The "forest hypothesis"** meanwhile states that Mahāyāna arose mainly among "hard-core [ascetics](/source/Asceticism), members of the forest dwelling (*aranyavasin*) wing of the Buddhist Order", who were attempting to imitate the Buddha's forest living.[36] This has been defended by Paul Harrison, [Jan Nattier](/source/Jan_Nattier) and [Reginald Ray](/source/Reginald_Ray). This theory is based on certain sutras like the *[Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra](/source/Ugraparip%E1%B9%9Bcch%C4%81_S%C5%ABtra)* and the *Mahāyāna Rāṣṭrapālapaṛiprcchā* which promote ascetic practice in the wilderness as a superior and elite path. These texts criticize monks who live in cities and denigrate the forest life.[17][37]

Jan Nattier's study of the *Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra, A few good men* (2003) argues that this sutra represents the earliest form of Mahāyāna, which presents the [bodhisattva](/source/Bodhisattva) path as a 'supremely difficult enterprise' of elite monastic forest asceticism.[24] Boucher's study on the *Rāṣṭrapālaparipṛcchā-sūtra* (2008) is another recent work on this subject.[38]

**The cult of the book theory**, defended by [Gregory Schopen](/source/Gregory_Schopen), states that Mahāyāna arose among a number of loosely connected book worshiping groups of monastics, who studied, memorized, copied and revered particular Mahāyāna sūtras. Schopen thinks they were inspired by cult shrines where Mahāyāna sutras were kept.[24] Schopen also argued that these groups mostly rejected [stupa](/source/Stupa) worship, or worshiping holy relics.

David Drewes has recently argued against all of the major theories outlined above. He points out that there is no actual evidence for the existence of book shrines, that the practice of sutra veneration was pan-Buddhist and not distinctly Mahāyāna. Furthermore, Drewes argues that "Mahāyāna sutras advocate mnemic/oral/aural practices more frequently than they do written ones."[24] Regarding the forest hypothesis, he points out that only a few Mahāyāna sutras directly advocate forest dwelling, while the others either do not mention it or see it as unhelpful, promoting easier practices such as "merely listening to the sutra, or thinking of particular Buddhas, that they claim can enable one to be reborn in special, luxurious '[pure lands](/source/Pure_Land_Buddhism)' where one will be able to make easy and rapid progress on the bodhisattva path and attain Buddhahood after as little as one lifetime."[24]

Drewes states that the evidence merely shows that "Mahāyāna was primarily a textual movement, focused on the revelation, preaching, and dissemination of [Mahāyāna sutras](/source/Mahayana_sutras), that developed within, and never really departed from, traditional Buddhist social and institutional structures."[39] Drewes points out the importance of *[dharmabhāṇakas](/source/Dharmabh%C4%81%E1%B9%87aka)* (preachers, reciters of these sutras) in the early Mahāyāna sutras. This figure is widely praised as someone who should be respected, obeyed ('as a slave serves his lord'), and donated to, and it is thus possible these people were the primary agents of the Mahāyāna movement.[39]

Early Mahāyāna came directly from some of the "[early Buddhist schools](/source/Early_Buddhist_schools)" and was a successor to them.[40][41]

### Early Mahāyāna

Earliest Mahayana inscription

Inscribed pedestal with the first known occurrence of the name of "[Amitabha Buddha](/source/Amitabha_Buddha)" in the "year 26 of [Huvishka](/source/Huvishka)" (153 CE)[42] In [Brahmi script](/source/Brahmi_script) in the inscription:

"*Bu-ddha-sya A-mi-tā-bha-sya*"
"Of the Buddha Amitabha"[43]

The earliest textual evidence of "Mahāyāna" comes from [sūtras](/source/S%C5%ABtras) ("discourses", scriptures) originating around the beginning of [the common era](/source/Common_Era). Jan Nattier has noted that some of the earliest Mahāyāna texts, such as the *[Ugraparipṛccha Sūtra](/source/Ugrapariprccha_Sutra)* use the term "Mahāyāna", yet there is no doctrinal difference between Mahāyāna in this context and the [early schools](/source/Early_Buddhist_schools). Instead, Nattier writes that in the earliest sources, "Mahāyāna" referred to the rigorous emulation of [Gautama Buddha](/source/Gautama_Buddha)'s path to Buddhahood.[17]

Some important evidence for early Mahāyāna Buddhism comes from the texts translated by the [Indoscythian](/source/Indo-Scythians) monk [Lokakṣema](/source/Lokaksema_(Buddhist_monk)) in the 2nd century CE, who came to China from the kingdom of [Gandhāra](/source/Gandhara). These are some of the earliest known Mahāyāna texts.[44][45][note 3] Study of these texts by Paul Harrison and others show that they strongly promote [monasticism](/source/Monasticism) (contra the lay origin theory), acknowledge the legitimacy of [arhatship](/source/Arhat), and do not show any attempt to establish a new sect or order.[24] A few of these texts often emphasize [ascetic](/source/Asceticism) practices, forest dwelling, and deep states of meditative concentration (*[samadhi](/source/Samadhi)*).[46]

Indian Mahāyāna never had nor ever attempted to have a separate [Vinaya](/source/Vinaya) or ordination lineage from the early schools of Buddhism, and therefore each [bhikṣu](/source/Bhikkhu) or [bhikṣuṇī](/source/Bhikkhuni) adhering to the Mahāyāna formally belonged to one of the early Buddhist schools. Membership in these *nikāyas*, or monastic orders, continues today, with the [Dharmaguptaka](/source/Dharmaguptaka) nikāya being used in East Asia, and the [Mūlasarvāstivāda](/source/Mulasarvastivada) nikāya being used in [Tibetan Buddhism](/source/Tibetan_Buddhism). Therefore, Mahāyāna was never a separate monastic sect outside of the early schools.[47]

Painting from the [Mogao Caves](/source/Mogao_Caves) (Cave 217), [Dunhuang](/source/Dunhuang), illustrating [Sukhavati](/source/Sukhavati), the [buddhafield](/source/Pure_land) of [Amitabha Buddha](/source/Amit%C4%81bha)

Photograph of three bodhisattva statues found at [Jamal Garhi](/source/Jamal_Garhi) ([Khyber Pakhtunkhwa](/source/Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa), [Pakistan](/source/Pakistan)).

Paul Harrison clarifies that while monastic Mahāyānists belonged to a nikāya, not all members of a nikāya were Mahāyānists.[48] From Chinese monks visiting India, we now know that both Mahāyāna and non-Mahāyāna monks in India often lived in the same monasteries side by side.[49] It is also possible that, formally, Mahāyāna would have been understood as a group of monks or nuns within a larger monastery taking a vow together (known as a "*kriyākarma*") to memorize and study a Mahāyāna text or texts.[50]

The earliest stone inscription containing a recognizably Mahāyāna formulation and a mention of the Buddha [Amitābha](/source/Amit%C4%81bha) (an important Mahāyāna figure) was found in the Indian subcontinent in [Mathura](/source/Mathura%2C_Uttar_Pradesh), and dated to around 180 CE. Remains of a statue of a Buddha bear the [Brāhmī](/source/Br%C4%81hm%C4%AB_script) inscription: "Made in the year 28 of the reign of King [Huviṣka](/source/Huvishka), ... for the Blessed One, the Buddha Amitābha."[43] There is also some evidence that the Kushan Emperor Huviṣka himself was a follower of Mahāyāna. A Sanskrit manuscript fragment in the [Schøyen Collection](/source/Schoyen_Collection) describes Huviṣka as having "set forth in the Mahāyāna."[51] Evidence of the name "Mahāyāna" in Indian inscriptions in the period before the 5th century is very limited in comparison to the multiplicity of Mahāyāna writings transmitted from [Central Asia](/source/Central_Asia) to [China](/source/China) at that time.[note 4][note 5][note 6]

Based on [archeological](/source/Archaeology) evidence, Gregory Schopen argues that Indian Mahāyāna remained "an extremely limited minority movement – if it remained at all – that attracted absolutely no documented public or popular support for at least two more centuries."[24] Likewise, Joseph Walser speaks of Mahāyāna's "virtual invisibility in the archaeological record until the fifth century".[52] Schopen also sees this movement as being in tension with other Buddhists, "struggling for recognition and acceptance".[53] Their "embattled mentality" may have led to certain elements found in Mahāyāna texts like [Lotus sutra](/source/Lotus_Sutra), such as a concern with preserving texts.[53]

Schopen, Harrison and Nattier also argue that these communities were probably not a single unified movement, but scattered groups based on different practices and sutras.[24] One reason for this view is that Mahāyāna sources are extremely diverse, advocating many different, often conflicting doctrines and positions, as Jan Nattier writes:[54]

Thus we find one scripture (the *[Aksobhya](/source/Akshobhya)-vyuha*) that advocates both [srávaka](/source/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka) and [bodhisattva](/source/Bodhisattva) practices, propounds the possibility of rebirth in a pure land, and enthusiastically recommends the cult of the book, yet seems to know nothing of emptiness theory, the [ten bhumis](/source/Bh%C5%ABmi_(Buddhism)), or the [trikaya](/source/Trikaya), while another (the *P'u-sa pen-yeh ching*) propounds the ten bhumis and focuses exclusively on the path of the bodhisattva, but never discusses the [paramitas](/source/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81). A [Madhyamika](/source/Madhyamaka) treatise ([Nagarjuna's](/source/Nagarjuna) *[Mulamadhyamika-karikas](/source/M%C5%ABlamadhyamakak%C4%81rik%C4%81)*) may enthusiastically deploy the rhetoric of [emptiness](/source/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81) without ever mentioning the bodhisattva path, while a [Yogacara](/source/Yogachara) treatise ([Vasubandhu's](/source/Vasubandhu) *[Madhyanta-vibhaga-bhasya](/source/Madhyanta-vibhaga-karika)*) may delve into the particulars of the trikaya doctrine while eschewing the doctrine of [ekayana](/source/Ekay%C4%81na). We must be prepared, in other words, to encounter a multiplicity of Mahayanas flourishing even in India, not to mention those that developed in East Asia and Tibet.

In spite of being a minority in India, Indian Mahāyāna was an intellectually vibrant movement, which developed various schools of thought during what Jan Westerhoff has called "The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy" (from the beginning of the first millennium CE up to the 7th century).[55] Some major Mahāyāna traditions are [Prajñāpāramitā](/source/Prajnaparamita), [Mādhyamaka](/source/Madhyamaka), [Yogācāra](/source/Yogacara), [Buddha-nature](/source/Buddha-nature) (*Tathāgatagarbha*), and the [school of Dignaga and Dharmakirti](/source/Buddhist_logico-epistemology) as the last and most recent.[56] Major early figures include [Nagarjuna](/source/Nagarjuna), [Āryadeva](/source/Aryadeva), [Aśvaghoṣa](/source/A%C5%9Bvagho%E1%B9%A3a), [Asanga](/source/Asanga), [Vasubandhu](/source/Vasubandhu), and [Dignaga](/source/Dign%C4%81ga). Mahāyāna Buddhists seem to have been active in the [Kushan Empire](/source/Kushan_Empire) (30–375 CE), a period that saw great missionary and literary activities by Buddhists. This is supported by the works of the historian [Taranatha](/source/Taranatha).[57]

### Growth

Ruins of the [Nalanda Mahavihara](/source/Nalanda) (Great Monastery) in [Bihar](/source/Bihar), a major center for the study of Mahāyāna Buddhism from the fifth century CE to c. 1200 CE

[Buddhist expansion in Asia](/source/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism), from Buddhist heartland in [northern India](/source/Northern_India) (dark orange) starting 5th century BCE, to Buddhist majority realm (orange) with the exception of China, and historical extent of Buddhism influences (yellow). Mahāyāna (red arrow), [Theravāda](/source/Theravada) (green arrow), and [Tantric](/source/Tantra)-[Vajrayāna](/source/Vajrayana) (blue arrow). The overland and [maritime](/source/Maritime_Southeast_Asia) "Silk Roads" were interlinked and complementary, forming what scholars have called the "great circle of Buddhism".[41]

The Mahāyāna movement (or movements) remained quite small until it experienced much growth in [the fifth century](/source/5th_century). Very few manuscripts have been found before the fifth century (the exceptions are from [Bamiyan](/source/Bamyan)). According to Walser, "the fifth and sixth centuries appear to have been a watershed for the production of Mahāyāna manuscripts."[58] Likewise it is only in the 4th and 5th centuries CE that epigraphic evidence shows some kind of popular support for Mahāyāna, including some possible royal support at the kingdom of [Shan shan](/source/Shanshan) as well as in [Bamiyan](/source/Bamyan) and [Mathura](/source/Mathura).[59]

Still, even after the 5th century, the epigraphic evidence which uses the term Mahāyāna is still quite small and is notably mainly monastic, not lay.[59] By this time, Chinese pilgrims, such as [Faxian](/source/Faxian) (337–422 CE), [Xuanzang](/source/Xuanzang) (602–664), [Yijing](/source/Yijing_(monk)) (635–713 CE) were traveling to India, and their writings do describe monasteries which they label 'Mahāyāna' as well as monasteries where both Mahāyāna monks and non-Mahāyāna monks lived together.[60]

After the fifth century, Mahāyāna Buddhism and its institutions slowly grew in influence. Some of the most influential institutions became massive monastic university complexes such as [Nalanda](/source/Nalanda) (established by the 5th-century CE [Gupta](/source/Gupta_Empire) emperor, [Kumaragupta I](/source/Kumaragupta_I)) and [Vikramashila](/source/Vikramashila) (established under [Dharmapala](/source/Dharmapala_(emperor)) c. 783 to 800 CE) which were centers of various branches of scholarship, including Mahāyāna philosophy. The Nalanda complex eventually became the largest and most influential Buddhist center in India for centuries.[61] Even so, as noted by Paul Williams, "it seems that fewer than 50 percent of the monks encountered by Xuanzang (Hsüan-tsang; c. 600–664) on his visit to India actually were Mahāyānists."[62]

### Expansion outside of India

Recreation of a cave mural from the [Mogao Caves](/source/Mogao_Caves) depicting the Buddha surrounded by bodhisattvas

Over time Indian Mahāyāna texts and philosophy reached [Central Asia](/source/Central_Asia) and [China](/source/China) through trade routes like the [Silk Road](/source/Silk_Road), later spreading throughout [East Asia](/source/East_Asia).[40] Over time, [Central Asian Buddhism](/source/Buddhism_in_Central_Asia) became heavily influenced by Mahāyāna and it was a major source for Chinese Buddhism. Mahāyāna works [have also been found in](/source/Gandh%C4%81ran_Buddhist_texts) [Gandhāra](/source/Gandharan_Buddhism), indicating the importance of this region for the spread of Mahāyāna. Central Asian Mahāyāna scholars were very important in the [Silk Road Transmission of Buddhism](/source/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism).[63] They include translators like [Lokakṣema](/source/Lokaksema_(Buddhist_monk)) (c. 167–186), [Dharmarakṣa](/source/Dharmarak%E1%B9%A3a) (c. 265–313), [Kumārajīva](/source/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva) (c. 401), and [Dharmakṣema](/source/Dharmak%E1%B9%A3ema) (385–433). The site of [Dunhuang](/source/Dunhuang) seems to have been a particularly important place for the study of Mahāyāna Buddhism.[57]

Mahāyāna spread from China to [Korea](/source/Korea), [Vietnam](/source/Vietnam), and [Japan](/source/Japan) (the latter partly through Korea as well).[40][41] Mahāyāna also spread from [India](/source/India) to [Myanmar](/source/Myanmar), and then [Sumatra](/source/Sumatra) and [Malaysia](/source/Malaysia).[40][41] Mahāyāna spread from Sumatra to other [Indonesian islands](/source/List_of_islands_of_Indonesia), including [Java](/source/Java) and [Borneo](/source/Borneo), the [Philippines](/source/Philippines), [Cambodia](/source/Cambodia), and eventually, Indonesian Mahāyāna traditions made it to China.[40][41]

By the fourth century, Chinese monks like [Faxian](/source/Faxian) (c. 337–422 CE) had also begun to travel to India (now dominated by the [Guptas](/source/Gupta_Empire)) to bring back Buddhist teachings, especially Mahāyāna works.[64] These figures also wrote about their experiences in India and their work remains invaluable for understanding Indian Buddhism. In some cases Indian Mahāyāna traditions were directly transplanted, as with the case of the [East Asian Madhymaka](/source/East_Asian_M%C4%81dhyamaka) (by [Kumārajīva](/source/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva)) and [East Asian Yogacara](/source/East_Asian_Yog%C4%81c%C4%81ra) (especially by [Xuanzang](/source/Xuanzang)). Later, new developments in [Chinese Mahāyāna](/source/Chinese_Buddhism) led to new Chinese Buddhist traditions like [Tiantai](/source/Tiantai), [Huayen](/source/Huayan), [Pure Land](/source/Pure_Land_Buddhism) and [Chan Buddhism](/source/Chan_Buddhism) ([Zen](/source/Zen)). These traditions would then spread to [Korea](/source/Korean_Buddhism), [Vietnam](/source/Buddhism_in_Vietnam) and [Japan](/source/Buddhism_in_Japan).

Forms of Mahāyāna Buddhism which are mainly based on the doctrines of Indian Mahāyāna sutras are still popular in [East Asian Buddhism](/source/East_Asian_Buddhism), which is mostly dominated by various branches of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Paul Williams has noted that in this tradition in the Far East, primacy has always been given to the study of the Mahāyāna sūtras.[65]

### Later developments

The use of [mandalas](/source/Mandalas) was one new feature of [Tantric Buddhism](/source/Tantric_Buddhism), which also adopted new deities such as [Chakrasamvara](/source/Chakrasamvara) (pictured)

Beginning during the [Gupta](/source/Gupta_Empire) (c. 3rd century CE–575 CE) period a new movement began to develop which drew on previous Mahāyāna doctrine as well as new Pan-Indian [tantric](/source/Tantra) ideas. This came to be known by various names such as [Vajrayāna](/source/Vajrayana) (Tibetan: *rdo rje theg pa*), Mantrayāna, and Esoteric Buddhism or "Secret Mantra" (*Guhyamantra*). This new movement continued into the [Pala era](/source/Pala_Empire) (8th century–12th century CE), during which it grew to dominate Indian Buddhism.[66] Possibly led by groups of wandering tantric yogis named [mahasiddhas](/source/Mahasiddha), this movement developed new [tantric spiritual practices](/source/Tantra_techniques_(Vajrayana)) and also promoted new texts called the [Buddhist Tantras](/source/Buddhist_Tantras).[67]

Philosophically, Vajrayāna Buddhist thought remained grounded in the Mahāyāna Buddhist ideas of Madhyamaka, [Yogacara](/source/Yogacara) and Buddha-nature.[68][69] Tantric Buddhism generally deals with new forms of meditation and ritual which often makes use of the visualization of Buddhist deities (including Buddhas, bodhisattvas, [dakinis](/source/Dakini), and [fierce deities](/source/Fierce_deities)) and the use of mantras. Most of these practices are esoteric and require ritual initiation or introduction by a tantric master (*vajracarya*) or [guru](/source/Guru).[70]

The source and early origins of [Vajrayāna](/source/Vajrayana) remain a subject of debate among scholars. Some scholars like [Alexis Sanderson](/source/Alexis_Sanderson) argue that Vajrayāna derives its tantric content from [Shaivism](/source/Shaivism) and that it developed as a result of royal courts sponsoring both Buddhism and Shaivism. Sanderson argues that Vajrayāna works like the [Samvara](/source/Cakrasa%E1%B9%83vara_Tantra) and [Guhyasamaja](/source/Guhyasam%C4%81ja_tantra) texts show direct borrowing from [Shaiva tantric literature](/source/Shaiva_Agamas).[71][72] However, other scholars such as Ronald M. Davidson question the idea that Indian [tantrism](/source/Tantra) developed in Shaivism first and that it was then adopted into Buddhism. Davidson points to the difficulties of establishing a chronology for the Shaiva tantric literature and argues that both traditions developed side by side, drawing on each other as well as on local Indian tribal religion.[73]

Whatever the case, this new tantric form of Mahāyāna Buddhism became extremely influential in India, especially in [Kashmir](/source/Kashmir) and in the lands of the [Pala Empire](/source/Pala_Empire). It eventually also spread north into [Central Asia](/source/Central_Asia), the [Tibetan plateau](/source/Tibetan_Plateau) and to East Asia. Vajrayāna remains the dominant form of [Buddhism in Tibet](/source/Tibetan_Buddhism), in surrounding regions like [Bhutan](/source/Bhutan) and in [Mongolia](/source/Buddhism_in_Mongolia). Esoteric elements are also an important part of East Asian Buddhism where it is referred to by various terms. These include: *[Zhēnyán](/source/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism)* ([Chinese](/source/Chinese_language): 真言, literally "true word", referring to mantra), *Mìjiao* (Chinese: 密教; Esoteric Teaching), *Mìzōng* (密宗; "Esoteric Tradition") or *Tángmì* (唐密; "Tang (Dynasty) Esoterica") in Chinese and [Shingon](/source/Shingon_Buddhism), Tomitsu, [Mikkyo](/source/Mikky%C5%8D), and [Taimitsu](/source/Tendai) in Japanese.

## Worldview

A Ming bronze of the Buddha [Mahāvairocana](/source/Vairocana) which depicts his body as being composed of numerous other Buddhas

The female bodhisattva [Prajñaparamita Devi](/source/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81_Devi)

Few things can be said with certainty about Mahāyāna Buddhism in general other than that the Buddhism practiced in [China](/source/Chinese_Buddhism), [Indonesia](/source/Buddhism_in_Indonesia), [Vietnam](/source/Buddhism_in_Vietnam), [Korea](/source/Korean_Buddhism), [Tibet](/source/Tibetan_Buddhism), [Mongolia](/source/Mongolian_Buddhism) and [Japan](/source/Buddhism_in_Japan) is Mahāyāna Buddhism.[note 7] Mahāyāna can be described as a loosely bound collection of many teachings and practices (some of which are seemingly contradictory).[note 8] Mahāyāna constitutes an inclusive and broad set of traditions characterized by [plurality](/source/Religious_pluralism) and the adoption of a vast number of new [sutras](/source/Mahayana_sutras), ideas and philosophical treatises in addition to the [earlier Buddhist texts](/source/Early_Buddhist_texts).

Broadly speaking, Mahāyāna Buddhists [accept the classic Buddhist doctrines found in early Buddhism](/source/Basic_Points_Unifying_the_Therav%C4%81da_and_the_Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na) (i.e. the *[Nikāya](/source/Nik%C4%81ya)* and [Āgamas](/source/%C4%80gama_(Buddhism))), such as the [Middle Way](/source/Middle_Way), [Dependent origination](/source/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da), the [Four Noble Truths](/source/Four_Noble_Truths), the [Noble Eightfold Path](/source/Noble_Eightfold_Path), the [Three Jewels](/source/Refuge_(Buddhism)), the [Three marks of existence](/source/Three_marks_of_existence) and the *[bodhipakṣadharmas](/source/Bodhipakkhiy%C4%81dhamm%C4%81)* (aids to awakening).[74] Mahāyāna Buddhism further accepts some of the ideas found in Buddhist [Abhidharma](/source/Abhidharma) thought. However, Mahāyāna also adds numerous Mahāyāna texts and doctrines, which are seen as definitive and in some cases superior teachings.[75][76] [D.T. Suzuki](/source/D._T._Suzuki) described the broad range and doctrinal liberality of Mahāyāna as "a vast ocean where all kinds of living beings are allowed to thrive in a most generous manner, almost verging on a chaos".[77]

Paul Williams refers to the main impulse behind Mahāyāna as the vision which sees the motivation to achieve Buddhahood for the sake of other beings as being the supreme religious motivation. This is the way that [Atisha](/source/Ati%C5%9Ba) defines Mahāyāna in his *[Bodhipathapradipa](/source/Bodhipathaprad%C4%ABpa)*.[78] As such, according to Williams, "Mahāyāna is not as such an institutional identity. Rather, it is inner motivation and vision, and this inner vision can be found in anyone regardless of their institutional position."[79] Thus, instead of a specific school or sect, Mahāyāna is a "family term" or a religious tendency, which is united by "a vision of the ultimate goal of attaining full Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings (the 'bodhisattva ideal') and also (or eventually) a belief that Buddhas are still around and can be contacted (hence the possibility of an ongoing revelation)."[80]

### The Buddhas

Tibetan depiction of Buddha [Amitāyus](/source/Amit%C4%81bha) in his [Pure Land](/source/Pure_Land) of [Sukhavati](/source/Sukhavati)

The monumental sculpture of the [Longmen Buddha Grottoes](/source/Longmen_Grottoes) contains a giant statue of [Vairocana Buddha](/source/Vairocana)

[Buddhas](/source/Buddhahood) and [bodhisattvas](/source/Bodhisattva) (beings on their way to Buddhahood) are central elements of Mahāyāna. Mahāyāna has a vastly expanded [cosmology](/source/Buddhist_cosmology) and [theology](/source/Buddhist_deities), with various Buddhas and powerful bodhisattvas residing in different worlds and buddha-fields (*buddha kshetra*).[5] Buddhas unique to Mahāyāna include the Buddhas [Amitābha](/source/Amit%C4%81bha) ("Infinite Light"), [Akṣobhya](/source/Five_Wisdom_Buddhas) ("the Imperturbable"), [Bhaiṣajyaguru](/source/Bhaisajyaguru) ("Medicine guru") and [Vairocana](/source/Vairocana) ("the Illuminator"). In Mahāyāna, a Buddha is seen as a being that has achieved the highest kind of awakening due to his superior compassion and wish to help all beings.[81]

An important feature of Mahāyāna is the way that it understands the nature of a Buddha, which differs from non-Mahāyāna understandings. Mahāyāna texts not only often depict numerous Buddhas besides [Sakyamuni](/source/Gautama_Buddha), but see them as transcendental or supramundane (*lokuttara*) beings with great powers and huge lifetimes. The *[White Lotus Sutra](/source/Lotus_Sutra)* famously describes the lifespan of the Buddha as immeasurable and states that he actually achieved Buddhahood countless eons (*kalpas*) ago and has been teaching the Dharma through his numerous avatars for an unimaginable period of time.[82][83][84]

Furthermore, Buddhas are active in the world, constantly devising ways to teach and help all sentient beings. According to Paul Williams, in Mahāyāna, a Buddha is often seen as "a spiritual king, relating to and caring for the world", rather than simply a teacher who after his death "has completely 'gone beyond' the world and its cares".[85] [Buddha Sakyamuni](/source/Gautama_Buddha)'s life and death on earth are then usually understood [docetically](/source/Docetism) as a "mere appearance", his death is a show, while in actuality he remains out of compassion to help all sentient beings.[85] Similarly, Guang Xing describes the Buddha in Mahāyāna as an [omnipotent](/source/Omnipotence) and almighty [divinity](/source/Divinity) "endowed with numerous supernatural attributes and qualities".[86] Mahayana Buddhologies have often been compared to various types of [theism](/source/Theism) (including [pantheism](/source/Pantheism)) by different scholars, though there is disagreement among scholars regarding this issue as well on the general [relationship between Buddhism and Theism.](/source/Creator_in_Buddhism)[87]

The idea that Buddhas remain accessible is extremely influential in Mahāyāna and also allows for the possibility of having a reciprocal relationship with a Buddha through prayer, visions, devotion and revelations.[88] Through the use of various practices, a Mahāyāna devotee can aspire to be reborn in a Buddha's pure land or buddha field (*[buddhakṣetra](/source/Pure_land)*), where they can strive towards Buddhahood in the best possible conditions. Depending on the sect, liberation into a buddha-field can be obtained by [faith](/source/Faith_in_Buddhism), meditation, or sometimes even by the [repetition of Buddha's name](/source/Nianfo). Faith-based devotional practices focused on rebirth in pure lands are common in East Asia [Pure Land Buddhism](/source/Pure_Land_Buddhism).[89]

The influential Mahāyāna concept of [the three bodies](/source/Trikaya) (*trikāya*) of a Buddha developed to make sense of the transcendental nature of the Buddha. This doctrine holds that the "bodies of magical transformation" (*[nirmāṇakāyas](/source/Nirm%C4%81%E1%B9%87ak%C4%81ya)*) and the "enjoyment bodies" (*[saṃbhogakāya](/source/Sa%E1%B9%83bhogak%C4%81ya)*) are emanations from the ultimate Buddha body, the *[Dharmakaya](/source/Dharmak%C4%81ya),* which is none other than the ultimate reality itself, i.e. [emptiness](/source/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81) or *[Thusness](/source/Tath%C4%81t%C4%81)*.[90]

### The Bodhisattvas

[Avalokiteśvara](/source/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara), the bodhisattva of compassion. [Ajaṇṭā Caves](/source/Ajanta_Caves), [Maharashtra](/source/Maharashtra), India

The Mahāyāna bodhisattva path (*mārga*) or vehicle (*[yāna](/source/Yana_(Buddhism))*) is seen as being the superior [spiritual path](/source/Spirituality) by Mahāyānists, over and above the paths of those who seek [arhatship](/source/Arhat) or "solitary buddhahood" for their own sake (*[Śrāvakayāna](/source/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vakay%C4%81na)* and *[Pratyekabuddhayāna](/source/Pratyekabuddhay%C4%81na)*).[91] Mahāyāna Buddhists generally hold that pursuing only the personal release from suffering i.e. [nirvāṇa](/source/Nirvana_(Buddhism)) is a smaller or inferior aspiration (called "*[hinayana](/source/Hinayana)*"), because it lacks the wish and resolve to liberate all other sentient beings from [saṃsāra](/source/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra) (the round of [rebirth](/source/Rebirth_(Buddhism))) by becoming a Buddha.*[92][93]*[94]

This wish to help others by entering the Mahāyāna path is called *[bodhicitta](/source/Bodhicitta)* and someone who engages in this path to complete buddhahood is a [bodhisattva](/source/Bodhisattva). High level bodhisattvas (with eons of practice) are seen as extremely powerful supramundane beings. They are objects of devotion and prayer throughout the Mahāyāna world.[95] Popular bodhisattvas which are revered across Mahāyāna include [Avalokiteshvara](/source/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara), [Manjushri](/source/Manjushri), [Tara](/source/Tara_(Buddhism)) and [Maitreya](/source/Maitreya). Bodhisattvas *could* reach the personal nirvana of the [arhats](/source/Arhat), but they reject this goal and remain in saṃsāra to help others out of compassion.[96][97][95]

According to eighth-century Mahāyāna philosopher [Haribhadra](/source/Haribhadra_(Buddhist_philosopher)), the term "bodhisattva" can technically refer to those who follow any of the three vehicles, since all are working towards *[bodhi](/source/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism)* (awakening) and hence the technical term for a Mahāyāna bodhisattva is a *mahāsattva* (great being) *bodhisattva*.[98] According to Paul Williams, a Mahāyāna bodhisattva is best defined as:

that being who has taken the vow to be reborn, no matter how many times this may be necessary, in order to attain the highest possible goal, that of Complete and Perfect Buddhahood. This is for the benefit of all sentient beings.[98]

There are two models for the nature of the bodhisattvas, which are seen in the various Mahāyāna texts. One is the idea that a bodhisattva must postpone their awakening until full Buddhahood is attained. This could take [eons](/source/Kalpa_(time)) and in the meantime, they will help countless beings. After reaching Buddhahood, they do pass on to nirvāṇa (after which they do not return). The second model is the idea that there are two kinds of nirvāṇa, the nirvāṇa of an arhat and a superior type of nirvāṇa called *apratiṣṭhita* (non-abiding, not-established) that allows a Buddha to remain forever engaged in the world. As noted by Paul Williams, the idea of *apratiṣṭhita nirvāṇa* may have taken some time to develop and is not obvious in some of the early Mahāyāna literature.[97]

Illustrated Korean manuscript of the [Lotus Sutra](/source/Lotus_Sutra), [Goryeo Dynasty](/source/Goryeo), c. 1340. The three carts at the top which are symbolic of the three vehicles

[Guanyin](/source/Guanyin) (Avalokiteśvara) with multiple arms symbolizing upaya and great compassion, [Leshan](/source/Leshan), China

The Lotus, especially the puṇḍarīka (white lotus), is used in Mahāyāna to symbolize the nature of bodhisattvas. The lotus is rooted in the earthly mud and yet flowers above the water in the open air. Similarly, the bodhisattva lives in the world but remains unstained by it[99]

### The Bodhisattva Path

In most classic Mahāyāna sources (as well as in non-Mahāyāna sources on the topic), the bodhisattva path is said to take three or four [*asaṃkheyyas*](/source/Asa%E1%B9%83khyeya) ("incalculable eons"), requiring a huge number of lifetimes of practice to complete.[100][101] However, certain practices are sometimes held to provide shortcuts to Buddhahood (these vary widely by tradition). According to the *[Bodhipathapradīpa](/source/Bodhipathaprad%C4%ABpa)* (*A Lamp for the Path to Awakening*) by the Indian master [Atiśa](/source/Ati%C5%9Ba), the central defining feature of a bodhisattva's path is the universal aspiration to end suffering for themselves and all other beings, i.e. *[bodhicitta](/source/Bodhicitta)*.[102]

The bodhisattva's spiritual path is traditionally held to begin with the revolutionary event called the "arising of the Awakening Mind" (*bodhicittotpāda*), which is the wish to become a Buddha in order to help all beings.[101] This is achieved in different ways, such as the meditation taught by the Indian master [Shantideva](/source/Shantideva) in his *[Bodhicaryavatara](/source/Bodhisattvacary%C4%81vat%C4%81ra)* called "equalising self and others and exchanging self and others". Other Indian masters like Atisha and [Kamalashila](/source/Kamala%C5%9B%C4%ABla) also teach a meditation in which we contemplate how *all* beings have been our close relatives or friends in past lives. This contemplation leads to the arising of deep love (*[maitrī](/source/Maitr%C4%AB)*) and compassion (*[karuṇā](/source/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81)*) for others, and thus bodhicitta is generated.[103] According to the Indian philosopher [Shantideva](/source/Shantideva), when great compassion and bodhicitta arises in a person's heart, they cease to be an ordinary person and become a "son or daughter of the Buddhas".[102]

The idea of the bodhisattva is not unique to Mahāyāna Buddhism and it is found in Theravada and other [early Buddhist schools](/source/Early_Buddhist_schools). However, these schools held that becoming a bodhisattva required a prediction of one's future Buddhahood in the presence of a living Buddha.[104] In Mahāyāna, the term bodhisattva is applicable to any person from the moment they intend to become a Buddha (i.e. the moment in which [bodhicitta](/source/Bodhicitta) arises in their mind) and without the requirement of a living Buddha being present.[104] Some Mahāyāna sūtras like the *Lotus Sutra* promote the bodhisattva path as being universal and open to everyone. Other texts disagree with this and state that only some beings have the capacity for Buddhahood.[105]

The generation of bodhicitta may then be followed by the taking of the [bodhisattva vows](/source/Bodhisattva_vow) (*praṇidhāna*) to "lead to Nirvana the whole immeasurable world of beings" as the *Prajñaparamita* *sutras* state. This compassionate commitment to help others is the central characteristic of the Mahāyāna bodhisattva.[106] These vows may be accompanied by certain ethical guidelines called [bodhisattva precepts](/source/Bodhisattva_Precepts). Numerous sutras also state that a key part of the bodhisattva path is the practice of a set of virtues called [*pāramitās*](/source/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81) (transcendent or supreme virtues). Sometimes six are outlined: giving, ethical discipline, patient endurance, diligence, meditation and transcendent wisdom.[107][5]

Other sutras (like the *[Daśabhūmika](/source/Ten_Stages_Sutra)*) give a list of ten, with the addition of *[upāya](/source/Upaya)* (skillful means), *[praṇidhāna](/source/Bodhisattva_vow)* (vow, resolution), *[Bala](/source/Five_Strengths)* (spiritual power) and *[Jñāna](/source/Jnana)* (knowledge).[108] [*Prajñā*](/source/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism)) (transcendent knowledge or wisdom) is arguably the most important virtue of the bodhisattva. This refers to an understanding of the [emptiness](/source/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81) of all phenomena, arising from study, deep consideration and meditation.[106]

### Bodhisattva levels

*[Amitābha](/source/Amit%C4%81bha) Descending with Twenty-five [Bodhisattvas](/source/Bodhisattva)* (13th century), [National Treasure](/source/National_Treasure_(Japan)), [Chion-in](/source/Chion-in), [Kyoto](/source/Kyoto), is regarded as a representative work of early [Pure Land Buddhist](/source/Pure_Land_Buddhism) art in [Japan](/source/Buddhist_art_in_Japan). In [Japanese Buddhism](/source/Japanese_Buddhism), one of the [Ten realms](/source/Ten_realms) in which [sentient beings](/source/Sentient_beings_(Buddhism)) aspire to be [reborn](/source/%C5%8Cj%C5%8D) is the [Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss](/source/Sukhavati) of Amitābha.

Various [Mahāyāna Buddhist scriptures](/source/Mahayana_sutras) associate the beginning of the bodhisattva practice with what is called the "path of accumulation" or equipment (*saṃbhāra-mārga*), which is the first path of the classic [five paths schema](/source/Bh%C5%ABmi_(Buddhism)#Five_Paths).[109]

The *[Daśabhūmika Sūtra](/source/Ten_Stages_Sutra)* as well as other texts also outline a series of bodhisattva levels or spiritual stages ([*bhūmis*](/source/Bh%C5%ABmi_(Buddhism)) ) on the path to Buddhahood. The various texts disagree on the number of stages however, the *Daśabhūmika* giving ten for example (and mapping each one to the ten paramitas), the *[Bodhisattvabhūmi](/source/Yogacarabhumi-sastra)* giving seven and thirteen and the *[Avatamsaka](/source/Avatamsaka_Sutra)* outlining 40 stages.[108]

In later Mahāyāna scholasticism, such as in the work of [Kamalashila](/source/Kamala%C5%9B%C4%ABla) and [Atiśa](/source/Ati%C5%9Ba), the five paths and ten [*bhūmi*](/source/Bh%C5%ABmi_(Buddhism)) systems are merged and this is the progressive path model that is used in [Tibetan Buddhism](/source/Tibetan_Buddhism). According to Paul Williams, in these systems, the first [*bhūmi*](/source/Bh%C5%ABmi_(Buddhism)) is reached once one attains "direct, nonconceptual and nondual insight into emptiness in meditative absorption", which is associated with the path of seeing (*[darśana](/source/Dar%C5%9Bana)-mārga*).[109] At this point, a bodhisattva is considered an *[ārya](/source/Arya_(Buddhism))* (a noble being).[110]

### Skillful means and the One Vehicle

Main article: [upāya](/source/Up%C4%81ya)

Skillful means or Expedient techniques (Skt. *[upāya](/source/Upaya)*) is another important virtue and doctrine in Mahāyāna Buddhism.[111] The idea is most famously expounded in the *[White Lotus Sutra](/source/Lotus_Sutra)*, and refers to any effective method or technique that is conducive to spiritual growth and leads beings to awakening and [nirvana](/source/Nirvana). This doctrine states that, out of compassion, the Buddha adapts his teaching to whomever he is teaching. Because of this, it is possible that the Buddha may teach seemingly contradictory things to different people. This idea is also used to explain the vast textual corpus found in Mahāyāna.[112]

A closely related teaching is the doctrine of the One Vehicle (*[ekayāna](/source/Ekay%C4%81na)*). This teaching states that even though the Buddha is said to have taught three vehicles (the [disciples' vehicle](/source/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vakay%C4%81na), [the vehicle of solitary Buddhas](/source/Pratyekabuddhay%C4%81na) and the bodhisattva vehicle, which are accepted by all early Buddhist schools), these actually are all skillful means which lead to the same place: Buddhahood. Therefore, there really are not three vehicles in an ultimate sense, but one vehicle, the supreme vehicle of the Buddhas, which is taught in different ways depending on the faculties of individuals. Even those beings who think they have finished the path (i.e. the [arhats](/source/Arhat)) are actually not done, and they will eventually reach Buddhahood.[112]

This doctrine was not accepted in full by all Mahāyāna traditions. The Yogācāra school famously defended an alternative theory that held that not all beings could become Buddhas. This became a subject of much debate throughout Mahāyāna Buddhist history.[113]

### Prajñāpāramitā (Transcendent Knowledge)

Prajñāpāramitā is often personified by a female deity in Buddhist art

Some of the key Mahāyāna teachings are found in the *[Prajñāpāramitā](/source/Prajnaparamita)* ("Transcendent Knowledge" or "Perfection of Wisdom") texts, which are some of the earliest Mahāyāna works.[114] Prajñāpāramitā is a deep knowledge of reality which Buddhas and bodhisattvas attain. It is a transcendent, non-conceptual and [non-dual](/source/Nonduality_(spirituality)) kind of knowledge into the true nature of things.[115] This wisdom is also associated with insight into the [emptiness](/source/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81) (*śūnyatā*) of dharmas (phenomena) and their illusory nature (*[māyā](/source/Maya_(religion))*).[116] This amounts to the idea that all phenomena ([*dharmas*](/source/Dharma_theory)) without exception have "no essential unchanging core" (i.e. they lack *[svabhāva](/source/Svabhava),* an [essence](/source/Essence) or inherent nature), and therefore have "no fundamentally real existence".[117] These empty phenomena are also said to be conceptual constructions.[118]

Because of this, all *dharmas* (things, phenomena), even the Buddha's Teaching, the Buddha himself, [Nirvāṇa](/source/Nirvana) and all living beings, are like "illusions" or "magic" (*māyā*) and "dreams" (*[svapna](/source/Swapna_(philosophy))*).[119][118] This emptiness or lack of real existence applies even to the apparent arising and ceasing of phenomena. Because of this, all phenomena are also described as unarisen (*[anutpāda](/source/Anutpada)*), unborn (*ajata*), "beyond coming and going" in the Prajñāpāramitā literature.[120][121] Most famously, the *[Heart Sutra](/source/Heart_Sutra)* states that "all phenomena are empty, that is, without characteristic, unproduced, unceased, stainless, not stainless, undiminished, unfilled".[122] The Prajñāpāramitā texts also use various metaphors to describe the nature of things, for example, the *[Diamond Sutra](/source/Diamond_Sutra)* compares phenomena to: "A shooting star, a clouding of the sight, a lamp, an illusion, a drop of dew, a bubble, a dream, a lightning's flash, a thunder cloud."[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

Prajñāpāramitā is also associated with not grasping, not taking a stand on or "not taking up" (*aparigṛhīta*) anything in the world. The *[Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra](/source/A%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADas%C4%81hasrik%C4%81_Praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81_S%C5%ABtra)* explains it as "not grasping at form, not grasping at sensation, perception, volitions and cognition".[123] This includes not grasping or taking up even correct Buddhist ideas or mental signs (such as "not-self", "emptiness", bodhicitta, vows), since these things are ultimately all empty concepts as well.[124][118]

Attaining a state of fearless receptivity (*[ksanti](/source/Kshanti)*) through the insight into the true nature of reality (*[Dharmatā](/source/Dharmata)*) in an intuitive, non-conceptual manner is said to be the *prajñāpāramitā,* the highest spiritual wisdom. According to Edward Conze, the "patient acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas" (*anutpattika-dharmakshanti*) is "one of the most distinctive virtues of the Mahāyānistic saint."[125] The Prajñāpāramitā texts also claim that this training is not just for Mahāyānists, but for all Buddhists following any of the three vehicles.[126]

### Madhyamaka (Centrism)

Part of a series on Buddhist philosophy Traditions Vibhajyavāda Theravāda Vaibhāṣika Sautrāntika Pudgalavada Prajñaptivāda Lokottaravāda Mahayana Madhyamaka Yogachara Pramāṇavāda Vajrayana Tiāntāi Huayan Zen/Chán Dzogchen Themes Buddhist logico-epistemology Buddhist ethics Buddhism and psychology Buddhist vegetarianism Abhidharma Ahimsa Not-self Interdependent origination Emptiness Karma Middle Way Two truths doctrine Dharma theory Svabhava Buddhist atomism Suffering Buddha-nature Nirvana Buddhist modernism Pre-modern philosophers Moggaliputta-Tissa Katyāyāniputra Nagasena Nagarjuna Aryadeva Harivarman Vasubandhu Saṃghabhadra Asanga Buddhaghosa Buddhadatta Dhammapāla Dignāga Dharmakirti Buddhapālita Bhāviveka Dharmapala of Nalanda Chandrakirti Shantideva Sengzhao Jizang Xuanzang Zhiyi Fazang Guifeng Zongmi Wonhyo Jinul Kūkai Dōgen Jñānagarbha Śāntarakṣita Haribhadra Atiśa Jñanasrimitra Ratnakīrti Ratnākaraśānti Abhayakaragupta Sakya Pandita Rongzom Acariya Anuruddha Dolpopa Je Tsongkhapa Longchenpa Gorampa Sakya Chokden Mikyö Dorje Modern philosophers Anagarika Dharmapala Ledi Sayadaw B. R. Ambedkar Taixu Yin Shun Kitaro Nishida Keiji Nishitani Hajime Tanabe Masao Abe D. T. Suzuki Mahasi Sayadaw K. N. Jayatilleke David Kalupahana Ñāṇananda Buddhadasa P. A. Payutto Thích Nhất Hạnh Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo Jamgon Kongtrul Ju Mipham Gendün Chöphel 14th Dalai Lama Religion portal Philosophy portal v t e

A statue of the Mahāyāna philosopher [Nagarjuna](/source/Nagarjuna), founder of the [Madhyamaka](/source/Madhyamaka) school. Considered by some to be an [Arya](/source/Arya_(Buddhism)) (noble) bodhisattva or even the "second Buddha"[127]

The Mahāyāna philosophical school termed [Madhyamaka](/source/Madhyamaka) (Middle theory or Centrism, also known as *śūnyavāda,* 'the emptiness theory') was founded by the second-century figure of [Nagarjuna](/source/Nagarjuna). This philosophical tradition focuses on refuting all theories which posit any kind of substance, inherent existence or intrinsic nature (*[svabhāva](/source/Svabhava)*).[128]

In his writings, Nagarjuna attempts to show that any theory of intrinsic nature is contradicted by the Buddha's theory of [dependent origination](/source/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da), since anything that has an independent existence cannot be dependently originated. The *śūnyavāda* philosophers were adamant that their denial of [*svabhāva*](/source/Svabhava) is not a kind of [nihilism](/source/Nihilism) (against protestations to the contrary by their opponents).[129]

Using the [two truths theory](/source/Two_truths_doctrine), Madhyamaka claims that while one can speak of things existing in a conventional, relative sense, they do not exist inherently in an ultimate sense. Madhyamaka also argues that emptiness itself is also "empty", it does not have an absolute inherent existence of its own. It is also not to be understood as a transcendental absolute reality. Instead, the emptiness theory is merely a useful concept that should not be clung to. In fact, for Madhyamaka, since everything is empty of true existence, all things are just conceptualizations (*prajñapti-matra*), including the theory of emptiness, and all concepts must ultimately be abandoned in order to truly understand the nature of things.[129]

### Vijñānavāda (The Consciousness doctrine)

*Vijñānavāda* ("the doctrine of consciousness", a.k.a. *vijñapti-mātra,* "perceptions only" and *citta-mātra* "mind only") is another important doctrine promoted by some Mahāyāna sutras which later became the central theory of a major philosophical movement which arose during the [Gupta period](/source/Gupta_Empire) called [Yogācāra](/source/Yogachara). The primary sutra associated with this school of thought is the *[Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra](/source/Sandhinirmocana_Sutra),* which claims that *śūnyavāda* is not the final definitive teaching ([*nītārtha*](/source/Buddhist_hermeneutics)) of the Buddha. Instead, the ultimate truth (*[paramārtha-satya](/source/Two_truths_doctrine)*) is said to be the view that all things (*dharmas*) are only mind (*[citta](/source/Citta)*), consciousness (*[vijñāna](/source/Vij%C3%B1%C4%81na)*) or perceptions (*vijñapti*) and that seemingly "external" objects (or "internal" subjects) do not really exist apart from the [dependently originated](/source/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da) flow of mental experiences.[130]

When this flow of mentality is seen as being empty of the subject-object duality we impose upon it, one reaches the [non-dual](/source/Nonduality_(spirituality)) cognition of "Thusness" (*tathatā*), which is nirvana. This doctrine is developed through various theories, the most important being the [eight consciousnesses](/source/Eight_Consciousnesses) and the [three natures](/source/Three_natures).[131] The *[Saṃdhinirmocana](/source/Sandhinirmocana_Sutra)* calls its doctrine the '[third turning of the dharma wheel](/source/Three_Turnings_of_the_Wheel_of_Dharma)'. The *[Pratyutpanna sutra](/source/Pratyutpanna_Sam%C4%81dhi_S%C5%ABtra)* also mentions this doctrine, stating: "whatever belongs to this triple world is nothing but thought [*citta-mātra*]. Why is that? It is because however I imagine things, that is how they appear".[131]

The most influential thinkers in this tradition were the Indian brothers [Asanga](/source/Asanga) and [Vasubandhu](/source/Vasubandhu). [Yogācāra](/source/Yogachara) philosophers developed their own [interpretation of the doctrine of emptiness](/source/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81#Yogācāra_school) which also criticized Madhyamaka, in effect claiming it fell into nihilism.[132]

### Buddha-nature

A Kamakura period reliquary topped with a [cintamani](/source/Cintamani) (wish fulfilling jewel). Buddha nature texts often use the metaphor of a jewel (i.e. buddha-nature) which all beings have but are unaware of

Main article: [Buddha-nature](/source/Buddha-nature)

The doctrine of *[Tathāgata](/source/Tath%C4%81gata) embryo* or *Tathāgata womb ([Tathāgatagarbha](/source/Buddha-nature)),* also known as *Buddha-nature, matrix* or *principle* ([Skt](/source/Sanskrit): *Buddha-dhātu*) is important in all modern Mahāyāna traditions, though it is interpreted in many different ways. Broadly speaking, Buddha-nature is concerned with explaining what allows sentient beings to become Buddhas.[133] The earliest sources for this idea may include the *[Tathāgatagarbha Sūtra](/source/Tath%C4%81gatagarbha_S%C5%ABtra)* and the *[Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra](/source/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na_Mah%C4%81parinirv%C4%81%E1%B9%87a_S%C5%ABtra)*.[134][133] The *Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa* refers to "a sacred nature that is the basis for [beings] becoming buddhas",[135] and it also describes it as the 'Self' (*[atman](/source/%C4%80tman_(Buddhism))*).[136]

[David Seyfort Ruegg](/source/David_Seyfort_Ruegg) explains this concept as the base or support for the practice of the path, and thus it is the "cause" (*hetu*) for the fruit of Buddhahood.[133] The *Tathāgatagarbha Sūtra* states that within the defilements is found "the tathagata's wisdom, the tathagata's vision, and the tathagata's body...eternally unsullied, and...replete with virtues no different from my own...the tathagatagarbhas of all beings are eternal and unchanging".[137]

The ideas found in the Buddha-nature literature are a source of much debate and disagreement among Mahāyāna Buddhist philosophers as well as modern academics.[138] Some scholars have seen this as an influence from Brahmanic [Hinduism](/source/Hinduism), and some of these sutras admit that the use of the term 'Self' is partly done in order to win over non-Buddhist ascetics (in other words, it is a skillful means).[139][140] According to some scholars, the Buddha-nature discussed in some Mahāyāna sūtras does not represent a substantial self (*[ātman](/source/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism))*) which the Buddha critiqued; rather, it is a positive expression of [emptiness](/source/Shunyata) (*śūnyatā*) and represents the potentiality to realize Buddhahood through Buddhist practices.[141] Similarly, Williams thinks that this doctrine was not originally dealing with ontological issues, but with "religious issues of realising one's spiritual potential, exhortation, and encouragement."[137]

The Buddha-nature genre of sūtras can be seen as an attempt to state Buddhist teachings using positive language while also maintaining the middle way, to prevent people from being turned away from Buddhism by a false impression of nihilism.[142] This is the position taken by the *[Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra](/source/La%E1%B9%85k%C4%81vat%C4%81ra_S%C5%ABtra)*, which states that the Buddhas teach the doctrine of *tathāgatagarbha* (which sounds similar to an atman) in order to help those beings who are attached to the idea of anatman. However, the sutra goes on to say that the *tathāgatagarbha* is empty and is not actually a substantial self.[143][144]

A different view is defended by various modern scholars like Michael Zimmermann. This view is the idea that Buddha-nature sutras such as the *[Mahāparinirvāṇa](/source/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na_Mah%C4%81parinirv%C4%81%E1%B9%87a_S%C5%ABtra)* and the *Tathāgatagarbha Sūtra* teach an affirmative vision of an eternal, indestructible Buddhic Self.[136] Shenpen Hookham, a western scholar and lama sees Buddha-nature as a True Self that is real and permanent.[145] Similarly, C. D. Sebastian understands the *[Ratnagotravibhāga's](/source/Ratnagotravibh%C4%81ga)* view of this topic as a transcendental self that is "the unique essence of the universe".[146]

### Arguments for authenticity

Indian Mahāyāna Buddhists faced various criticisms from non-Mahāyānists regarding the authenticity of their teachings. The main critique they faced was that Mahāyāna teachings had not been taught by the Buddha, but were invented by later figures.[147][148] Numerous Mahāyāna texts discuss this issue and attempt to defend the truth and authenticity of Mahāyāna in various ways.[149]

One idea that Mahāyāna texts put forth is that Mahāyāna teachings were taught later because most people were unable to understand the Mahāyāna sūtras at the time of the Buddha and that people were ready to hear the Mahāyāna only in later times.[150] Certain traditional accounts state that Mahāyāna sutras were hidden away or kept safe by divine beings like [Nagas](/source/N%C4%81ga) or bodhisattvas until the time came for their dissemination.[151][152]

Similarly, some sources also state that Mahāyāna teachings were revealed by other Buddhas, bodhisattvas and [devas](/source/Deva_(Buddhism)) to a select number of individuals (often through visions or dreams).[149] Some scholars have seen a connection between this idea and Mahāyāna meditation practices which involve the visualization of Buddhas and their Buddha-lands.[153]

Another argument that Indian Buddhists used in favor of the Mahāyāna is that its teachings are true and lead to awakening since they are in line with the Dharma. Because of this, they can be said to be "well said" (*subhasita)*, and therefore, they can be said to be the word of the Buddha in this sense. This idea that whatever is "well spoken" is the Buddha's word can be traced to the earliest Buddhist texts, but it is interpreted more widely in Mahāyāna.[154] From the Mahāyāna point of view, a teaching is the "word of the Buddha" because it is in accord with the [Dharma](/source/Dharma), not because it was spoken by a specific individual (i.e. [Gautama](/source/Gautama_Buddha)).[155] This idea can be seen in the writings of [Shantideva](/source/Shantideva) (8th century), who argues that an "inspired utterance" is the Buddha word if it is "connected with the truth", "connected with the Dharma", "brings about renunciation of kleshas, not their increase" and "it shows the laudable qualities of nirvana, not those of samsara".[156]

The modern Japanese Zen Buddhist scholar [D. T. Suzuki](/source/D._T._Suzuki) similarly argued that while the Mahāyāna sūtras may not have been directly taught by the historical Buddha, the "spirit and central ideas" of Mahāyāna derive from the Buddha. According to Suzuki, Mahāyāna evolved and adapted itself to suit the times by developing new teachings and texts, while maintaining the spirit of the Buddha.[157]

### Claims of superiority

Mahāyāna often sees itself as penetrating further and more profoundly into the Buddha's [Dharma](/source/Dharma). An Indian commentary on the *[Mahāyānasaṃgraha](/source/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81nasa%E1%B9%83graha)*, gives a classification of teachings according to the capabilities of the audience:[158]

According to disciples' grades, the Dharma is classified as inferior and superior. For example, the inferior was taught to the merchants [Trapuṣa and Ballika](/source/Trapusa_and_Bahalika) because they were ordinary men; the middle was [taught to the group of five](/source/Dhammacakkappavattana_Sutta) because they were at the stage of saints; the eightfold *Prajñāpāramitās* were taught to bodhisattvas, and [the *Prajñāpāramitās*] are superior in eliminating conceptually imagined forms. - *Vivṛtaguhyārthapiṇḍavyākhyā*

There is also a tendency in Mahāyāna sūtras to regard adherence to these sūtras as generating spiritual benefits greater than those that arise from being a follower of the non-Mahāyāna approaches. Thus the *[Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra](/source/%C5%9Ar%C4%ABm%C4%81l%C4%81dev%C4%AB_Si%E1%B9%83han%C4%81da_S%C5%ABtra)* claims that the Buddha said that devotion to Mahāyāna is inherently superior in its virtues to following the [śrāvaka](/source/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka) or [pratyekabuddha](/source/Pratyekabuddha) paths.[159]

The commentary on the *[Abhidharmasamuccaya](/source/Abhidharma-samuccaya)* gives the following seven reasons for the "greatness" of the Mahayana:[160]

1. Greatness of support (ālambana): the path of the bodhisatva is supported by the limitless teachings of the *Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred Thousand Verses* and other texts;

1. Greatness of practice (pratipatti): the comprehensive practice for the benefit of self and others (sva-para-artha);

1. Greatness of understanding (jñāna): from understanding the absence of self in persons and phenomena (pudgala-dharma-nairātmya);

1. Greatness of energy (vīrya): from devotion to many hundreds of thousands of difficult tasks during three incalculable great aeons (mahākalpa);

1. Greatness of resourcefulness (upāyakauśalya): because of not taking a stand in Saṃsāra or Nirvāṇa;

1. Greatness of attainment (prāpti): because of the attainment of immeasurable and uncountable powers (bala), confidences (vaiśāradya), and dharmas unique to Buddhas ( āveṇika-buddhadharma);

1. Greatness of deeds (karma): because of willing the performance of the deeds of a Buddha until the end of Saṃsāra by displaying awakening, etc.

## Practice

Tibetan Buddhist prayer festival ([monlam](/source/Monlam_Prayer_Festival)) at [Bodh Gaya](/source/Bodh_Gaya)

Mahāyāna Buddhist practice is quite varied. A common set of virtues and practices which is shared by all Mahāyāna traditions are the six perfections or transcendent virtues (*[pāramitā](/source/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81)*). Another central practice advocated by numerous Mahāyāna sources is focused around "the acquisition of [merit](/source/Merit_(Buddhism)), the universal currency of the Buddhist world, a vast quantity of which was believed to be necessary for the attainment of Buddhahood".[161]

### Devotion, ritual and meritorious practices

An elderly [Tibetan](/source/Tibet) woman with a [prayer wheel](/source/Prayer_wheel) inscribed with mantras

Devotees chanting before an image of [Guanyin](/source/Guanyin) (a feminine form of [Avalokiteshvara](/source/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara)), at [Longshan Temple](/source/Longshan_Temple_metro_station), [Taipei](/source/Taipei), [Taiwan](/source/Taiwan).

Indian Mahayana Buddhist practice included numerous elements of [devotion](/source/Buddhist_devotion) and [ritual](/source/Ritual), which were considered to generate much [merit (punya)](/source/Merit_(Buddhism)) and to allow the devotee to obtain the [power or spiritual blessings](/source/Other_power#Indian_precedents) of the Buddhas and bodhisattvas. These elements remain a key part of Mahayana Buddhism today. Some key Mahayana practices in this vein include:

1. **Devotion to Buddhas and Bodhisattvas**: Mahayana bodhisattvas like [Avalokiteśvara](/source/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara), [Mañjuśrī](/source/Manjushri), [Tara](/source/Tara_(Buddhism)) and [Amitābha](/source/Amit%C4%81bha) Buddha are central objects of devotion. Practitioners may recite their names or mantras, bow in front of their statues and offer prayers and physical offerings like flowers and incense to receive their blessings, guidance, or assistance in achieving enlightenment or rebirth in a [pure land](/source/Pure_land).[162][163][164] In temples and monasteries, offering ceremonies ([pūjās](/source/P%C5%ABj%C4%81)) are performed by monks in specific shrines with Buddha statues and other artwork. Donating or contributing money to the building of a [Buddha statue](/source/Buddha_in_art) or shrine is also another way to practice devotion to these figures.

1. **Formally taking [bodhisattva vows](/source/Bodhisattva_vow)** (*[praṇidhāna](/source/Bodhisattva_vow)*) which entails formally reciting several vows or resolutions to follow the [bodhisattva](/source/Bodhisattva) path.[165]

1. **Text focused practices**: The reading, listening to, recitation, memorization, and study of [Mahayana sutras](/source/Mahayana_sutras), as well as the teaching of their content to others, was major practice in Indian Mahayana and remains influential today.[166] Furthermore, [sutra copying](/source/Sutra_copying), the handwriting of Mahayana sūtra manuscripts (or funding such a project) is also considered a very meritorious act.[167] Sūtra veneration was also practiced, with the physical text treated as a sacred object, often placed on altars, adorned with offerings and communally recited.[168]

1. **Chanting:** [Buddhist chanting](/source/Buddhist_music) or recitation of sutras, prayers, mantras, and [dhāraṇīs](/source/Dharani) is another major ritual element in Mahayana.[169] One text which seems to have been popular in India was the *Aspiration Prayer for Good Conduct* (Bhadracaryā-praṇidhāna or Samantabhadra-caryā-praṇidhāna).[170] In East Asian Mahayana, one of the most widely chanted texts is the *[Heart Sutra](/source/Heart_Sutra)*.

1. **Holy sites and temples**: Indian Mahayana Buddhists often performed devotional practices in specific holy sites, which often included [stupas](/source/Stupa), [temples](/source/Temple), shrines ([chaitya](/source/Chaitya)) with Buddha statues and other shrines and [Buddhist caves](/source/Buddhist_caves_in_India). Mahayana temples which focused on housing a central Buddha image became the norm during the [Gupta period](/source/Gupta_Empire).[171] Pilgrims would often circumambulate the sites, make offerings of flowers, incense, and light, and engage in acts of reverence such as bowing or prostrating. [Buddhist temples](/source/Buddhist_temple), stupas and shrines remain an important element of Mahayana Buddhism.

1. **"Seven part worship"** (*saptāṇgapūjā* or *saptavidhā anuttarapūjā*), an Indic Mahayana ritual formula which included: vandana (obeisance, bowing) puja (worship), going for refuge, confession of bad deeds (papadesana), rejoicing in merit of all good deeds (anumodana), prayer (adhyesana) and requesting Buddhas to teach (yacana), atmabhavadi-parityagah (surrender) and [pariṇāmanā](/source/Transfer_of_merit) (the transfer of one's merit to others).[172] These ritual elements remain important in Mahayana Buddhist ritual practice. For example, these elements are incorporated into modern Tibetan Buddhist [sadhanas](/source/S%C4%81dhan%C4%81) (ritual recitations, meditation rituals) and they are also incorporated into East Asian Buddhist rituals (such as confession rites, and refuge rituals).

### The bodhisattva perfections

Mahāyāna sūtras, especially those of the *Prajñāpāramitā* genre, teach the practice of the six transcendent virtues or perfections (*[pāramitā](/source/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81)*) as part of the path to [Buddhahood](/source/Buddhahood). Special attention is given to transcendent knowledge (*prajñāpāramitā*), which is seen as a primary virtue.[173] According to [Donald S. Lopez Jr.](/source/Donald_S._Lopez_Jr.), the term *pāramitā* can mean "excellence" or "[perfection](/source/Perfection)" as well as "that which has gone beyond" or "[transcendence](/source/Transcendence_(religion))".[174]

The [*Prajñapāramitā sūtras*](/source/Prajnaparamita), and a large number of other Mahāyāna texts list six perfections:[175][176][161]

1. *[Dāna](/source/D%C4%81na) pāramitā*: generosity, charity, giving

1. *[Śīla](/source/%C5%9A%C4%ABla) pāramitā*: virtue, discipline, proper conduct (see also: [Bodhisattva precepts](/source/Bodhisattva_Precepts))

1. *[*Kṣānti*](/source/Kshanti) pāramitā*: patience, tolerance, forbearance, acceptance, endurance

1. *[Vīrya](/source/V%C4%ABrya) pāramitā*: energy, diligence, vigour, effort

1. *[Dhyāna](/source/Dhy%C4%81na_in_Buddhism) pāramitā*: one-pointed concentration, contemplation, meditation

1. *[Prajñā pāramitā](/source/Prajnaparamita)*: transcendent wisdom, spiritual knowledge

This list is also mentioned by the Theravāda commentator [Dhammapala](/source/Dhammapala), who describes it as a categorization of the same ten perfections of Theravāda Buddhism. According to Dhammapala, *Sacca* is classified as both *Śīla* and *Prajñā*, *Mettā* and *Upekkhā* are classified as *Dhyāna*, and *Adhiṭṭhāna* falls under all six.[176] Bhikkhu Bodhi states that the correlations between the two sets show there was a shared core before the Theravāda and Mahāyāna schools split.[177]

In the *[Ten Stages Sutra](/source/Ten_Stages_Sutra)* and the *[Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra](/source/Mah%C4%81ratnak%C5%AB%E1%B9%ADa_S%C5%ABtra)*, four more pāramitās are listed:[108]

- 7. *[Upāya](/source/Upaya) pāramitā*: skillful means

- 8. *[Praṇidhāna](/source/Bodhisattva_vow) pāramitā*: vow, resolution, aspiration, determination, this related to the [bodhisattva vows](/source/Bodhisattva_vow)

- 9. *[Bala](/source/Five_Strengths) pāramitā*: spiritual power

- 10. *[Jñāna](/source/Jnana) pāramitā*: knowledge

### Meditation

Japanese [Sōtō Zen](/source/S%C5%8Dt%C5%8D) Buddhist monk meditating and begging for alms at Oigawa, [Kyoto](/source/Kyoto).

Zen master Bodhidharma meditating, Ukiyo-e woodblock print by [Tsukioka Yoshitoshi](/source/Yoshitoshi), 1887

Mahāyāna Buddhism teaches a vast array of meditation practices. These include meditations which are shared with the early Buddhist traditions, including [mindfulness of breathing](/source/Anapanasati); [mindfulness of the unattractivenes of the body](/source/Patikulamanasikara); [loving-kindness](/source/Maitr%C4%AB); the contemplation of [dependent origination](/source/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da); and [mindfulness of the Buddha](/source/Buddh%C4%81nusm%E1%B9%9Bti).[178][179] In [Chinese Buddhism](/source/Chinese_Buddhism), these five practices are known as the "five methods for stilling or pacifying the mind" and support the development of the stages of [*dhyana*](/source/Dhy%C4%81na_in_Buddhism).[180]

The [*Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra*](/source/Yogacarabhumi-sastra) (compiled c. 4th century), which is the most comprehensive Indian treatise on Mahāyāna practice, discusses classic Buddhist numerous meditation methods and topics, including the four [*dhyānas*](/source/Dhy%C4%81na_in_Buddhism), the different kinds of [*samādhi*](/source/Samadhi), the development of insight (*[vipaśyanā](/source/Vipa%C5%9Byan%C4%81)*) and tranquility (*[śamatha](/source/Samatha)*), the [four foundations of mindfulness](/source/Satipatthana) (*smṛtyupasthāna*), the five hindrances (*[nivaraṇa](/source/Five_hindrances)*), and classic Buddhist meditations such as the contemplation of unattractiveness, impermanence (*[anitya](/source/Impermanence)*), suffering (*[duḥkha](/source/Dukkha)*), and contemplation death (*[maraṇasaṃjñā](/source/Mara%E1%B9%87asati)*).[181]

Other works of the [Yogācāra](/source/Yogacarabhumi-sastra) school, such as [Asaṅga](/source/Asa%E1%B9%85ga)'s *[Abhidharmasamuccaya](/source/Abhidharma-samuccaya),* and Vasubandhu's *[Madhyāntavibhāga](/source/Madhyanta-vibhaga-karika)-bhāsya* also discuss meditation topics such as [mindfulness](/source/Sati_(Buddhism)), *[smṛtyupasthāna](/source/Satipatthana),* the [37 wings to awakening](/source/Bodhipakkhiy%C4%81dhamm%C4%81)*,* and *[samadhi](/source/Samadhi)*.[182]

A very popular Mahāyāna practice from very early times involved the visualization of a Buddha while practicing mindfulness of a Buddha (*buddhānusmṛti*) along with their Pure Land. This practice could lead the meditator to feel that they were in the presence of the Buddha and in some cases it was held that it could lead to visions of the Buddhas, through which one could receive teachings from them.[183]

This meditation is taught in numerous Mahāyāna sūtras such as the [Pure Land sutras](/source/Pure_Land_Buddhism#The_arrival_of_the_Pure_Land_sutras_in_China), the *Akṣobhya-vyūha* and the *[Pratyutpanna Samādhi](/source/Pratyutpanna_Sam%C4%81dhi_S%C5%ABtra)*.[184][185] The *Pratyutpanna* states that through mindfulness of the Buddha meditation one may be able to meet this Buddha in a vision or a dream and learn from them.[186]

Similarly, the *[Samādhirāja Sūtra](/source/Samadhiraja_Sutra)* for states that:[187]

Those who, while walking, sitting, standing, or sleeping, recollect the moon-like Buddha, will always be in Buddha's presence and will attain the vast nirvāṇa. His pure body is the colour of gold, beautiful is the Protector of the World. Whoever visualizes him like this practises the meditation of the bodhisattvas.

An 18th century Mongolian miniature which depicts a monk generating a tantric visualization

In the case of [Pure Land Buddhism](/source/Pure_Land_Buddhism), it is widely held that the practice of reciting the Buddha's name (called *[nianfo](/source/Nianfo)* in Chinese and *nembutsu* in Japanese) can lead to rebirth in a Buddha's Pure Land, as well as other positive outcomes. In East Asian Buddhism, the most popular Buddha used for this practice is [Amitabha.](/source/Amit%C4%81bha)[183][188]

East Asian Mahāyāna Buddhism also teaches numerous unique meditation methods, including the Chan (Zen) practices of [huatou](/source/Hua_Tou), [koan meditation](/source/Koan), and silent illumination (Chinese: *mòzhào,* which developed into the Japanese *[shikantaza](/source/Shikantaza)* method). Indo-Tibetan Buddhism also includes numerous unique forms of Mahāyāna contemplations, such as *[tonglen](/source/Tonglen)* ("sending and receiving"), *[lojong](/source/Lojong)* ("mind training") and [samatha-vipasyana](/source/Samatha-vipassana).

There are also numerous meditative practices that are generally considered to be part of a separate category rather than general or mainstream Mahāyāna meditation. These are the various practices associated with [Vajrayāna](/source/Vajrayana) (also termed Mantrayāna, Secret Mantra, Buddhist Tantra, and Esoteric Buddhism). This family of practices, which include such varied forms as [Deity Yoga](/source/Tibetan_Tantric_Practice), [Dzogchen](/source/Dzogchen), [Mahamudra](/source/Mahamudra), the [Six Dharmas of Nāropa](/source/Six_Dharmas_of_Naropa), the recitation of [mantras](/source/Mantra) and [dharanis](/source/Dharani), and the use of [mudras](/source/Mudra) and [mandalas](/source/Mandala), are very important in Tibetan Buddhism as well as in some forms of East Asian Mantrayāna like [Chinese Esoteric Buddhism](/source/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism), [Shingon](/source/Shingon_Buddhism), and [Tendai](/source/Tendai).

## Scripture

*Astasahasrika [Prajñaparamita](/source/Prajnaparamita)* Manuscript. Prajñaparamita and Scenes from the Buddha's Life (top), [Maitreya](/source/Maitreya) and Scenes from the Buddha's Life (bottom), c. 1075

Frontispiece of the Chinese *[Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra](/source/Diamond_Sutra)*, the oldest known dated [printed](/source/Woodblock_printing) book in the world

Mahāyāna Buddhism takes the basic teachings of the Buddha as recorded in [early scriptures](/source/Early_Buddhist_Texts) as the starting point of its teachings, such as those concerning [karma](/source/Karma_in_Buddhism) and [rebirth](/source/Rebirth_(Buddhism)), [anātman](/source/Anatman), [emptiness](/source/Shunyata), [dependent origination](/source/Dependent_origination), and the [Four Noble Truths](/source/Four_Noble_Truths). [Mahāyāna Buddhists in East Asia](/source/East_Asian_Buddhism) have traditionally studied these teachings in the [Āgamas](/source/%C4%80gama_(Buddhism)) preserved in the [Chinese Buddhist canon](/source/Chinese_Buddhist_canon). "Āgama" is the term used by those traditional Buddhist schools in India who employed Sanskrit for their basic canon. These correspond to the [Nikāyas](/source/Nik%C4%81ya) used by the Theravāda school.[189]

The surviving Āgamas in Chinese translation belong to at least two schools. Most of the Āgamas were never translated into the [Tibetan canon](/source/Tibetan_Buddhist_canon), which according to Hirakawa, only contains a few translations of early sutras corresponding to the [Nikāyas](/source/Nik%C4%81ya) or Āgamas.[190] However, these basic doctrines are contained in Tibetan translations of later works such as the [*Abhidharmakośa*](/source/Abhidharmako%C5%9Bak%C4%81rik%C4%81) and the *[Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra](/source/Yogacarabhumi-sastra).*

### Mahāyāna sutras

Main article: [Mahayana sutras](/source/Mahayana_sutras)

In addition to accepting the essential scriptures of the [early Buddhist schools](/source/Early_Buddhist_schools) as valid, Mahāyāna Buddhism maintains large collections of sūtras that are not recognized as authentic by the modern [Theravāda](/source/Theravada) school. The earliest of these sutras do not call themselves 'Mahāyāna', but use the terms *vaipulya* (extensive) sutras, or *gambhira* (profound) sutras.[39] These were also not recognized by some individuals in the early Buddhist schools. In other cases, Buddhist communities such as the [Mahāsāṃghika](/source/Mah%C4%81s%C4%81%E1%B9%83ghika) school were divided along these doctrinal lines.[147]

In Mahāyāna Buddhism, the [Mahāyāna sūtras](/source/Mahayana_sutras) are often given greater authority than the Āgamas. The first of these Mahāyāna-specific writings were written probably around the 1st century BCE or 1st-century CE.[191][192] Some influential Mahāyāna sutras are the *[Prajñaparamita](/source/Prajnaparamita) sutras* such as the *[Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra](/source/A%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADas%C4%81hasrik%C4%81_Praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81_S%C5%ABtra),* the *[Lotus Sutra](/source/Lotus_Sutra),* the *[Pure Land sutras](/source/Pure_Land_Buddhism#The_arrival_of_the_Pure_Land_sutras_in_China),* the *[Vimalakirti Sutra](/source/Vimalakirti_Sutra),* the *[Golden Light Sutra](/source/Golden_Light_Sutra),* the *[Avatamsaka Sutra](/source/Avatamsaka_Sutra),* the *[Sandhinirmocana Sutra](/source/Sandhinirmocana_Sutra)* and the *[Tathāgatagarbha sūtras](/source/Tath%C4%81gatagarbha_s%C5%ABtras).*

According to David Drewes, Mahāyāna sutras contain several elements besides the promotion of the [bodhisattva](/source/Bodhisattva) ideal, including "expanded cosmologies and mythical histories, ideas of [purelands](/source/Pure_Land_Buddhism) and great, 'celestial' [Buddhas](/source/Buddhahood) and bodhisattvas, descriptions of powerful new religious practices, new ideas on the nature of the Buddha, and a range of new philosophical perspectives."[39] These texts present stories of revelation in which the Buddha teaches Mahāyāna sutras to certain bodhisattvas who vow to teach and spread these sutras after the Buddha's death.[39]

Regarding religious praxis, David Drewes outlines the most commonly promoted practices in Mahāyāna sutras were seen as means to achieve Buddhahood quickly and easily and included "hearing the names of certain Buddhas or bodhisattvas, maintaining Buddhist precepts, and listening to, memorizing, and copying sutras, that they claim can enable rebirth in the [pure lands](/source/Pure_land) [Abhirati](/source/Abhirati) and [Sukhavati](/source/Sukhavati), where it is said to be possible to easily acquire the [merit](/source/Merit_(Buddhism)) and knowledge necessary to become a Buddha in as little as one lifetime."[39] Another widely recommended practice is *[anumodana](/source/Mudita)*, or rejoicing in the good deeds of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. Anumodana is recommended as part of Mahayana ritual practices, namely the Triskandhaka and the Saptangavidhi.[193]

The practice of meditation and visualization of Buddhas has been seen by some scholars as a possible explanation for the source of certain Mahāyāna sutras which are seen traditionally as direct visionary revelations from the Buddhas in their pure lands. Paul Harrison has also noted the importance of dream revelations in certain Mahāyāna sutras such as the *Arya-svapna-nirdesa* which lists and interprets 108 dream signs.[194]

As noted by Paul Williams, one feature of Mahāyāna sutras (especially earlier ones) is "the phenomenon of laudatory self-reference – the lengthy praise of the sutra itself, the immense merits to be obtained from treating even a verse of it with reverence, and the nasty penalties which will accrue in accordance with karma to those who denigrate the scripture."[195] Some Mahāyāna sutras also warn against the accusation that they are not the word of the Buddha (*[buddhavacana](/source/Buddhavacana)),* such as the *Astasāhasrikā (8,000 verse) Prajñāpāramitā,* which states that such claims come from [Mara](/source/Mara_(demon)) (the evil tempter).[196] Some of these Mahāyāna sutras also warn those who would denigrate Mahāyāna sutras or those who preach it (i.e. the *dharmabhanaka*) that this action can lead to rebirth in [hell](/source/Naraka_(Buddhism)).[197]

Another feature of some Mahāyāna sutras, especially later ones, is increasing sectarianism and animosity towards non-Mahāyāna practitioners (sometimes called *sravakas*, "hearers") which are sometimes depicted as being part of the '[hīnayāna](/source/Hinayana)' (the 'inferior way') who refuse to accept the 'superior way' of the Mahāyāna.[93][105] As noted by Paul Williams, earlier Mahāyāna sutras like the *[Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra](/source/Ugraparip%E1%B9%9Bcch%C4%81_S%C5%ABtra)* and the *[Ajitasena sutra](/source/Ajitasena_Sutra)* do not present any antagonism towards the hearers or the ideal of [arhatship](/source/Arhat) like later sutras do.[105] Regarding the bodhisattva path, some Mahāyāna sutras promote it as a universal path for everyone, while others like the *[Ugraparipṛcchā](/source/Ugraparip%E1%B9%9Bcch%C4%81_S%C5%ABtra)* see it as something for a small elite of hardcore ascetics.[105]

In the 4th-century Mahāyāna Abhidharma work *[Abhidharmasamuccaya](/source/Abhidharma-samuccaya)*, [Asaṅga](/source/Asanga) refers to the collection which contains the āgamas as the *Śrāvakapiṭaka* and associates it with the [śrāvakas](/source/Sravaka) and [pratyekabuddhas](/source/Pratyekabuddha).[198] Asaṅga classifies the Mahāyāna sūtras as belonging to the *Bodhisattvapiṭaka*, which is designated as the collection of teachings for bodhisattvas.[198]

### Other literature

Mahāyāna Buddhism also developed a massive commentarial and exegetical literature, many of which are called [*śāstra*](/source/Shastras) (treatises) or *vrittis* (commentaries). Philosophical texts were also written in verse form (*karikās*), such as in the case of the famous *[Mūlamadhyamika-karikā](/source/Mulamadhyamakakarika)* (Root Verses on the Middle Way) by [Nagarjuna](/source/Nagarjuna), the foundational text of [Madhyamika](/source/Madhyamika) philosophy. Numerous later [Madhyamika](/source/Madhyamaka) philosophers like [Candrakirti](/source/Chandrakirti) wrote commentaries on this work as well as their own verse works.

Mahāyāna Buddhist tradition also relies on numerous non-Mahayana commentaries (śāstra), a very influential one being the *[Abhidharmakosha](/source/Abhidharmako%C5%9Bak%C4%81rik%C4%81)* of [Vasubandhu](/source/Vasubandhu), which is written from a non-Mahayana [Sarvastivada](/source/Sarvastivada)–[Sautrantika](/source/Sautr%C4%81ntika) perspective.

[Vasubandhu](/source/Vasubandhu) is also the author of various Mahāyāna [Yogacara](/source/Yogachara) texts on the philosophical theory known as *vijñapti-matra* (conscious construction only). The Yogacara school philosopher [Asanga](/source/Asanga) is also credited with numerous highly influential commentaries. In East Asia, the [*Satyasiddhi śāstra*](/source/Satyasiddhi) was also influential.

Another influential tradition is that of [Dignāga](/source/Dignaga)'s [Buddhist logic](/source/Buddhist_logic) whose work focused on [epistemology](/source/Epistemology). He produced the *[Pramānasamuccaya](/source/Pram%C4%81%E1%B9%87a-samuccaya)*, and later [Dharmakirti](/source/Dharmakirti) wrote the *[Pramānavārttikā](/source/Pramanavarttika)*, which was a commentary and reworking of the Dignaga text.

Later Tibetan and Chinese Buddhists continued the tradition of writing commentaries.

### Classifications

Dating back at least to the *[Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra](/source/Sandhinirmocana_Sutra)* is a classification of the corpus of Buddhism into three categories, based on ways of understanding the nature of reality, known as the "[Three Turnings of the Dharma Wheel](/source/Three_turnings_of_the_wheel_of_dharma)". According to this view, there were three such "turnings":[199]

1. In the first turning, the Buddha taught the [Four Noble Truths](/source/Four_Noble_Truths) at [Varanasi](/source/Varanasi) for those in the [śravaka](/source/Shravaka) vehicle. It is described as marvelous and wonderful, but requires interpretation and occasioning controversy.[200] The doctrines of the first turning are exemplified in the *[Dharmacakra Pravartana Sūtra](/source/Dhammacakkapavattana_Sutta)*. This turning represents the earliest phase of the Buddhist teachings and the earliest period in the history of Buddhism.

1. In the second turning, the Buddha taught the Mahāyāna teachings to the bodhisattvas, teaching that all phenomena have no-essence, no arising, no passing away, are originally quiescent, and essentially in cessation. This turning is also described as marvelous and wonderful, but requiring interpretation and occasioning controversy.[200] Doctrine of the second turning is established in the Prajñāpāramitā teachings, first put into writing around 100 BCE. In Indian philosophical schools, it is exemplified by the Mādhyamaka school of [Nāgārjuna](/source/Nagarjuna).

1. In the third turning, the Buddha taught similar teachings to the second turning, but for everyone in the three vehicles, including all the śravakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas. These were meant to be completely explicit teachings in their entire detail, for which interpretations would not be necessary, and controversy would not occur.[200] These teachings were established by the *[Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra](/source/Sandhinirmocana_Sutra)* as early as the 1st or 2nd century CE.[201] In the Indian philosophical schools, the third turning is exemplified by the [Yogācāra](/source/Yogachara) school of Asaṅga and [Vasubandhu](/source/Vasubandhu).

Some traditions of [Tibetan Buddhism](/source/Tibetan_Buddhism) consider the teachings of Esoteric Buddhism and [Vajrayāna](/source/Vajrayana) to be the third turning of the Dharma Wheel.[202] Tibetan teachers, particularly of the [Gelugpa](/source/Gelug) school, regard the second turning as the highest teaching, because of their particular interpretation of Yogācāra doctrine. The [Buddha Nature](/source/Tathagatagarbha) teachings are normally included in the third turning of the wheel.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

The different [Chinese Buddhist](/source/Chinese_Buddhism) traditions have different schemes of doctrinal periodization called *[panjiao](/source/Three_Turnings_of_the_Wheel_of_Dharma#Other_similar_classifications)* which they use to organize the sometimes bewildering array of texts.

### Relationship with the early texts

Scholars have noted that many key Mahāyāna ideas are closely connected to the [earliest texts of Buddhism](/source/Early_Buddhist_Texts). The seminal work of Mahāyāna philosophy, [Nāgārjuna's](/source/Nagarjuna) *[Mūlamadhyamakakārikā](/source/Mulamadhyamakakarika)*, mentions the canon's *Katyāyana Sūtra* (SA 301) by name, and may be an extended commentary on that work.[203] Nāgārjuna systematized the [Mādhyamaka](/source/Madhyamaka) school of Mahāyāna philosophy. He may have arrived at his positions from a desire to achieve a consistent exegesis of the Buddha's doctrine as recorded in the canon. In his eyes, the Buddha was not merely a forerunner, but the very founder of the Mādhyamaka system.[204] Nāgārjuna also referred to a passage in the canon regarding "[nirvanic consciousness](/source/Nirvana#Luminous_consciousness)" in two different works.[205]

[Yogācāra](/source/Yogacara), the other prominent Mahāyāna school in dialectic with the Mādhyamaka school, gave a special significance to the canon's *Lesser Discourse on Emptiness* (MA 190).[206] A passage there (which the discourse itself emphasizes) is often quoted in later Yogācāra texts as a true definition of [emptiness](/source/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81).[207] According to [Walpola Rahula](/source/Walpola_Rahula), the thought presented in the Yogācāra school's *[Abhidharma-samuccaya](/source/Abhidharma-samuccaya)* is undeniably closer to that of the Pali [Nikayas](/source/Nikayas) than is that of the Theravadin [Abhidhamma](/source/Abhidhamma).[208]

Both the Mādhyamikas and the Yogācārins saw themselves as preserving the Buddhist Middle Way between the extremes of nihilism (everything as unreal) and substantialism (substantial entities existing). The Yogācārins criticized the Mādhyamikas for tending towards nihilism, while the Mādhyamikas criticized the Yogācārins for tending towards substantialism.[209]

Key Mahāyāna texts introducing the concepts of [bodhicitta](/source/Bodhicitta) and [Buddha nature](/source/Buddha_nature) also use language parallel to passages in the canon containing the Buddha's description of "[luminous mind](/source/Luminous_mind)" and appear to have evolved from this idea.[210][211]

## Contemporary forms of Mahāyāna Buddhism

Map showing the [three major Buddhist divisions](/source/Schools_of_Buddhism)

The main contemporary traditions of Mahāyāna in Asia are:

- The [East Asian Mahāyāna](/source/East_Asian_Buddhism) traditions of China, Korea, Japan and Vietnam, also known as "Eastern Buddhism". [Peter Harvey](/source/Peter_Harvey_(Buddhism)) estimates that there are about 360 million Eastern Buddhists in Asia.[212]

- The [Indo-Tibetan tradition](/source/Tibetan_Buddhism) (Vajrayana Buddhism, mainly found in Tibet, Inner Mongolia and elsewhere in Western China, Mongolia, Bhutan, parts of India, Nepal and Russia, also known as "Northern Buddhism". According to Harvey "the number of people belonging to Northern Buddhism totals only around 18.2 million."[213]

There are also some minor Mahāyāna traditions practiced by minority groups, such as [Newar Buddhism](/source/Newar_Buddhism) practiced by the [Newar people](/source/Newar_people) ([Nepal](/source/Nepal)) and [Azhaliism](/source/Azhaliism) practiced by the [Bai people](/source/Bai_people) ([Yunnan](/source/Yunnan)).

Furthermore, there are also various [new religious movements](/source/New_religious_movement) which either see themselves as Mahāyāna or are strongly influenced by Mahāyāna Buddhism. Examples of these include [Hòa Hảo](/source/H%C3%B2a_H%E1%BA%A3o), [Won Buddhism](/source/Won_Buddhism), [Triratna Buddhist Community](/source/Triratna_Buddhist_Community) and [Sōka Gakkai](/source/Soka_Gakkai).

Lastly, there are various [East Asian religious traditions](/source/East_Asian_religions) which are strongly influenced by Mahāyāna Buddhism, though they may not be considered as being "Buddhist" per se. These include: [Bon](/source/Bon), [Shugendo](/source/Shugend%C5%8D), Mongolian [Yellow shamanism](/source/Yellow_shamanism), Syncretized Shinto ([shinbutsu-shūgō](/source/Shinbutsu-sh%C5%ABg%C5%8D)) and some of the [Chinese salvationist religions](/source/Chinese_salvationist_religions).

Most of the major forms of contemporary Mahāyāna Buddhism are also practiced by Asian immigrant populations in the West and also by western convert Buddhists. For more on this topic see: [Buddhism in the West](/source/Buddhism_in_the_West).

### Chinese

[Fo Guang Shan Buddha Museum](/source/Fo_Guang_Shan_Buddha_Museum), [Taiwan](/source/Taiwan)

Contemporary Han [Chinese Buddhism](/source/Chinese_Buddhism) is practiced through many varied forms, such as [Chan](/source/Chan_Buddhism) (Zen), [Pure land](/source/Pure_Land_Buddhism), [Tiantai](/source/Tiantai), [Huayan](/source/Huayan) and [mantra practices](/source/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism). This group is the largest population of Buddhists in the world. There are between 228 and 239 million Mahāyāna Buddhists in the [People's Republic of China](/source/China). This does not include the Tibetan and Mongolian Buddhists who practice Tibetan Buddhism.[212]

Harvey gives the East Asian Mahāyāna Buddhist population in other countries as follows: [Taiwanese Buddhists](/source/Buddhism_in_Taiwan), 8 million; [Malaysian Buddhists](/source/Buddhism_in_Malaysia), 5.5 million; [Singaporean Buddhists](/source/Buddhism_in_Singapore), 1.5 million; [Hong Kong](/source/Buddhism_in_Hong_Kong), 0.7 million; [Indonesian Buddhists](/source/Buddhism_in_Indonesia), 4 million, [The Philippines](/source/Buddhism_in_the_Philippines): 2.3 million.[212] Most of these are Han Chinese populations.

Chinese Buddhism can be divided into various different traditions (*zong*), such as [Sanlun](/source/East_Asian_M%C4%81dhyamaka), [Faxiang](/source/East_Asian_Yog%C4%81c%C4%81ra), [Tiantai](/source/Tiantai), [Huayan](/source/Huayan), [Pure Land](/source/Pure_Land_Buddhism), [Chan](/source/Chan_Buddhism), and [Zhenyan](/source/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism). However, historically, most temples, institutions and Buddhist practitioners usually did not belong to any single "sect" (as is common in Japanese Buddhism), but draw from the various different elements of Chinese Buddhist thought and practice. This non-sectarian and eclectic aspect of Chinese Buddhism as a whole has persisted from its historical beginnings into its modern practice.[214][215]

The modern development of an ideology called [Humanistic Buddhism](/source/Humanistic_Buddhism) ([Chinese](/source/Chinese_language): 人間佛教; [pinyin](/source/Pinyin): *rénjiān fójiào, more literally* "Buddhism for the Human World") has also been influential on Chinese Buddhist leaders and institutions.[216] Chinese Buddhists may also practice some form of religious syncretism with other [Chinese religions](/source/Religion_in_China), such as [Taoism](/source/Taoism).[217] In modern China, the [reform and opening up](/source/Reform_and_opening_up) period in the late 20th century saw a particularly significant increase in the number of converts to Chinese Buddhism, a growth which has been called "extraordinary".[218]

### Korean

[Korean Buddhism](/source/Korean_Buddhism) is dominated by the Korean [Seon](/source/Korean_Seon) school (i.e. Zen), primarily represented by the [Jogye Order](/source/Jogye_Order) and the [Taego Order](/source/Taego_Order). Korean Seon also includes some Pure Land practice.[219] It is mainly practiced in [South Korea](/source/South_Korea), with a rough population of about 10.9 million Buddhists.[212] There are also some minor Korean schools, such as the [Cheontae](/source/Cheontae) (i.e. Korean Tiantai), and the esoteric [Jingak](/source/Jingak_Order) and Chinŏn schools.

While [North Korea](/source/North_Korea)'s [totalitarian](/source/Totalitarianism) government remains repressive and ambivalent towards religion, at least 11 percent of the population is considered to be Buddhist according to Williams.[220]

### Japanese

[Japanese Buddhism](/source/Buddhism_in_Japan) is divided into numerous traditions which include various sects of [Pure Land Buddhism](/source/Pure_Land_Buddhism#Japanese_Pure_Land) (the largest being [Shin](/source/J%C5%8Ddo_Shinsh%C5%AB) and [Jodo](/source/J%C5%8Ddo-sh%C5%AB)), [Tendai](/source/Tendai), [Nichiren Buddhism](/source/Nichiren_Buddhism), [Shingon](/source/Shingon_Buddhism) and three major sects of [Zen](/source/Japanese_Zen) ([Soto](/source/S%C5%8Dt%C5%8D), [Rinzai](/source/Rinzai_school) and [Obaku](/source/%C5%8Cbaku)). There are also various Mahāyāna oriented [Japanese new religions](/source/Japanese_new_religions) that arose in the [post-war period](/source/Post-war). Many of these new religions are lay movements like [Sōka Gakkai](/source/Soka_Gakkai), [Risshō Kōsei Kai](/source/Rissh%C5%8D_K%C5%8Dsei_Kai) and [Agon Shū](/source/Agon_Shu).[221]

An estimate of the Japanese Mahāyāna Buddhist population is given by Harvey as 52 million and a recent 2018 survey puts the number at 84 million.[212][222] It should also be noted that many Japanese Buddhists also participate in [Shinto](/source/Shinto) practices, such as visiting shrines, collecting amulets and attending festivals.[223]

### Vietnamese

[Vietnamese Buddhism](/source/Buddhism_in_Vietnam) is strongly influenced by the Chinese tradition. It is a synthesis of numerous practices and ideas. Vietnamese Mahāyāna draws practices from [Vietnamese *Thiền*](/source/Vietnamese_Thi%E1%BB%81n) (Chan/Zen), *Tịnh độ* (Pure Land), and *Mật Tông* (Mantrayana) and its philosophy from *Hoa Nghiêm* (Huayan) and *Thiên Thai* (Tiantai).[224] New Mahāyāna movements have also developed in the modern era, perhaps the most influential of which has been [Thích Nhất Hạnh](/source/Th%C3%ADch_Nh%E1%BA%A5t_H%E1%BA%A1nh)'s [Plum Village Tradition](/source/Plum_Village_Tradition), which also draws from Theravāda Buddhism.

Though Vietnamese Buddhism suffered extensively during the [Vietnam war](/source/Vietnam_War) (1955–1975) and during subsequent [communist takeover of the south](/source/Fall_of_Saigon), there has been a revival of the religion since the liberalization period following 1986. There are about 43 million Vietnamese Mahāyāna Buddhists.[212]

### Tibetan

The 14th [Dalai Lama](/source/Dalai_Lama) [Tenzin Gyatso](/source/14th_Dalai_Lama) with [Desmond Tutu](/source/Desmond_Tutu) in 2004. Due to his charisma, the Dalai Lama has become the international face of contemporary Tibetan Buddhism[225]

[Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism or "Northern" Buddhism](/source/Tibetan_Buddhism) derives from the [Indian](/source/India) [Vajrayana Buddhism](/source/Vajrayana_Buddhism) that was adopted in medieval [Tibet](/source/Tibet). Though it includes numerous [tantric Buddhist practices](/source/Tibetan_Tantric_Practice) not found in East Asian Mahāyāna, Northern Buddhism still considers itself as part of Mahāyāna Buddhism (albeit as one which also contains a more effective and distinct vehicle or *yana*).

Contemporary Northern Buddhism is traditionally practiced mainly in the [Himalayan regions](/source/Himalayas) and in some regions of North [Central Asia](/source/Central_Asia), including:[226]

- The [Tibet autonomous region](/source/Tibet_Autonomous_Region) (PRC): 5.4 million

- North and North-east India ([Sikkhim](/source/Sikkim), [Ladakh](/source/Ladakh), [West Bengal](/source/West_Bengal), [Jammu and Kashmir](/source/Jammu_and_Kashmir_(state))): 0.4 million

- [Pakistan](/source/Pakistan): 0.16 million

- [Nepal](/source/Nepal): 2.9 million

- [Bhutan](/source/Bhutan): 0.49 million

- [Mongolia](/source/Mongolia): 2.7 million

- [Inner Mongolia](/source/Inner_Mongolia) (PRC): 5 million

- [Buryatia](/source/Buryatia), [Tuva](/source/Tuva) and [Kalmykia](/source/Kalmykia) ([Russian Federation](/source/Russia)): 0.7 million

As with Eastern Buddhism, the practice of northern Buddhism declined in Tibet, China and Mongolia during the communist takeover of these regions (Mongolia: 1924, Tibet: 1959). Tibetan Buddhism continued to be practiced among the [Tibetan diaspora](/source/Tibetan_diaspora) population, as well as by other Himalayan peoples in Bhutan, Ladakh and Nepal. Post-1980s though, Northern Buddhism has seen a revival in both Tibet and Mongolia due to more liberal government policies towards religious freedom.[227] Northern Buddhism is also now practiced in the Western world by western convert Buddhists.

## Relationship to the Theravāda school

Main article: [Theravada](/source/Theravada)

### Role of the Bodhisattva

In the early Buddhist texts, and as taught by the modern [Theravada](/source/Theravada) school, the goal of becoming a teaching Buddha in a future life is viewed as the aim of a small group of individuals striving to benefit future generations after the current Buddha's teachings have been lost, but in the current age there is no need for most practitioners to aspire to this goal. Theravāda texts do, however, hold that this is a more perfectly virtuous goal.[228]

Paul Williams writes that some modern Theravāda meditation masters in [Thailand](/source/Thailand) are popularly regarded as bodhisattvas.[229]

Cholvijarn observes that prominent figures associated with the [Self perspective](/source/Dhammakaya_Movement) in Thailand have often been famous outside scholarly circles as well, among the wider populace, as Buddhist meditation masters and sources of miracles and sacred [amulets](/source/Amulet). Like perhaps some of the early Mahāyāna forest hermit monks, or the later Buddhist Tantrics, they have become people of power through their meditative achievements. They are widely revered, worshipped, and held to be arhats or (note!) bodhisattvas.

### Theravāda and Hīnayāna

In the 7th century, the Chinese Buddhist monk [Xuanzang](/source/Xuanzang) describes the concurrent existence of the [Mahāvihara](/source/Mahavihara) and the [Abhayagiri](/source/Abhayagiri_Dagaba) Vihara in [Sri Lanka](/source/Sri_Lanka). He refers to the monks of the Mahāvihara as the "Hīnayāna Sthaviras" (*Theras*), and the monks of the Abhayagiri Vihara as the "Mahāyāna Sthaviras".[230] Xuanzang further writes:[231]

The Mahāvihāravāsins reject the Mahāyāna and practice the Hīnayāna, while the Abhayagirivihāravāsins study both Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna teachings and propagate the *[Tripiṭaka](/source/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka)*.

The modern Theravāda school is usually described as belonging to Hīnayāna.[232][233][234][235][236] Some authors have argued that it should not be considered such from the Mahāyāna perspective. Their view is based on a different understanding of the concept of Hīnayāna. Rather than regarding the term as referring to any school of Buddhism that has not accepted the Mahāyāna canon and doctrines, such as those pertaining to the role of the bodhisattva,[233][235] these authors argue that the classification of a school as "Hīnayāna" should be crucially dependent on the adherence to a specific [phenomenological](/source/Phenomenology_of_religion) position. They point out that unlike the now-extinct [Sarvāstivāda](/source/Sarvastivada) school, which was the primary object of Mahāyāna criticism, the Theravāda does not claim the existence of independent [entities](/source/Dharma#In_Buddhist_phenomenology) (*dharmas*); in this it maintains the attitude of early Buddhism.[237][238][239]

Adherents of Mahāyāna Buddhism disagreed with the substantialist thought of the Sarvāstivādins and [Sautrāntikas](/source/Sautrantika), and in emphasizing the doctrine of [emptiness](/source/Sunyata), Kalupahana holds that they endeavored to preserve the early teaching.[240] The Theravādins too refuted the Sarvāstivādins and Sautrāntikas (and other schools) on the grounds that their theories were in conflict with the non-substantialism of the canon. The Theravāda arguments are preserved in the *[Kathāvatthu](/source/Kathavatthu)*.[241]

Some contemporary Theravādin figures have indicated a sympathetic stance toward the Mahāyāna philosophy found in texts such as the *[Heart Sūtra](/source/Heart_Sutra)* (Skt. *Prajñāpāramitā Hṛdaya*) and Nāgārjuna's *[Fundamental Stanzas on the Middle Way](/source/Mulamadhyamakakarika)* (Skt. *Mūlamadhyamakakārikā*).[242][243]

## See also

- [Buddha-nature](/source/Buddha-nature)

- [Buddhist holidays](/source/Buddhist_holidays)

- [Creator in Buddhism](/source/Creator_in_Buddhism)

- [Dzogchen](/source/Dzogchen)

- [Early Buddhist schools](/source/Early_Buddhist_schools)

- [Faith in Buddhism](/source/Faith_in_Buddhism)

- *[Golden Light Sutra](/source/Golden_Light_Sutra)*

- [History of Buddhism](/source/History_of_Buddhism)

- [Index of Buddhism-related articles](/source/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles)

- *[Lotus Sutra](/source/Lotus_Sutra)*

- *[Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra](/source/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na_Mah%C4%81parinirv%C4%81%E1%B9%87a_S%C5%ABtra)*

- [Mahayana sutras](/source/Mahayana_sutras)

- [Pure land](/source/Pure_land)

- [Rebirth](/source/Rebirth_(Buddhism))

- [Schools of Buddhism](/source/Schools_of_Buddhism)

- [Secular Buddhism](/source/Secular_Buddhism)

- [Silk Road transmission of Buddhism](/source/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism)

- [Śūnyatā](/source/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81)

- [Tendai](/source/Tendai)

- [Tibetan Buddhism](/source/Tibetan_Buddhism)

- [Zen](/source/Zen)

## Notes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** - English: [/ˌmɑːhəˈjɑːnə, ˌmʌ-/](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English) [*MAH-hə-YAH-nə, MUH-*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key) - [Sanskrit](/source/Sanskrit_language): महायान, [romanized](/source/Romanization_of_Sanskrit): *Mahāyāna*, pronounced [\[mɐɦaːˈjaːnɐ\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Sanskrit); lit. 'Great Vehicle' - [Chinese](/source/Chinese_language): 大乘; [pinyin](/source/Pinyin): *Dàchéng, Dàshèng* - [Japanese](/source/Japanese_language): 大乗仏教, [Hepburn](/source/Hepburn_romanization): *Daijō bukkyō* - [Korean](/source/Korean_language): 대승; [Hanja](/source/Hanja): 大乘; [RR](/source/Revised_Romanization_of_Korean): *Daeseung*; [MR](/source/McCune%E2%80%93Reischauer): *Taesŭng* - [Mongolian](/source/Mongolian_language): ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠬᠥᠯᠭᠥᠨ / Их хөлгөн, [romanized](/source/Romanization_of_Mongolian): *Ikh khölgön* - [Thai](/source/Thai_language): มหายาน, [romanized](/source/Romanization_of_Thai): *Máhā̌yān* - [Tibetan](/source/Tibetan_script): ཐེག་པ་ཆེན་པོ།, [Wylie](/source/Wylie_transliteration): Theg pa chen po - [Vietnamese](/source/Vietnamese_language): *Đại thừa*

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** "The Mahayana, 'Great Vehicle' or 'Great Carriage' (for carrying all beings to nirvana), is also, and perhaps more correctly and accurately, known as the Bodhisattvayana, the bodhisattva's vehicle." Warder, A.K. (3rd edn. 1999). *Indian Buddhism*: p. 338

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** Karashima: "I have assumed that, in the earliest stage of the transmission of *the Lotus Sūtra*, the Middle Indic forn *jāṇa* or **jāna* (Pkt < Skt *jñāna*, *yāna*) had stood in these places ... I have assumed, further, that the Mahāyānist terms *buddha-yānā* ("the Buddha-vehicle"), *mahāyāna* ("the great vehicle"), *hīnayāna* ("the inferior vehicle") meant originally *buddha-jñāna* ("buddha-knowledge"), *mahājñāna* ("great knowledge") and *hīnajñāna* ("inferior knowledge")." Karashima, Seishi (2001). Some features of the Language of the Saddharma-puṇḍarīka-sūtra, *Indo-Iranian Journal* 44: 207–230

1. **[^](#cite_ref-49)** "The most important evidence – in fact the only evidence – for situating the emergence of the Mahayana around the beginning of the common era was not Indian evidence at all, but came from China. Already by the last quarter of the 2nd century CE, there was a small, seemingly idiosyncratic collection of substantial Mahayana sutras translated into what Erik Zürcher calls 'broken Chinese' by an Indoscythian, whose Indian name has been reconstructed as Lokaksema." *Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism* (2004): p. 492

1. **[^](#cite_ref-56)** "Certainly, we have for this period an extensive body of inscriptions from virtually all parts of India. ... But nowhere in this extensive body of material is there any reference, prior to the fifth century, to a named Mahāyāna.", *Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism* (2004): p. 493

1. **[^](#cite_ref-57)** "What is particularly disconcerting here is the disconnect between expectation and reality: We know from Chinese translations that large numbers of Mahāyāna sutras were being composed in the period between the beginning of the common era and the fifth century. But outside of texts, at least in India, at exactly the same period, very different – in fact seemingly older – ideas and aspirations appear to be motivating actual behavior, and old and established Hinayana groups appear to be the only ones that are patronized and supported., *Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism* (2004): p. 494

1. **[^](#cite_ref-58)** "In other words, once nontextual evidence is taken into account the picture changes dramatically. Rather than being datable to the beginning of the common era, this strand of Mahayana Buddhism, at least, appeared to have no visible impact on Indian Buddhist cult practice until the 2nd century, and even then what impact it had was extremely isolated and marginal, and had no lasting or long-term consequences – there were no further references to Amitabha in Indian image inscriptions. Almost exactly the same pattern occurs (concerning Mahayana) on an even broader scale when nontextual evidence is considered." *Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism* (2004): p. 493

1. **[^](#cite_ref-81)** "There are, it seems, very few things that can be said with certainty about Mahayana Buddhism...But apart from the fact that it can be said with some certainty that the Buddhism embedded in China, Korea, Tibet, and Japan is Mahayana Buddhism, it is no longer clear what else can be said with certainty about Mahayana Buddhism itself, and especially about its earlier, and presumably formative, period in India.", *Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism* (2004): p. 492

1. **[^](#cite_ref-82)** "It has become increasingly clear that Mahayana Buddhism was never one thing, but rather, it seems, a loosely bound bundle of many, and – like Walt Whitman – was large and could contain, in both senses of the term, contradictions, or at least antipodal elements." *Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism* (2004): p. 492

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** Harvey (2013), pp. 108-109.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Harvey-2013a_3-0)** Harvey (2013), p. 189.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-autogenerated38_4-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-autogenerated38_4-1) [Damien Keown](/source/Damien_Keown) (2003), *[A Dictionary of Buddhism](https://books.google.com/books?id=985a1M7L1NcC&pg=PA38)*, [Oxford University Press](/source/Oxford_University_Press), p. 38

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** Harvey (2013), p. 111.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Williams-2008f_7-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Williams-2008f_7-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Williams-2008f_7-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Williams-2008f_7-3) Williams, Paul, *Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,* Routledge, 2008, p. 21.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Woodhead_8-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Woodhead_8-1) Woodhead, Linda; Partridge, Christopher Hugh; Kawanami, Hiroko, eds. (2016). *Religions in the modern world: traditions and transformations* (Third ed.). Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-415-85880-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-85880-9). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [916409066](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/916409066).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** Foltz, Richard (2013). [*Religions of Iran:From Prehistory to the Present*](https://books.google.com/books?id=sZRGAQAAQBAJ&q=buddhist+viharas+found+in+modern+day+iran&pg=PA95). Oneworld Publications. p. 95. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-78074-309-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78074-309-7). Retrieved 2017-12-18. In the centuries before the Arab conquests Buddhism was spread throughout the eastern Iranian world. Buddhist sites have been found in Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan, as well as within Iran itself.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** Johnson, Todd M.; Grim, Brian J. (2013). [*The World's Religions in Figures: An Introduction to International Religious Demography*](https://web.archive.org/web/20131020100448/http://media.johnwiley.com.au/product_data/excerpt/47/04706745/0470674547-196.pdf) (PDF). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 36. Archived from [the original](http://media.johnwiley.com.au/product_data/excerpt/47/04706745/0470674547-196.pdf) (PDF) on 20 October 2013. Retrieved 2 September 2013.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Nattier,_Jan_2003_p._174_11-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Nattier,_Jan_2003_p._174_11-1) Nattier, Jan (2003), *A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra*: p. 174

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** Nattier, Jan (2003), *A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra*: p. 172

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** W. Rahula, (1996). [*Theravada – Mahayana Buddhism*](http://www.budsas.org/ebud/ebdha125.htm) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190124041901/http://www.budsas.org/ebud/ebdha125.htm) 2019-01-24 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine); in: "Gems of Buddhist Wisdom", Buddhist Missionary Society, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Williams2004_14-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Williams2004_14-1) Williams, Paul. *Buddhism. Vol. 3. The origins and nature of Mahāyāna Buddhism.* Routledge. 2004. p. 50.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** Karashima, Seishi (2000), [Who composed the Lotus Sutra?](https://web.archive.org/web/20070705053037/http://iriab.soka.ac.jp/orc/Publications/ARIRIAB/pdf/ARIRIAB-04.pdf), Annual Report of The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University 4, p. 170 (note 115)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** Karashima, Seishi (2015), [Vehicle (yāna) and Wisdom (jñāna) in the Lotus Sutra – the Origin of the Notion of yāna in Mahayāna Buddhism](https://web.archive.org/web/20150526143324/http://iriab.soka.ac.jp/orc/Publications/ARIRIAB/pdf/ARIRIAB-18.pdf), Annual Report of The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University 18, 163–196

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** ["容易讀錯的字和詞"](https://web.archive.org/web/20080618160109/http://library.ust.hk/info/catman/cjk/pinyinmistakes.html). Archived from [the original](http://library.ust.hk/info/catman/cjk/pinyinmistakes.html) on June 18, 2008.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** 《[现代汉语词典](/source/%E7%8E%B0%E4%BB%A3%E6%B1%89%E8%AF%AD%E8%AF%8D%E5%85%B8)》、《远东汉英大辞典》

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Nattier,_Jan_2003_p._193-1942_20-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Nattier,_Jan_2003_p._193-1942_20-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Nattier,_Jan_2003_p._193-1942_20-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Nattier,_Jan_2003_p._193-1942_20-3) Nattier, Jan (2003), *A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra*: pp. 193–194

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** ["北傳：雜阿含769經南傳：相應部45相應4經"](http://agama.buddhason.org/SA/SA0769.htm). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201123042214/http://agama.buddhason.org/SA/SA0769.htm) from the original on 2020-11-23. Retrieved 2019-06-28.["長阿含2經"](http://agama.buddhason.org/DA/DA02.htm). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210208020304/http://agama.buddhason.org/DA/DA02.htm) from the original on 2021-02-08. Retrieved 2019-06-28. 南傳對應經文「凡越渡海洋、湖泊者，他們造橋離沼澤，人們綁桴，有智慧的人已橫渡。」

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** 《[增一阿含經](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%E5%A2%9E%E4%B8%80%E9%98%BF%E5%90%AB%E7%B6%93&action=edit&redlink=1)·勸請品·八經》：「爾時，尊者拘絺羅便說此偈：『種種果不同，眾生趣亦然，**自覺覺人**者，我無此辯說。禪智解脫辯，憶本天眼通，能盡苦原本，我無此辯說。』爾時，須深女人便說此偈：『善逝有此智，質直無瑕穢，勇猛有所伏，求於**大乘**行。』」

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** 印順〈雜阿含經部類之整編〉：「宋譯《雜阿含經》，譯出的時代遲了些，而譯者求那跋陀羅，是 – 位唯心大乘師，所以譯文中偶有大乘的名義。......「菩薩摩訶薩」的稱呼，受到了大乘的影響。不過，每成立 – 部派，就有部派所審定集成的經典，在傳承的同 – 宗派中，是不可能大事更張的。《雜阿含經》的「修多羅」部分，與『攝事分』所依經本 – 致，即可以證明。當然，經典在長期流傳中，會因時因地而有多少差別的。求那跋陀羅為唯心大乘師，所譯《雜阿含經》，就偶有 – 二大乘名義，然如依此而說宋譯《雜阿含經》，是大乘佛教時代所完成的，那就誤謬不經了！」

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** [吳汝鈞](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%E5%90%B3%E6%B1%9D%E9%88%9E&action=edit&redlink=1)《印度大乘佛教思想的特色》：「『阿含經』用「大乘」之名，大扺指佛的教法，而含有尊崇之意。這「大乘」自不同於爾後大乘佛教的「大乘」，但亦非全不相通。大乘佛教自有其發展，但其基本教理，並不遠離佛的本意。」

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hirakawa_Akira_1993,_p._260_25-0)** Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993. *A History of Indian Buddhism*. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass: p. 260.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirakawa1990271_26-0)** [Hirakawa 1990](#CITEREFHirakawa1990), p. 271.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Drewes-2010a_27-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Drewes-2010a_27-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Drewes-2010a_27-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Drewes-2010a_27-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Drewes-2010a_27-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Drewes-2010a_27-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-Drewes-2010a_27-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-Drewes-2010a_27-7) [***i***](#cite_ref-Drewes-2010a_27-8) [***j***](#cite_ref-Drewes-2010a_27-9) Drewes, David, *Early Indian Mahayana Buddhism I: Recent Scholarship*, Religion Compass 4/2 (2010): 55–65, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00195.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-8171.2009.00195.x)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** "One of the most frequent assertions about the Mahayana is that it was a lay-influenced, or even lay-inspired and dominated, movement that arose in response to the increasingly closed, cold, and scholastic character of monastic Buddhism. This, however, now appears to be wrong on all counts...much of its [Hinayana's] program being in fact intended and designed to allow laymen and women and donors the opportunity and means to make religious merit." *Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism* (2004): p. 494

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Xing65-66_29-0)** Guang Xing. *The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikaya Theory.* 2004. pp. 65–66 "Several scholars have suggested that the Prajñāpāramitā probably developed among the Mahasamghikas in Southern India, in the Andhra country, on the Krishna River."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Williams-2009_30-0)** Williams, Paul. *Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations 2nd edition.* Routledge, 2009, p. 47.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hirakawa_Akira_1993,_p._263_31-0)** Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993. *A History of Indian Buddhism*. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass: pp. 253, 263, 268

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Warder-1999_32-0)** "The south (of India) was then vigorously creative in producing Mahayana Sutras" – Warder, A.K. (3rd edn. 1999). *Indian Buddhism*: p. 335.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** Padma, Sree. Barber, Anthony W. *Buddhism in the Krishna River Valley of Andhra.* SUNY Press 2008, p. 1.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Karashima-2013_34-0)** Karashima, 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-35)** Walser, Joseph, *Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture,* Columbia University Press, 2005, p. 25.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** Warder, A.K. (3rd edn. 1999). *Indian Buddhism*: p. 335.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** Williams, Paul, *Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,* Routledge, 2008, p. 6.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-38)** Williams, Paul, *Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,* Routledge, 2008, p. 16.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** Drewes, David, The Forest Hypothesis in Paul Harrison, ed., *Setting Out on the Great Way*. Equinox, 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-40)** Williams (2008), pp. 33-34.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-41)** Boucher, Daniel, Bodhisattvas of the Forest and the Formation of the Mahāyāna: A Study and Translation of the.Rāṣṭrapālaparipṛcchā-sūtra. University of Hawaii Press, 2008

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Drewes-2010_42-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Drewes-2010_42-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Drewes-2010_42-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Drewes-2010_42-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Drewes-2010_42-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Drewes-2010_42-5) Drewes, David, Early Indian Mahayana Buddhism II: New Perspectives, *Religion Compass* 4/2 (2010): 66–74, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00193.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-8171.2009.00193.x)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Oliver-2019_43-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Oliver-2019_43-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Oliver-2019_43-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Oliver-2019_43-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Oliver-2019_43-4) Oliver, Joan Duncan (April 2019). *Buddhism: An Introduction to the Buddha's Life, Teachings, and Practices* (1st ed.). New York: [St. Martin's Essentials](/source/Macmillan_Publishers). p. xi. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-250-31368-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-250-31368-3).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Acri-2018_44-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Acri-2018_44-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Acri-2018_44-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Acri-2018_44-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Acri-2018_44-4) Acri, Andrea (20 December 2018). ["Maritime Buddhism"](https://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-638). *Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion*. [Oxford](/source/Oxford): [Oxford University Press](/source/Oxford_University_Press). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.638](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199340378.013.638). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-934037-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-934037-8). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190219153342/https://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-638) from the original on 19 February 2019. Retrieved 30 May 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-MMR_45-0)** Rhie, Marylin M. (2010). [*Early Buddhist Art of China and Central Asia, Volume 3: The Western Ch'in in Kansu in the Sixteen Kingdoms Period and Inter-relationships with the Buddhist Art of Gandh?ra*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ivE2mpfbNR0C&pg=PR37). BRILL. p. xxxvii, Fig 6.17a. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-18400-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18400-8).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-GS99_46-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-GS99_46-1) Schopen, Gregory (1987). ["The Inscription on the Kuṣān Image of Amitābha and the Charakter of the Early Mahāyāna in India"](https://web.archive.org/web/20191207114137/http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Articles/The-Inscription-on-the-Kusan-Image-of-Amitabha-and-and-the-Character-of-Early-Mahayana-in-India_Schopen.pdf) (PDF). *The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies*. **10** (2): 99–138. Archived from [the original](http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Articles/The-Inscription-on-the-Kusan-Image-of-Amitabha-and-and-the-Character-of-Early-Mahayana-in-India_Schopen.pdf) (PDF) on December 7, 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-47)** Buswell, Robert E., ed. (2004). *Encyclopedia of Buddhism*. Macmillan Reference USA. p. 492. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-02-865718-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-865718-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-48)** Harrison, Paul 'Who Gets to Ride in the Great Vehicle? Self-image and Identity Among the Followers of Early Mahayana.' 1987.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-50)** Williams, Paul (2008) *Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations:* p. 30.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-51)** Williams, Paul (2008) *Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations*: pp. 4–5

1. **[^](#cite_ref-52)** Guang Xing. The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikaya Theory. 2004. p. 115

1. **[^](#cite_ref-53)** Williams, Paul (2000) *Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition*: p. 97

1. **[^](#cite_ref-54)** Walser, Joseph, *Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture,* Columbia University Press, 2005, p. 114.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-55)** Neelis, Jason. *Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks.* 2010. p. 141

1. **[^](#cite_ref-59)** Walser, Joseph, *Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture,* Columbia University Press, 2005, p. 14.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Walser-2005_60-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Walser-2005_60-1) Walser, Joseph, *Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture,* Columbia University Press, 2005, p. 18.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-61)** Walser, Joseph, *Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture,* Columbia University Press, 2005, pp. 16–17.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-62)** Westerhoff, Jan (2018). *The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy*, p. 5. Oxford University Press.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-63)** Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993. *A History of Indian Buddhism*. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass: pp. 8–9

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Dutt-1978_64-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Dutt-1978_64-1) Dutt, Nalinaksha (1978). *Mahāyāna Buddhism*, pp. 16-27. Delhi.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-65)** Walser, Joseph, *Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture,* Columbia University Press, 2005, p. 29.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Walser-2005a_66-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Walser-2005a_66-1) Walser, Joseph, *Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture,* Columbia University Press, 2005, p. 34.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-67)** Walser, Joseph, *Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture,* Columbia University Press, 2005, pp. 40–41.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-68)** The Gupta Empire by Radhakumud Mookerji [p. 133 sq](https://books.google.com/books?id=uYXDB2gIYbwC&pg=PA133)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-69)** Williams, Paul (2008) *Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations:* p. 44.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-70)** Zürcher, Erik (1972). *The Buddhist Conquest of China*, p. 23.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-71)** Dutt, Nalinaksha (1978). *Mahāyāna Buddhism*, pp. 35-36. Delhi.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Williams,_Paul_1989_p.103_72-0)** Williams, Paul (1989). *Mahayana Buddhism*: p. 103

1. **[^](#cite_ref-73)** Williams and Tribe (2002), pp. 192-194.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-74)** Ray, Reginald A.; *Indestructible Truth: The Living Spirituality of Tibetan Buddhism*, 2000

1. **[^](#cite_ref-75)** Wayman, Alex. *The Buddhist Tantras: Light on Indo-Tibetan Esotericism*, 2013, p 3.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-76)** Snellgrove, David. (1987) Indo-Tibetan Buddhism: Indian Buddhists and their Tibetan successors. pp 125.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-77)** Williams and Tribe (2002), pp. 195, 198.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-78)** Sanderson, Alexis (2009). ["The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period"](https://books.google.com/books?id=iggRAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA144). In Einoo, Shingo (ed.). *Genesis and Development of Tantra*. Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo. pp. 144–145. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-5-88134-784-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-88134-784-0). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210311002212/https://books.google.com/books?id=iggRAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA144) from the original on 2021-03-11. Retrieved 2020-10-27.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-79)** Huber, Toni (2008). [*The holy land reborn: pilgrimage & the Tibetan reinvention of Buddhist India*](https://archive.org/details/holylandrebornpi00hube). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. [94](https://archive.org/details/holylandrebornpi00hube/page/n110)–95. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-226-35648-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-35648-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-80)** Davidson, Ronald M. (2004) *Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement*, pp. 206-214.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-83)** [Phelps, Norm](/source/Norm_Phelps) (2004). *The Great Compassion: Buddhism and Animal Rights*. Lantern Books. p. 45. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1-59056-069-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59056-069-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-kwmorganp410_84-0)** Kenneth W. Morgan (1986). [*The Path of the Buddha: Buddhism Interpreted by Buddhists*](https://books.google.com/books?id=g6OHBCgmmGAC). Motilal Banarsidass. p. 410. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-208-0030-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0030-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-85)** N. Ross Reat (1994). [*Buddhism: A History*](https://archive.org/details/buddhismhistory00reat/). Asian Humanities Press. pp. [19–20](https://archive.org/details/buddhismhistory00reat/page/19). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-87573-001-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87573-001-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-86)** Suzuki, Daisetz Teitaro (1998). *Studies in the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra,* p. 90. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [81-215-0833-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-215-0833-9)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-87)** Williams and Tribe (2002), pp. 101-102.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-88)** Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 102.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-89)** Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 103.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-90)** Williams and Tribe (2002), pp. 136-137, 185-186.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-91)** Hurvitz, Leon (2009), *Scripture of the Lotus Blossom of the Fine Dharma: The Lotus Sutra* (Rev. ed.), p. 239. New York: Columbia university press, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-231-14895-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-14895-5)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-92)** [Teiser, Stephen F.](/source/Teiser%2C_Stephen_F.); [Stone, Jacqueline Ilyse](/source/Stone%2C_Jacqueline_Ilyse) (2009), *Interpreting the Lotus Sutra*; in: Teiser, Stephen F.; Stone, Jacqueline Ilyse; eds. *Readings of the Lotus Sutra*, New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 1–61, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-231-14288-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-14288-5)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-93)** [*The Mahāyāna Sūtra "The White Lotus of the Good Dharma"* (Saddharmapuṇḍarīkanāmamahāyānasūtra, dam pa'i chos pad ma dkar po zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo)](https://read.84000.co/translation/toh113.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215828/https://read.84000.co/translation/toh113.html) 2021-06-02 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), "Introduction". Toh 113 Degé Kangyur, vol. 51 (mdo sde, ja), folios 1.b–180.b. Translated by Peter Alan Roberts under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha. First published 2018. Current version v 1.14.15 (2021).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Williams-2008g_94-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Williams-2008g_94-1) Williams, Paul, *Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,* Routledge, 2008, p. 27.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-95)** Guang Xing (2005). *The Three Bodies of the Buddha: The Origin and Development of the Trikaya Theory*. Oxford: Routledge Curzon: pp. 1, 85

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Zappulli-2022_96-0)** Zappulli, Davide Andrea (2022). ["Towards a Buddhist theism"](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0034412522000725). *Religious Studies*. **59** (4): 762–774. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/S0034412522000725](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0034412522000725). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [254354100](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:254354100).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-97)** Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 171.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-98)** Dr. Guang Xing, *The Three Bodies of the Buddha: The Origin and Development of the Trikaya Theory*, Routledge Curzon, Oxford, 2005, p. 1

1. **[^](#cite_ref-99)** Williams and Tribe (2002), pp. 172-175.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-100)** Williams and Tribe (2002), pp. 136-137.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Williams-2008e_101-0)** Williams (2008), pp. 27-30, 46.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-huntingtonarchive.org_102-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-huntingtonarchive.org_102-1) Conze, Edward, [The Perfection of Wisdom in eight thousand lines and its verse summary](http://huntingtonarchive.org/resources/downloads/sutras/02Prajnaparamita/Astasahasrika.pdf)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-103)** Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 138.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Williams-Tribe-2002a_104-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Williams-Tribe-2002a_104-1) Williams and Tribe (2002), pp. 188-189.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-105)** Xinru Liu, *The Silk Road in World History*, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 53.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Williams-2008a_106-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Williams-2008a_106-1) Williams, Paul, *Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,* Routledge, 2008, p. 60.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Williams-2008b_107-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Williams-2008b_107-1) Williams, Paul, *Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,* Routledge, 2008, p. 55.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-108)** Reeves, Gene, trans. (2008). *The Lotus Sutra: A Contemporary Translation of a Buddhist Classic,* p. 1. Boston: Wisdom Publications, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-86171-571-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86171-571-8)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Drewes-2021_109-0)** Drewes, David, *[Mahāyāna Sūtras and Opening of the Bodhisattva Path](https://www.academia.edu/34935437/Mahayana_Sutras_and_the_Opening_of_the_Bodhisattva_Path_Updated_2019_?email_work_card=title) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210305083827/https://www.academia.edu/34935437/Mahayana_Sutras_and_the_Opening_of_the_Bodhisattva_Path_Updated_2019_?email_work_card=title) 2021-03-05 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)*, Paper presented at the XVIII the IABS Congress, Toronto 2017, Updated 2019.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-WilliamsTribe_110-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-WilliamsTribe_110-1) Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 176.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Williams-2008c_111-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Williams-2008c_111-1) Williams, Paul, *Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,* Routledge, 2008, pp. 195–196.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Williams-Tribe-2002_112-0)** Williams and Tribe (2002), pp. 177-178.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Drewes7_113-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Drewes7_113-1) Drewes, David, *Mahayana Sutras*, forthcoming in Blackwell Companion to South and Southeast Asian Buddhism, Updated 2016

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Williams-2008_114-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Williams-2008_114-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Williams-2008_114-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Williams-2008_114-3) Williams, Paul, *Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,* Routledge, 2008, pp. 29, 36, 43.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Williams-2008h_115-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Williams-2008h_115-1) Williams, Paul, *Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,* Routledge, 2008, p. 56, 200.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Nagarjuna-2009_116-0)** Nagarjuna, B. Dharmamitra (trans), *Nagarjuna on the Six Perfections*, Kalavinka Press, 2009.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Buswell-2004_117-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Buswell-2004_117-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Buswell-2004_117-2) Buswell, Robert E., ed. (2004). *Encyclopedia of Buddhism*. Macmillan Reference USA. p. 59. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-02-865718-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-865718-7).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Williams-2008d_118-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Williams-2008d_118-1) Williams, Paul, *Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,* Routledge, 2008, pp. 200–201.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-119)** Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 179.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-120)** Pye, Michael (1978). *Skillful Means – A concept in Mahayana Buddhism*. London: Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-7156-1266-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7156-1266-2)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._169_121-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._169_121-1) Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 169.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-122)** Lopez, Donald (2016), *The Lotus Sutra: A Biography*, pp. 37-40. Princeton University Press, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-691-15220-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-15220-2)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-123)** Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 131.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-124)** Williams (2008) pp. 49-50.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-125)** Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 134.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-126)** Williams, Paul, *Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,* Routledge, 2008, p. 52.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._135_127-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._135_127-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._135_127-2) Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 135.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-128)** Shi Huifeng, Is *"Illusion" a Prajñāpāramitā Creation? The Birth and Death of a Buddhist Cognitive Metaphor*, Fo Guang University, Journal of Buddhist Philosophy, Vol. 2, 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-129)** Orsborn, Matthew Bryan. *"Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra",* University of Hong Kong, 2012, page 233.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-130)** Conze, Edward. *The Ontology of the Prajnaparamita*, Philosophy East and West Vol.3 (1953) PP.117-129, University of Hawaii Press

1. **[^](#cite_ref-131)** Lopez, Donald S. (1988). *The Heart Sutra Explained: Indian and Tibetan Commentaries*, p. 19. SUNY Press.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-132)** Orsborn, Matthew Bryan (2012). *"Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra"*, University of Hong Kong, p. 201.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-133)** Orsborn, Matthew Bryan (2012). *"Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra"*, University of Hong Kong, p. 180-181.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-134)** Conze, Edward; *The Ontology of the Prajnaparamita,* Philosophy East and West Vol.3 (1953) pp. 117-129, University of Hawaii Press.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-135)** Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 136.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-136)** Williams, Paul, *Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,* Routledge, 2008, p. 63.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-137)** Westerhoff, Jan (2009). *Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka: A Philosophical Introduction*, Oxford University Press, pp. 12, 25.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Tribe_2002_pp._70,_141_138-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Tribe_2002_pp._70,_141_138-1) Williams and Tribe (2002), pp. 70, 141.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-139)** Williams, Paul (2004), *Mahayana Buddhism*, Bury St. Edmunds, England: Routledge, pp. 78–81.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Williams-2002_140-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Williams-2002_140-1) Williams, Paul, Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition, 2002, pp. 89–91.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-141)** Williams, Paul, Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition, 2002, pp. 85, 91.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._160_142-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._160_142-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._160_142-2) Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 160.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-143)** Paul Williams, *Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations*, Second Edition, Routledge, Oxford, 2009, p. 317

1. **[^](#cite_ref-144)** Kevin Trainor, *Buddhism: The Illustrated Guide*, Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 207

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-web.archive.org_145-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-web.archive.org_145-1) Zimmermann, Michael (2002), [*A Buddha Within: The Tathāgatagarbhasūtra*](https://web.archive.org/web/20131111023508/http://iriab.soka.ac.jp/orc/Publications/BPPB/pdf/BPPB-06.pdf), Biblotheca Philologica et Philosophica Buddhica VI, The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology, Soka University, pp. 82–83

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._162_146-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._162_146-1) Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 162.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-147)** Williams, Paul, Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition, 2002, pp. 103, 108.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-148)** Williams, Paul, Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition, 2002, p. 109.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-149)** Shiro Matsumoto, Critiques of Tathagatagarbha Thought and Critical Buddhism

1. **[^](#cite_ref-150)** ["The Significance Of 'Tathagatagarbha' --"](https://web.archive.org/web/20071023073728/http://zencomp.com/greatwisdom/ebud/ebdha191.htm). October 23, 2007. Archived from [the original](http://zencomp.com/greatwisdom/ebud/ebdha191.htm) on 2007-10-23.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-151)** King, Sallie B. [*The Doctrine of Buddha-Nature is impeccably Buddhist*](https://web.archive.org/web/20070927131119/http://www.nanzan-u.ac.jp/SHUBUNKEN/publications/nlarc/pdf/Pruning%20the%20bodhi%20tree/Pruning%209.pdf). In: Jamie Hubbard (ed.), Pruning the Bodhi Tree: The Storm Over Critical Buddhism, Univ of Hawaii Press 1997, pp. 174–179. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-8248-1949-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8248-1949-7)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-152)** Daisetz T. Suzuki, tr. *The 'Lankavatara Sutra',* Parajna Press, Boulder, 1978, pp.69.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-153)** Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 164.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-154)** Hookham, Shenpen (1991). *The Buddha Within*. State University of New York Press: p. 104, p. 353

1. **[^](#cite_ref-155)** Sebastian, C.D. (2005), *Metaphysics and Mysticism in Mahayana Buddhism*. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications: p. 151; cf. also p. 110

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Sree_Padma_2008._p._68_156-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Sree_Padma_2008._p._68_156-1) Sree Padma. Barber, Anthony W. *Buddhism in the Krishna River Valley of Andhra.* 2008. p. 68.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-157)** Werner et al. (2013). *The Bodhisattva Ideal: Essays on the Emergence of Mahayana.* pp. 89, 93. Buddhist Publication Society.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Werner-2013_158-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Werner-2013_158-1) Werner et al. (2013). *The Bodhisattva Ideal: Essays on the Emergence of Mahayana.* pp. 89-90, 211-212, 227. Buddhist Publication Society.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-159)** "Though the Buddha had taught [the Mahayana sutras] they were not in circulation in the world of men at all for many centuries, there being no competent teachers and no intelligent enough students: the sutras were however preserved in the Dragon World and other non-human circles, and when in the 2nd century AD adequate teachers suddenly appeared in India in large numbers the texts were fetched and circulated. ... However, it is clear that the historical tradition here recorded belongs to North India and for the most part to Nalanda (in Magadha)." AK Warder, *Indian Buddhism*, 3rd edition, 1999

1. **[^](#cite_ref-160)** Li, Rongxi (2002). *Lives of Great Monks and Nuns*. Berkeley, California: BDK. pp. 23–4.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-161)** Tārānātha (2010). *Tāranātha's History of Buddhism in India*. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 90. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-208-0696-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0696-2). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [1073573698](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1073573698).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-162)** Williams, (2008), pp. 40–41.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-163)** Williams, (2008), pp. 41-42.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-164)** Hsuan Hua. *The Buddha speaks of Amitabha Sutra: A General Explanation.* 2003. p. 2

1. **[^](#cite_ref-165)** Williams, (2008), p. 41.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-166)** Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki (1907). *Outlines of Mahaŷâna Buddhism*, pp. 13-16.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-167)** Hamar, Imre. *Reflecting Mirrors: Perspectives on Huayan Buddhism.* 2007. p. 94

1. **[^](#cite_ref-168)** Hookham, Dr. Shenpen, trans. (1998). *The Shrimaladevi Sutra*. Oxford: Longchen Foundation: p. 27

1. **[^](#cite_ref-169)** Werner, Karel; Samuels, Jeffrey; Bhikkhu Bodhi; Skilling, Peter; Bhikkhu Anālayo, McMahan, David (2013) *The Bodhisattva Ideal: Essays on the Emergence of Mahayana,* p. 97. Buddhist Publication Society.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Drewes-2016_170-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Drewes-2016_170-1) Drewes, David, Mahayana Sutras, forthcoming in Blackwell Companion to South and Southeast Asian Buddhism, Updated 2016

1. **[^](#cite_ref-171)** Dayal, Dar (1970). *The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature,* p. 36. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:0_172-0)** Lewis, Todd T. (2000). *Popular Buddhist Texts from Nepal: Narratives and Rituals of Newar Buddhism,* p. 9. SUNY Press.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:2_173-0)** Gokhale, Pradeep. "The Place of Bhakti in Buddhism", in *Illuminating the Dharma: Buddhist Studies in Honour of Venerable Professor KL Dhammajoti*, Edited by Toshiichi Endo, Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong, 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-174)** Dayal, Har (1970). *The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature*, pp. 64-69. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Drewes,_David_2010_175-0)** Drewes, David, Early Indian Mahayana Buddhism II: New Perspectives, *Religion Compass* 4/2 (2010): 66–74, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00193.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-8171.2009.00193.x)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Drewes,_David_20102_176-0)** Drewes, David, Early Indian Mahayana Buddhism II: New Perspectives, *Religion Compass* 4/2 (2010): 66–74, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00193.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-8171.2009.00193.x)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:92_177-0)** Apple, James B. "Prajñaparamita", in *Encyclopedia of Indian Religions,* ed. by Arvind Sharma (2019). Springer.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-178)** Davidson, Ronald M. (2009). "Studies in Dhāraṇī Literature I: Revisiting the Meaning of the Term Dhāraṇī". Journal of Indian Philosophy. 37 (2). Springer Nature: 97–147. doi:10.1007/s10781-008-9054-8. S2CID 171060516.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-179)** Osto, Douglas. "A New Translation of the Sanskrit Bhadracarī with Introduction and Notes." *New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies 12*, 2 (December 2010): 1-21

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:3_180-0)** Sukumar Dutt (1988). *Buddhist Monks and Monasteries of India: Their History and Their Contribution to Indian Culture,* pp. 193-94. Motilal Banarsidass Publisher.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-181)** Dayal, Har (1970). *The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature*, pp. 54-57. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-182)** Williams (2008), pp. 50-51.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-183)** Lopez, Donald S. Jr. (1988). *The Heart Sutra Explained: Indian and Tibetan Commentaries,* p. 21, SUNY Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-88706-589-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88706-589-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-184)** Wright, Dale Stuart (2009). [*The Six Perfections: Buddhism and the Cultivation of Character*](https://books.google.com/books?id=YeCAtSdxikYC). Oxford University Press. pp. contents. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-538201-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-538201-3).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Bodhi-2007_185-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Bodhi-2007_185-1) Bodhi, Bhikkhu (2007-12-01). [*The Discourse on the All-embracing Net of Views: The Brahmajāla Sutta and Its Commentaries*](https://books.google.com/books?id=6ym-vC4nTsAC). Buddhist Publication Society. p. 300. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-955-24-0052-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-955-24-0052-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-186)** Bodhi, Bhikkhu (2007-12-01). [*The Discourse on the All-embracing Net of Views: The Brahmajāla Sutta and Its Commentaries*](https://books.google.com/books?id=6ym-vC4nTsAC). Buddhist Publication Society. p. 44. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-955-24-0052-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-955-24-0052-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Yuanci2_187-0)** Ven. Dr. Yuanci, [*A Study of the Meditation Methods in the DESM and Other Early Chinese Texts*](http://www.undv.org/vesak2012/iabudoc/31YuanciFINAL.pdf) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20130508164744/http://www.undv.org/vesak2012/iabudoc/31YuanciFINAL.pdf) 2013-05-08 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), The Buddhist Academy of China.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-188)** Luk, Charles. *The Secrets of Chinese Meditation.* 1964. p. 125

1. **[^](#cite_ref-189)** Zhang, Shengyen; Dan Stevenson (2002). Hoofprint of the Ox: Principles of the Chan Buddhist Path as Taught by a Modern Chinese Master. Oxford University Press, pp. 27–28.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-190)** Ulrich Timme Kragh (editor), *The Foundation for Yoga Practitioners*: *The Buddhist Yogācārabhūmi Treatise and Its Adaptation in India, East Asia, and Tibet, Volume 1* Harvard University, Department of South Asian studies, 2013, pp. 51, 60 - 230.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-191)** [Sujato, Bhante](/source/Bhante_Sujato) (2012), [*A History of Mindfulness*](http://santifm.org/santipada/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/A_History_of_Mindfulness_Bhikkhu_Sujato.pdf) (PDF), Santipada, pp. 363–4, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-921842-10-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-921842-10-8), [archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20181123134655/http://santifm.org/santipada/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/A_History_of_Mindfulness_Bhikkhu_Sujato.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2018-11-23, retrieved 2021-07-05

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Williams-Tribe-2002b_192-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Williams-Tribe-2002b_192-1) Williams and Tribe (2002), pp. 109-110

1. **[^](#cite_ref-193)** Skilton, Andrew. *A Concise History of Buddhism.* 1997. p. 104

1. **[^](#cite_ref-194)** Drewes, David (2010). "Early Indian Mahayana Buddhism II: New Perspectives". *Religion Compass*. **4** (2): 66–74. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00193.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-8171.2009.00193.x).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-195)** Williams, Paul. *Mahayana Buddhism the doctrinal foundations, 2nd edition*, 2009, p. 40.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-196)** [*The Treasury of Blessings: A Practice of Buddha Śākyamuni by Mipham Rinpoche.*](https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/mipham/treasury-blessings-practice-buddha-shakyamuni) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210612112053/https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/mipham/treasury-blessings-practice-buddha-shakyamuni) 2021-06-12 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) Translated by Rigpa Translations. Lotsawa House.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-197)** Luk, Charles. *The Secrets of Chinese Meditation.* 1964. p. 83

1. **[^](#cite_ref-198)** Hirakawa, Akira, *[A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna](https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/23030) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210308145824/https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/23030) 2021-03-08 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)*, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1993, p. 74.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-199)** Hirakawa, Akira, *[A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna](https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/23030) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210308145824/https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/23030) 2021-03-08 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)*, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1993, p. 74.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Buddhism_2004,_page_293_200-0)** *Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism* (2004): p. 293

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hirakawa_Akira_1993,_p._252_201-0)** Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993). *A History of Indian Buddhism*. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass: p. 252

1. **[^](#cite_ref-202)** Buswell, Robert E.; Lopez, Donald Sewell (2014). *The Princeton dictionary of Buddhism*. Princeton (N.J.): Princeton University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-691-15786-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-15786-3).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-203)** Williams, Paul, *Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,* Routledge, 2008, pp. 40–41.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-204)** Williams, Paul, *Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,* Routledge, 2008, p. 46.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-205)** Williams, Paul, *Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,* Routledge, 2008, p. 38.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-206)** Williams, Paul, *Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,* Routledge, 2008, p. 23.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-autogenerated199_207-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-autogenerated199_207-1) Boin-Webb, Sara (tr). Rahula, Walpola (tr). Asanga. *Abhidharma Samuccaya: The Compendium of Higher Teaching.* 2001. pp. 199–200

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Kitagawa80_208-0)** [Kitagawa, Joseph Mitsuo](/source/Joseph_Kitagawa) (2002). *The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture*. Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-7007-1762-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7007-1762-5): p. 80

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Samdhinirmocana_209-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Samdhinirmocana_209-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Samdhinirmocana_209-2) Keenan, John (2000). *The Scripture on the Explication of the Underlying Meaning*. Numata Center. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1-886439-10-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-886439-10-9): p. 49

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Powers_1993_210-0)** Powers, John (1993), *Hermeneutics and tradition in the Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra*, Brill Academic Publishers, pp. 4–11, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-09826-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09826-8)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-211)** Walser, Joseph G. *Genealogies of Mahayana Buddhism: Emptiness, Power and the question of Origin* Routledge, 2018, chapter 2.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-212)** Kalupahana, David (2006). *Mulamadhyamakakarika of Nagarjuna.* Motilal Banarsidass: p. 5.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-213)** Lindtner, Christian (1997). *Master of Wisdom.* Dharma Publishing: p. 324.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-214)** Lindtner, Christian (1997). *Master of Wisdom.* Dharma Publishing: p. 322. Lindtner says that Nāgārjuna is referencing the DN.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-215)** Nagao, Gadjin M.; Kawamura, Leslie S., trans. (1991). *Madhyamika and Yogachara.* Albany: SUNY Press: p. 53.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-216)** Nagao, Gadjin M.; Kawamura, Leslie S., trans. (1991). *Madhyamika and Yogachara.* Albany: SUNY Press: p. 200.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-217)** Dan Lusthaus, *Buddhist Phenomenology.* Routledge, 2002, p. 44, note 5. Lusthaus draws attention to Rahula's *Zen and the Taming of the Bull.*

1. **[^](#cite_ref-218)** Harvey, Peter (1993). *An Introduction to Buddhism.* Cambridge University Press: p. 106.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-219)** Analayo "The Luminous Mind in Theravāda and Dharmaguptaka Discourses" Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies, 2017, 13: 10–51;

1. **[^](#cite_ref-220)** Harvey, Peter (1989). Consciousness Mysticism in the Discourses of the Buddha. In Werner, Karel ed., *The Yogi and the Mystic.* Curzon Press: p. 97.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Harvey-2013_221-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Harvey-2013_221-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Harvey-2013_221-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Harvey-2013_221-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Harvey-2013_221-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Harvey-2013_221-5) Harvey, Peter (2013). *An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices*, p. 403.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-222)** Harvey, Peter (2013). *An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices*, p. 413.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-223)** Harvey, Peter (2013). *An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices*, pp. 213-218.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-224)** Charles S. Prebish; Kenneth Ken'ichi Tanaka (15 November 2023). *The Faces of Buddhism in America*. Univ of California Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-520-92065-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92065-1). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [1224277904](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1224277904).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-225)** Bingenheimer, Marcus (2007). "Some Remarks on the Usage of Renjian Fojiao 人間佛教 and the Contribution of Venerable Yinshun to Chinese Buddhist Modernism". In Hsu, Mutsu; Chen, Jinhua; Meeks, Lori (eds.). *Development and Practice of Humanitarian Buddhism: Interdisciplinary Perspectives*. Hua-lien (Taiwan): Tzuchi University Press. pp. 141–161. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-986-7625-08-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-986-7625-08-3).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-226)** J. Ching (2016). *Chinese Religions,* p. 205. Springer.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-227)** Harvey, Peter (2013). *An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices*, p. 410.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-228)** Carter J. Eckert (Author), Ki-Baik Lee, Young Ick Lew, Michael Robinson, Edward W. Wagner (1991). Korea Old And New: A History. Ilchokak Publishers. p. 94. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-9627713-0-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9627713-0-9).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-229)** Williams (2008), p. 412.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-230)** Harvey, Peter (2013). *An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices*, pp. 404-406.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-ACA_Yearbook_231-0)** [*宗教年鑑 令和元年版*](https://www.bunka.go.jp/tokei_hakusho_shuppan/hakusho_nenjihokokusho/shukyo_nenkan/pdf/r01nenkan.pdf#page=49) [*Religious Yearbook 2019*] (PDF) (in Japanese). [Agency for Cultural Affairs](/source/Agency_for_Cultural_Affairs), Government of Japan. 2019. p. 35. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201225124108/https://www.bunka.go.jp/tokei_hakusho_shuppan/hakusho_nenjihokokusho/shukyo_nenkan/pdf/r01nenkan.pdf#page=49) (PDF) from the original on 2020-12-25. Retrieved 2020-10-08.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-232)** Harvey, Peter (2013). *An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices*, p. 408.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-233)** Prebish, Charles. Tanaka, Kenneth. *The Faces of Buddhism in America.* 1998. p. 134

1. **[^](#cite_ref-234)** Kapstein, Matthew T. *Tibetan Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction*. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014, p. 109.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-235)** Harvey, Peter (2013). *An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices*, p. 414.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-236)** Harvey, Peter (2013). *An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices*, pp. 414-416.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-237)** Harvey, Peter (2000). *An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics*. Cambridge University Press: p. 123.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-238)** Paul Williams, *Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations.* Taylor & Francis, 1989, p. 328.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-239)** Baruah, Bibhuti (2000). [*Buddhist Sects and Sectarianism*](https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_s1PZAMD13SMC). Sarup & Sons. p. [53](https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_s1PZAMD13SMC/page/n61). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-7625-152-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7625-152-5).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-240)** Hirakawa, Akira. Groner, Paul. *A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna.* 2007. p. 121

1. **[^](#cite_ref-241)** Monier-Williams, Sir Monier (1889). [*Buddhism in Its Connexion with Brāhmanism and Hindūism: And in Its Contrast with Christianity*](https://books.google.com/books?id=uiUVAAAAYAAJ&q=Buddhism). John Murray.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-gombrich_242-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-gombrich_242-1) Gombrich, Richard Francis (2006). [*Theravāda Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo*](https://books.google.com/books?id=n44jqZP8y7wC&pg=PA83). Psychology Press. p. 83. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-415-07585-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-07585-5).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-243)** Collins, Steven. 1990. *Selfless Persons: Imagery and Thought in Theravāda Buddhism*. p. 21

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-gellner_244-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-gellner_244-1) LeVine, Sarah; Gellner, David N. (2005). *Rebuilding Buddhism: The Theravada Movement in Twentieth-Century Nepal*. Harvard University Press. p. 14. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-674-04012-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-04012-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-245)** Swearer, Donald (2006). Theravada Buddhist Societies. In: Juergensmeyer, Mark (ed.) *The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions*: p. 83

1. **[^](#cite_ref-246)** Hoffman, Frank J. and Mahinda, Deegalle (1996). *Pali Buddhism.* Routledge Press: p. 192.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-247)** King, Richard (1999). *Indian Philosophy: An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Thought.* Edinburgh University Press: p. 86.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-248)** Nyanaponika, Nyaponika Thera, Nyanaponika, Bhikkhu Bodhi (1998). *Abhidhamma Studies: Buddhist Explorations of Consciousness and Time.* Wisdom Publications: p. 42.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-249)** Kalupahana, David (2006). *Mulamadhyamakakarika of Nagarjuna.* Motilal Banarsidass: p. 6.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-250)** Kalupahana, David (2006). *Mulamadhyamakakarika of Nagarjuna.* Motilal Banarsidass: p. 24.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-251)** Lopez, Donald S. and Dge-ʼdun-chos-ʼphel (2006). *The Madman's Middle Way: Reflections on Reality of the Tibetan Monk Gendun Chopel.* University of Chicago Press: p. 24.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-252)** Fronsdal, Gil (8 November 2007). ["Tricycle Q & A: Gil Fronsdal"](https://web.archive.org/web/20080225132521/http://www.tricycle.com/issues/web_exclusive/4218-1.html). *Tricycle*. Archived from [the original](http://www.tricycle.com/issues/web_exclusive/4218-1.html) on 25 February 2008. Retrieved 10 October 2008.

## Sources

- Hirakawa, Akira (1990), [*A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna*](https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/23030), Edited and translated by Paul Groner, [University of Hawaii Press](/source/University_of_Hawaii_Press), [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[10125/23030](https://hdl.handle.net/10125%2F23030), [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-8248-1203-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8248-1203-4), [archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210308145824/https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/23030) from the original on 8 March 2021, retrieved 17 January 2021

- "Mahayana". *Encyclopædia Britannica*. 2002.

- Beal (1871). *Catena of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese*China, Trübner

- Harvey, Peter (2013). *An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices*

- Karashima, Seishi, "[Was the *Așțasāhasrikā Prajñāparamitā* Compiled in Gandhāra in Gandhārī?](http://iriab.soka.ac.jp/content/pdf/aririab/Vol.%20XVI%20(2013).pdf) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180903182947/http://iriab.soka.ac.jp/content/pdf/aririab/Vol.%20XVI%20(2013).pdf) 2018-09-03 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)" *Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology*, Soka University, vol. XVI (2013).

- Lowenstein, Tom (1996). *The Vision of the Buddha*, Boston: Little Brown, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1-903296-91-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-903296-91-9)

- Schopen, G. "The inscription on the Kusan image of Amitabha and the character of the early Mahayana in India", *Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 10*, 1990

- Suzuki, D.T. (1918). ["The Development of Mahayana Buddhism"](https://archive.org/details/the-development-of-mahayana-buddhism-the-monist-1914-10), *[The Monist](/source/The_Monist)* Volume 24, Issue 4, 1914, pp. 565–581

- Suzuki, D.T. (1999). [*Outline of Mahayana Buddhism*](https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/75283), Open Court, Chicago

- Walser, Joseph (2025). *Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture*, Columbia University Press.

- Williams, Paul (2009). *Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundation*, Routledge.

- Williams, Paul (with Anthony Tribe) (2002)*Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition.* Routledge.

- Karel Werner; Jeffrey Samuels; Bhikkhu Bodhi; Peter Skilling; Bhikkhu Anālayo; David McMahan (2013). [*The Bodhisattva Ideal: Essays on the Emergence of Mahayana*](https://web.archive.org/web/20230401201516/https://www.bps.lk/olib/bp/bp625s_The-Bodhisatva-Ideal.pdf) (PDF). Buddhist Publication Society. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-955-24-0396-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-955-24-0396-5). Archived from the original on 2023-04-01. Retrieved 2023-03-21.{{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown))

## External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to [Mahayana](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Mahayana).

[Wikisource](/source/Wikisource) has the text of the 1905 *[New International Encyclopedia](/source/New_International_Encyclopedia)* article  "**[Mahāyāna](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na)**".

- [Digital Dictionary of Buddhism](http://www.buddhism-dict.net/ddb/)

- [Comparison of Buddhist Traditions (Mahayana – Therevada – Tibetan)](http://studybuddhism.com/web/x/nav/n.html_505172737.html)

- [Introduction to Mahayana](https://www.samyeling.org/buddhism-and-meditation/mahayana/) on [Kagyu Samye Ling](/source/Kagyu_Samye_Ling_Monastery_and_Tibetan_Centre)'s website

- [The Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra: complete text and analysis](https://nirvanasutranet.com/)

- [Buddhas and Bodhisattvas in Mahayana Buddhism](http://www.cttbusa.org/buddhas_bodhisattvas.asp)

- [Arahants, Buddhas and Bodhisattvas](http://info-buddhism.com/Arahants-Buddhas-Bodhisattvas_Bhikkhu_Bodhi.html) by Bhikkhu Bodhi

- [The Bodhisattva Ideal in Theravāda Theory and Practice](http://info-buddhism.com/Bodhisattva-Ideal-Theravada_JeffreySamuels.html) by Jeffrey Samuel

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