# Loess

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Sediment of accumulated wind-blown dust

This article is about the geologic material. For the statistical technique, see [local regression](/source/Local_regression).

Loess in [Vicksburg, Mississippi](/source/Vicksburg%2C_Mississippi), United States

**Loess** ([US](/source/American_English): [/ˈlɛs, ˈlʌs, ˈloʊ.əs/](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English), [UK](/source/British_English): [/ˈloʊ.əs, ˈlɜːs/](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English); from [German](/source/German_language): *Löss* [\[lœs\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German)) is a [clastic](/source/Clastic_rock), predominantly [silt](/source/Silt)-sized [sediment](/source/Sediment) that is formed by the accumulation of wind-blown [dust](/source/Dust).[1] Ten percent of Earth's land area is covered by loesses or similar [deposits](/source/Deposition_(geology)).[2]

Loess is a [periglacial](/source/Periglacial) or [aeolian](/source/Aeolian_processes) (windborne) sediment, defined as an accumulation of 20% or less of [clay](/source/Clay) with a balance of roughly equal parts [sand](/source/Sand) and silt (with a typical [grain size](/source/Grain_size) from 20 to 50 micrometers),[3][4] often loosely cemented by [calcium carbonate](/source/Calcium_carbonate). Usually, they are [homogeneous](/source/Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity) and highly [porous](/source/Porosity#Porosity_in_earth_sciences_and_construction) and have vertical capillaries that permit the sediment to fracture and form vertical [bluffs](/source/Cliff).

## Properties

Loess near [Hunyuan](/source/Hunyuan), [Datong](/source/Datong), [Shanxi](/source/Shanxi), China

Loess from the [Rhine](/source/Rhine) lowlands near [Mannheim](/source/Mannheim) with calcareous concretions

Loesses are [homogeneous](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/homogeneous), [porous](/source/Porosity#Porosity_in_earth_sciences_and_construction), [friable](/source/Friable), pale yellow or [buff](/source/Buff_(color)), slightly [coherent](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/coherent), typically non-[stratified](/source/Stratum), and often [calcareous](/source/Calcareous). Loess grains are [angular](/source/Rounding_(sediment)), with little polishing or rounding, and composed of [quartz](/source/Quartz), [feldspar](/source/Feldspar), [mica](/source/Mica), or other [mineral](/source/Mineral) crystals. Loesses have been described as rich, dust-like soil.[5]

Loess deposits may become very thick: at more than a hundred meters in areas of Northwestern China and tens of meters in parts of the [Midwestern](/source/Midwestern_United_States) United States. Loesses generally occur as blanket deposits that cover hundreds of square kilometers. The deposits are often tens of meters thick. Loesses often have steep or vertical faces.[6] Because the grains are angular, loesses will often stand in banks for many years without [slumping](/source/Slump_(geology)). This type of soil has "vertical cleavage", and thus, it can be easily excavated to form cave dwellings, which is a popular method of making [human habitations](/source/Yaodong) in some parts of China. However, loesses can readily erode.

In several areas of the world, loess [ridges](/source/Ridge) have formed that had been aligned with the [prevailing winds](/source/Prevailing_wind) during the last [glacial maximum](/source/Glacial_maximum); these are called "[paha](/source/Paha_(landform)) ridges" in America and "greda ridges" in Europe. The formation of these loess [dunes](/source/Dune) has been explained as a combination of wind and [tundra](/source/Tundra) conditions.

## Etymology

The word *loess*, with connotations of origin by wind-deposited accumulation, was introduced into English from the [German](/source/German_language) *Löss* (1824),[7] which can be traced back to [Swiss German](/source/Alemannic_German) and is [cognate](/source/Cognate) with the English word *loose* and the German word *los*.[8] It was first applied to the [Rhine](/source/Rhine) River valley loesses around 1821.[9][10]

## History of research

The term "Löß" was first described in [Central Europe](/source/Central_Europe) by [Karl Cäsar von Leonhard](/source/Karl_C%C3%A4sar_von_Leonhard) (1823–1824),[11] who had reported yellowish brown, silty deposits along the Rhine valley near [Heidelberg](/source/Heidelberg).[1] [Charles Lyell](/source/Charles_Lyell) (1834) brought the term into widespread usage, observing similarities between "loess" and its derivatives along the loess bluffs in the Rhine and in [Mississippi](/source/Mississippi_River).[1] At the time, it was thought that the yellowish brown silt-rich sediment was of [fluvial](/source/Fluvial) origin and had been deposited by large rivers.[1] The [aeolian](/source/Aeolian_processes) origin of the loesses was recognized later (Virlet D'Aoust 1857),[12] particularly due to the convincing observations of loesses in [China](/source/China) by [Ferdinand von Richthofen](/source/Ferdinand_von_Richthofen) (1878).[1][13] A tremendous number of papers have been published since then, focusing on the formation of loesses and on loess/[paleosol](/source/Paleosol) (older soil buried under deposits) sequences as the archives of climate and environment change.[1] Research on loesses in China to support [water conservation](/source/Water_conservation) has been ongoing since 1954.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

[Artist's impression](/source/Artist's_impression) of a scene during the Pleistocene Era. A [dust storm](/source/Dust_storm) in the distance represents a typical cause of present-day loess. (1918 painting by [Charles R. Knight](/source/Charles_R._Knight))

Much effort was put into setting up regional and local loess [stratigraphies](/source/Stratigraphy) and their correlations (Kukla 1970, 1975, 1977).[14][15][16] However, even the chronostratigraphical position of the last interglacial soil correlating with marine [isotope](/source/Isotope) substage 5e was a matter of debate, due to the lack of robust and reliable numerical dating, as summarized, for example, by Zöller et al. (1994)[17] and Frechen et al. (1997)[18] for the Austrian and Hungarian loess stratigraphy, respectively.[1]

Since the 1980s, [thermoluminescence](/source/Thermoluminescence) (TL), [optically stimulated luminescence](/source/Optically_stimulated_luminescence) (OSL), and infrared stimulated luminescence (IRSL) dating have been available, providing the possibility for dating the time of loess (dust) depositions, i.e., the time elapsed since the last exposure of the mineral grains to daylight.[1] During the past decade, [luminescence dating](/source/Luminescence_dating) has significantly improved by new methodological improvements, especially the development of single [aliquot](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aliquot) regenerative (SAR) protocols (Murray & Wintle 2000)[19] resulting in reliable ages (or age estimates) with an accuracy of up to 5 and 10% for the [last glacial](/source/Last_glacial) record.[1] More recently, luminescence dating has also become a robust dating technique for penultimate and antepenultimate glacial loess (e.g. Thiel et al. 2011,[20] Schmidt et al. 2011)[21] allowing for a reliable correlation of loess/palaeosol sequences for at least the last two interglacial/glacial cycles throughout Europe and the Northern Hemisphere (Frechen 2011).[1][22] Furthermore, the numerical dating provides the basis for quantitative loess research applying more sophisticated methods to determine and understand high-resolution proxy data including the palaeodust content of the atmosphere, variations of the atmospheric circulation patterns and wind systems, palaeoprecipitation, and palaeotemperature.[1]

Besides luminescence dating methods, the use of radiocarbon dating in loess has increased during the past decades. Advances in methods of analyses, instrumentation, and refinements to the radiocarbon calibration curve have made it possible to obtain reliable ages from loess deposits for the last 40–45 ka. However, the use of this method relies on finding suitable in situ organic material in deposits such as charcoal, seeds, earthworm granules, or snail shells.[23][24][25]

## Formation

[Medicinal clay](/source/Medicinal_clay) composed of loess with a fineness grade of 1.

According to Pye (1995),[26] four fundamental requirements are necessary for the formation of loess: a dust source, adequate wind energy to transport the dust, a suitable accumulation area, and a sufficient amount of time.[1]

### Periglacial loess

[Periglacial](/source/Periglacial) (glacial) loess is derived from the floodplains of [glacial](/source/Glacier) [braided rivers](/source/Braided_river) that carried large volumes of glacial meltwater and sediments from the annual melting of continental ice sheets and mountain ice caps during the spring and summer. During the autumn and winter, when the melting of the ice sheets and ice caps ceased, the flow of meltwater down these rivers either ceased or was greatly reduced. As a consequence, large parts of the formerly submerged and unvegetated floodplains of these braided rivers dried out and were exposed to the wind. Because the floodplains consist of sediment containing a high content of glacially ground flour-like [silt](/source/Silt) and [clay](/source/Clay), they were highly susceptible to winnowing of their silts and [clays](/source/Clay) by the wind. Once entrained by the wind, particles were then deposited downwind. The loess deposits found along both sides of the [Mississippi River alluvial valley](/source/Mississippi_embayment) are a classic example of periglacial loess.[27][28]

During the [Quaternary](/source/Quaternary), loess and loess-like sediments were formed in periglacial environments on mid-continental [shield](/source/Shield_(geology)) areas in Europe and Siberia as well as on the margins of high mountain ranges like in [Tajikistan](/source/Tajikistan) and on semi-arid margins of some lowland deserts as in China.[1]

In England, periglacial loess is also known as [brickearth](/source/Brickearth).

### Non-glacial

Non-glacial loess can originate from [deserts](/source/Desert), [dune fields](/source/Dune_field), [playa lakes](/source/Playa_lake), and [volcanic ash](/source/Volcanic_ash).

Some types of nonglacial loess are:[29]

- [Desert](/source/Desert) loess produced by aeolian attrition of quartz grains;[30]

- [Volcanic](/source/Volcanic) loess in Ecuador and Argentina;

- [Tropical](/source/Tropical) loess in Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay;

- [Gypsum](/source/Gypsum) loess in Spain;

- [Trade wind](/source/Trade_wind) loess in Venezuela and Brazil;

- [Anticyclonic](/source/Anticyclonic) loess in Argentina.

The thick Chinese loess deposits are non-glacial loess having been blown in from deserts in northern China.[31] The loess covering the [Great Plains](/source/Great_Plains) of [Nebraska](/source/Nebraska), [Kansas](/source/Kansas), and [Colorado](/source/Colorado) is considered to be non-glacial desert loess.[27] Non-glacial desert loess is also found in Australia[32] and Africa.[28]

## Fertility

Loess tends to develop into very rich soils. Under appropriate climatic conditions, it is some of the most agriculturally productive terrain in the world.[33]

Soils underlain by loess tend to be excessively drained. The fine grains [weather](/source/Weathering) rapidly due to their large surface area, making soils derived from loess rich. The fertility of loess soils is due largely to a high [cation exchange capacity](/source/Cation_exchange_capacity) (the ability of the soil to retain nutrients) and [porosity](/source/Porosity) (the air-filled space in the soil). The fertility of loess is not due to organic matter content, which tends to be rather low, unlike tropical soils which derive their fertility almost wholly from organic matter.

Even well managed loess [farmland](/source/Arable_land) can experience dramatic [erosion](/source/Erosion) of well over 2.5 kg/m2 per year. In China, the [loess deposits](/source/Loess_Plateau) which give the [Yellow River](/source/Yellow_River) its color have been farmed and have produced phenomenal yields for over one thousand years. Winds pick up loess particles contributing to the [Asian Dust](/source/Asian_Dust) pollution problem. The largest deposit of loess in the [United States](/source/United_States) which is the [Loess Hills](/source/Loess_Hills) along the border of [Iowa](/source/Iowa) and [Nebraska](/source/Nebraska), has survived [intensive farming](/source/Intensive_farming) and [poor farming practices](/source/Land_degradation). For almost 150 years, this loess deposit was farmed with [mouldboard ploughs](/source/Mouldboard_plough) and tilled in the fall, both intensely erosive practices. At times it suffered erosion rates of over 10 kilograms per square meter per year. Today this loess deposit is worked as low till or [no till](/source/No_till) in all areas and is aggressively [terraced](/source/Terrace_(agriculture)).[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

## Large areas of loess deposits and soils

### Central Asia

An area of multiple loess deposits spans from southern [Tajikistan](/source/Tajikistan) up to [Almaty](/source/Almaty), [Kazakhstan](/source/Kazakhstan).[34]

### East Asia

#### China

The [Yellow River](/source/Yellow_River)'s distinctive light yellow colour is due to the large amounts of loess it carries from the [Loess Plateau](/source/Loess_Plateau).

The [Loess Plateau](/source/Loess_Plateau) ([simplified Chinese](/source/Simplified_Chinese_characters): 黄土高原; [traditional Chinese](/source/Traditional_Chinese_characters): 黃土高原; [pinyin](/source/Pinyin): *Huángtǔ Gāoyuán*), also known as the Huangtu Plateau, is a [plateau](/source/Plateau) that covers an area of some 640,000 km2 around the upper and middle reaches of China's [Yellow River](/source/Yellow_River). The Yellow River was so named because the loess forming its banks gave a yellowish tint to the water.[35] The soil of this region has been called the "most highly erodible soil on earth".[36] The Loess Plateau and its dusty [soil](/source/Soil) cover almost all of [Shanxi](/source/Shanxi), [Shaanxi](/source/Shaanxi), and [Gansu](/source/Gansu) provinces; the [Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region](/source/Ningxia_Hui_Autonomous_Region), and parts of others.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

### Europe

Loess deposits of varying thickness (decimeter to several tens of meters) are widely distributed over the European continent.[23] The northern European loess belt stretches from southern England and northern France to Germany, Poland and the southern Ukraine and deposits are characterized by strong influences of [periglacial](/source/Periglacial) conditions.[37] [South-eastern European](/source/Southeast_Europe) loess is mainly deposited in plateau-like situations in the [Danube basins](/source/Danube_basin), likely derived from the Danube River system.[38][39][40] In [south-western Europe](/source/Iberian_Peninsula), relocated loess derivatives are mostly restricted to the [Ebro Valley](/source/Ebro_Valley) and central Spain.[41][42]

### North America

#### United States

Map showing the distribution of loess in the United States[43]

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The [Loess Hills](/source/Loess_Hills) of [Iowa](/source/Iowa) owe their fertility to the [prairie](/source/Prairie) [topsoils](/source/Topsoil) built by 10,000 years of post-glacial accumulation of organic-rich [humus](/source/Humus) as a consequence of a persistent [grassland](/source/Grassland) [biome](/source/Biome). When the valuable [A-horizon](/source/A_horizon) topsoil is eroded or degraded, the underlying loess soil is infertile and requires the addition of [fertilizer](/source/Fertilizer) to support [agriculture](/source/Agriculture).

The loess along the [Mississippi River](/source/Mississippi_River) near [Vicksburg, Mississippi](/source/Vicksburg%2C_Mississippi), consists of three layers. The *Peoria Loess*, *Sicily Island Loess*, and *Crowley's Ridge Loess* accumulated at different periods during the [Pleistocene](/source/Pleistocene). Ancient soils, called [paleosols](/source/Paleosol), have developed on the top of the [Sicily Island](/source/Sicily_Island%2C_Louisiana) Loess and [Crowley's Ridge](/source/Crowley's_Ridge) Loess. The lowermost loess, the Crowley's Ridge Loess, accumulated during the late [Illinoian Stage](/source/Illinoian_(stage)). The middle loess, Sicily Island Loess, accumulated during the early [Wisconsin Stage](/source/Wisconsin_glaciation). The uppermost loess, the Peoria Loess, in which the modern soil has developed, accumulated during the late Wisconsin Stage. Animal remains include terrestrial [gastropods](/source/Gastropod) and [mastodons](/source/Mastodon).[44]

### Oceania

#### New Zealand

Extensive areas of loess occur in [New Zealand](/source/New_Zealand) including the [Canterbury Plains](/source/Canterbury_Plains)[45] and on the [Banks Peninsula](/source/Banks_Peninsula).[46][47] The basis of loess stratigraphy was introduced by [John Hardcastle](/source/John_Hardcastle) in 1890.[48][*[non-primary source needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources)*]

### South America

#### Argentina

An [outcrop](/source/Outcrop) of loess in [Patagonia](/source/Patagonia)

Much of [Argentina](/source/Argentina) is covered by loess. Two areas of loess are usually distinguished in Argentina: the neotropical loess north of [latitude 30° S](/source/30th_parallel_south) and the pampean loess.[49]

The neotropical loess is made of silt or silty clay. Relative to the pampean loess the neotropical loess is poor in [quartz](/source/Quartz) and [calcium carbonate](/source/Calcium_carbonate). The source region for this loess is thought by some scientists to be areas of [fluvio-glacial](/source/Fluvio-glacial) deposits the [Andean](/source/Andes) foothills formed by the [Patagonian Ice Sheet](/source/Patagonian_Ice_Sheet). Other researchers stress the importance of [volcanic material](/source/Tephra) in the neotropical loess.[49]

The pampean loess is sandy or made of silty sand.[49]

## See also

- [Börde](/source/B%C3%B6rde) – Fertile plain – North German loess regions

- [Gäu](/source/G%C3%A4u) – South German loess regions

- [Loam](/source/Loam) – Soil composed of similar proportions of sand and silt, and somewhat less clay

## References

**Attribution**

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-7) [***i***](#cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-8) [***j***](#cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-9) [***k***](#cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-10) [***l***](#cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-11) [***m***](#cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-12) [***n***](#cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-13) Frechen, M (2011). ["Loess in Europe: Guest Editorial"](https://doi.org/10.3285%2Feg.60.1.00). *E&G Quaternary Science Journal*. **60** (1): 3–5. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2011EGQSJ..60....3F](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011EGQSJ..60....3F). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3285/eg.60.1.00](https://doi.org/10.3285%2Feg.60.1.00).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** Murray, A. S.; Wintle, A. G. (2000). "Luminescence dating of quartz using an improved single aliquot regenerative-dose protocol". *[Radiation Measurements](/source/Radiation_Measurements_(journal))*. **32** (1): 57–73. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2000RadM...32...57M](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000RadM...32...57M). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/S1350-4487(99)00253-X](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1350-4487%2899%2900253-X).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** Thiel, C.; Buylaert, J. P.; Murray, A. S.; Terhorst, B.; Tsukamoto, S.; Frechen, M.; Sprafke, T. (2011). ["Investigating the chronostratigraphy of prominent palaeosols in Lower Austria using post-IR IRSL dating"](https://doi.org/10.3285%2Feg.60.1.10). *E&G Quaternary Science Journal*. **60** (1): 137–152. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2011EGQSJ..60..137T](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011EGQSJ..60..137T). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3285/eg.60.1.10](https://doi.org/10.3285%2Feg.60.1.10). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[11858/00-1735-0000-0001-B8C7-1](https://hdl.handle.net/11858%2F00-1735-0000-0001-B8C7-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** Schmidt, E. D.; Semmel, A.; Frechen, M. (2011). ["Luminescence dating of the loess/palaeosol sequence at the gravel quarry Gaul/Weilbach, Southern Hesse (Germany)"](https://doi.org/10.3285%2Feg.60.1.08). *E&G Quaternary Science Journal*. **60** (1): 116–125. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2011EGQSJ..60..116S](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011EGQSJ..60..116S). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3285/eg.60.1.08](https://doi.org/10.3285%2Feg.60.1.08). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[11858/00-1735-0000-0001-B8C4-7](https://hdl.handle.net/11858%2F00-1735-0000-0001-B8C4-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** Frechen, M. (2011). "Loess in Eurasia". *Quaternary International*. **234** (1–2): 1–3. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2011QuInt.234....1F](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011QuInt.234....1F). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.quaint.2010.11.014](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.quaint.2010.11.014).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:0_23-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:0_23-1) Schaetzl, Randall J.; Bettis, E. Arthur; Crouvi, Onn; Fitzsimmons, Kathryn E.; Grimley, David A.; Hambach, Ulrich; Lehmkuhl, Frank; Marković, Slobodan B.; Mason, Joseph A.; Owczarek, Piotr; Roberts, Helen M. (May 2018). ["Approaches and challenges to the study of loess—Introduction to the LoessFest Special Issue"](https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fqua.2018.15). *Quaternary Research*. **89** (3): 563–618. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2018QuRes..89..563S](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018QuRes..89..563S). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/qua.2018.15](https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fqua.2018.15). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[1871.1/74383097-8ffd-4d02-9616-33a106668755](https://hdl.handle.net/1871.1%2F74383097-8ffd-4d02-9616-33a106668755). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0033-5894](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0033-5894).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** Újvári, Gábor; Stevens, Thomas; Molnár, Mihály; Demény, Attila; Lambert, Fabrice; Varga, György; Jull, A. J. Timothy; Páll-Gergely, Barna; Buylaert, Jan-Pieter; Kovács, János (2017-12-12). ["Coupled European and Greenland last glacial dust activity driven by North Atlantic climate"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5740632). *Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences*. **114** (50): E10632–E10638. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2017PNAS..11410632U](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017PNAS..11410632U). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1073/pnas.1712651114](https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1712651114). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0027-8424](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [5740632](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5740632). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [29180406](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29180406).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** Moine, Olivier; Antoine, Pierre; Hatté, Christine; Landais, Amaëlle; Mathieu, Jérôme; Prud'homme, Charlotte; Rousseau, Denis-Didier (2017-06-13). ["The impact of Last Glacial climate variability in west-European loess revealed by radiocarbon dating of fossil earthworm granules"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5474771). *Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences*. **114** (24): 6209–6214. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2017PNAS..114.6209M](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017PNAS..114.6209M). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1073/pnas.1614751114](https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1614751114). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0027-8424](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [5474771](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5474771). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [28559353](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28559353).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** Pye, K (1995). "The nature, origin and accumulation of loess". *[Quaternary Science Reviews](/source/Quaternary_Science_Reviews)*. **14** (7–8): 653–667. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1995QSRv...14..653P](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995QSRv...14..653P). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/0277-3791(95)00047-x](https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0277-3791%2895%2900047-x).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-MuhsOthers2003a_27-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-MuhsOthers2003a_27-1) Bettis, E.A.; Muhs, D.R.; Roberts, H.M.; Wintle, A.G. (2003). "Last Glacial loess in the conterminous USA". *Quaternary Science Reviews*. **22** (18–19): 1907–1946. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2003QSRv...22.1907A](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003QSRv...22.1907A). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/S0277-3791(03)00169-0](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0277-3791%2803%2900169-0). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [130982847](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:130982847).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-esp.cr.usgs.gov_28-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-esp.cr.usgs.gov_28-1) Muhs, D.R.; Bettis, III, E.A. (2003). [*Quaternary loess-paleosol sequences as examples of climate-driven sedimentary extremes*](https://web.archive.org/web/20120210081127/http://esp.cr.usgs.gov/info/eolian/MuhsBettis2003GSAsp370.pdf) (PDF). Vol. 370. pp. 53–74. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2003gsas.book...53M](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003gsas.book...53M). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1130/0-8137-2370-1.53](https://doi.org/10.1130%2F0-8137-2370-1.53). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8137-2370-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8137-2370-9). Archived from [the original](https://esp.cr.usgs.gov/info/eolian/MuhsBettis2003GSAsp370.pdf) (PDF) on 2012-02-10. Retrieved 2008-06-18. {{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: |journal= ignored ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** Iriondo, M.H.; Krohling, D.M. (2007). "Non-classical types of loess". *[Sedimentary Geology](/source/Sedimentary_Geology_(journal))*. **202** (3): 352–368. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2007SedG..202..352I](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007SedG..202..352I). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.sedgeo.2007.03.012](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.sedgeo.2007.03.012). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[11336/114389](https://hdl.handle.net/11336%2F114389).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** Whalley, W.B., Marshall, J.R., Smith, B.J. 1982, Origin of desert loess from some experimental observations, Nature, 300, 433-435.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** Ding, Z.; Sun, J. (1999). "Changes in Sand Content of Loess Deposits along a North–South Transect of the Chinese Loess Plateau and the Implications for Desert Variations". *[Quaternary Research](/source/Quaternary_Research)*. **52** (1): 56–62. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1999QuRes..52...56D](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999QuRes..52...56D). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1006/qres.1999.2045](https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fqres.1999.2045). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [128767602](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:128767602).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** Haberlah, D (2007). "A call for Australian loess". *Area*. **39** (2): 224–229. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2007Area...39..224H](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Area...39..224H). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1475-4762.2007.00730.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1475-4762.2007.00730.x).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** Getis, Arthur; Judith Getis and Jerome D. Fellmann (2000). [*Introduction to Geography, Seventh Edition*](https://archive.org/details/introductiontoge00geti/page/99). [McGraw Hill](/source/McGraw_Hill). p. [99](https://archive.org/details/introductiontoge00geti/page/99). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-697-38506-X](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-697-38506-X).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-34)** Ding, Z.L. (2002). "The loess record in southern Tajikistan and correlation with Chinese loess". *Earth and Planetary Science Letters*. **200** (3–4). Elsevier: 387–400. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2002E&PSL.200..387D](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002E&PSL.200..387D). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/S0012-821X(02)00637-4](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0012-821X%2802%2900637-4)., Fig. 1 (b) showing the distribution of loess, deserts, and mountains in Central Asia (adopted from [T.S. Liu, Loess and the Environment, China Ocean Press, Beijing, 1985.]). The locality of the Chashmanigar loess section is indicated by the solid arrow.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-35)** ["Huang He"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090605050404/http://www.bartleby.com/65/hu/HuangHe.html). *[The Columbia Encyclopedia](/source/The_Columbia_Encyclopedia)* (6th ed.). 2007. Archived from [the original](http://www.bartleby.com/65/hu/HuangHe.html) on June 5, 2009.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** John M. Laflen, Soil Erosion and Dryland Farming, 2000, CRC Press, 736 pages [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-8493-2349-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8493-2349-5)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** Vandenberghe, Jef; French, Hugh M.; Gorbunov, Aldar; Marchenko, Sergei; Velichko, Andrey A.; Jin, Huijun; Cui, Zhijiu; Zhang, Tingjun; Wan, Xudong (2014). ["The Last Permafrost Maximum (LPM) map of the Northern Hemisphere: permafrost extent and mean annual air temperatures, 25–17 ka BP"](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fbor.12070). *Boreas*. **43** (3): 652–666. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2014Borea..43..652V](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014Borea..43..652V). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/bor.12070](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fbor.12070). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1502-3885](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1502-3885).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-38)** Fitzsimmons, Kathryn E.; Marković, Slobodan B.; Hambach, Ulrich (2012-05-18). "Pleistocene environmental dynamics recorded in the loess of the middle and lower Danube basin". *Quaternary Science Reviews*. **41**: 104–118. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2012QSRv...41..104F](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012QSRv...41..104F). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.03.002](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.quascirev.2012.03.002). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0277-3791](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0277-3791).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** Jipa, Dan C. (November 2014). "The conceptual sedimentary model of the Lower Danube loess basin: Sedimentogenetic implications". *Quaternary International*. **351**: 14–24. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2014QuInt.351...14J](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014QuInt.351...14J). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.quaint.2013.06.008](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.quaint.2013.06.008). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1040-6182](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1040-6182).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-40)** Újvári, Gábor; Varga, Andrea; Ramos, Frank C.; Kovács, János; Németh, Tibor; Stevens, Thomas (April 2012). "Evaluating the use of clay mineralogy, Sr–Nd isotopes and zircon U–Pb ages in tracking dust provenance: An example from loess of the Carpathian Basin". *Chemical Geology*. 304–305: 83–96. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2012ChGeo.304...83U](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012ChGeo.304...83U). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.chemgeo.2012.02.007](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chemgeo.2012.02.007). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0009-2541](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0009-2541).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-41)** Boixadera, Jaume; Poch, Rosa M.; Lowick, Sally E.; Balasch, J. Carles (July 2015). "Loess and soils in the eastern Ebro Basin". *Quaternary International*. **376**: 114–133. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2015QuInt.376..114B](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015QuInt.376..114B). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.quaint.2014.07.046](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.quaint.2014.07.046). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1040-6182](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1040-6182). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [129905410](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129905410).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-42)** Bertran, Pascal; Liard, Morgane; Sitzia, Luca; Tissoux, Hélène (November 2016). "A map of Pleistocene aeolian deposits in Western Europe, with special emphasis on France". *Journal of Quaternary Science*. **31** (8) e2909. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2016JQS....31E2909B](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016JQS....31E2909B). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/jqs.2909](https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjqs.2909). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0267-8179](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0267-8179). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [132258680](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:132258680).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-usgs_muhs_43-0)** Muhs; et al. (2013-02-06). ["Eolian History of North America: Task 2, Understand the paleoclimatic significance of loess"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130218195902/http://gec.cr.usgs.gov/archive/eolian/task2.shtml). [USGS](/source/USGS). Archived from [the original](https://gec.cr.usgs.gov/archive/eolian/task2.shtml) on 2013-02-18.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-MillerOthers1_44-0)** Miller, B.J., G.C. Lewis, J.J. Alford, and W.J. Day, 1985, [*Loesses in Louisiana and at Vicksburg, Mississippi. Guidebook, Friends of the Pleistocene Field Trip, 12-14 April, 1985.*](https://www.scribd.com/doc/18934817/1984-Louisiana-Loess-Fieldtrip-Guidebook) [LA Agricultural Experimental Station](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LA_Agricultural_Experimental_Station&action=edit&redlink=1), [Louisiana State University](/source/Louisiana_State_University), [Baton Rouge](/source/Baton_Rouge), [Louisiana](/source/Louisiana). 126 pp.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-45)** John Wilson. ["Canterbury Region"](https://teara.govt.nz/en/canterbury-region/page-3). Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 16 February 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-46)** Eileen McSaveney. ["Glaciers and glaciation - Retreating ice and the glacier legacy"](http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/photograph/10750/loess-deposits-banks-peninsula). Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 16 February 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-47)** Smalley, I.J., Davin, J.E. 1980. The First Hundred Years-A Historical Bibliography of New Zealand Loess. New Zealand Soil Bureau Bibliographic Report 28, 166pp.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-48)** *Hardcastle, J. 1890. On the Timaru loess as a climate register. Transactions & Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute 23, 324-332 (on line: Royal Society of New Zealand [http://rsnz.natlib.govt.nz](http://rsnz.natlib.govt.nz); reproduced in Loess Letter supplement 23, November 1988).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Sagayo_49-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Sagayo_49-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Sagayo_49-2) Sagayo, José Manuel (1995). "The Argentine neotropical loess: An overview". *Quaternary Science Reviews*. **14** (7–8). Pergamon: 755–766. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1995QSRv...14..755S](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995QSRv...14..755S). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/0277-3791(95)00050-X](https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0277-3791%2895%2900050-X).

## Further reading

- Smalley, I. J. (editor) 1975. *Loess Lithology & Genesis*. Benchmark Geology 26. Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross 454pp.

- Smalley, I. J. 1980. *Loess: A Partial Bibliography*. Geobooks/Elsevier. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0 86094 036 5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0_86094_036_5). 103pp.

- Rozycki, S. Z. 1991. *Loess and Loess-like Deposits*. Ossolineum Wroclaw [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [83-04-03745-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-04-03745-9). 187pp.

## External links

Look up ***[loess](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/loess)*** in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to [Loess](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Loess).

[Wikisource](/source/Wikisource) has the text of the 1920 *[Encyclopedia Americana](/source/Encyclopedia_Americana)* article  ***[Loess](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_Americana_(1920)/Loess)***.

- 2006, *[The Secret of China's Vast Loess Plateau](https://web.archive.org/web/20090511201317/http://www.semp.us/publications/biot_printview.php?BiotID=357)* [Suburban Emergency Management Project](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Suburban_Emergency_Management_Project&action=edit&redlink=1), Chicago, Illinois.

- 2007, *[New European Loess Map.](https://www.ufz.de/index.php?en=35690)* [Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research](/source/Helmholtz_Centre_for_Environmental_Research), [Leipzig](/source/Leipzig), Germany.

- *[Glacial Deposits: Loess and Till.](https://www.museum.state.il.us/exhibits/larson/loess.html)* [Illinois State Museum](/source/Illinois_State_Museum), [Springfield, Illinois](/source/Springfield%2C_Illinois).

- Briedis. C.A., 2006, [*Loess Thickness Map (of Illinois).*](https://web.archive.org/web/20080905190943/http://www.isgs.uiuc.edu/sections/quat/loessthick-map.shtml) [Illinois State Geological Survey](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Illinois_State_Geological_Survey&action=edit&redlink=1), [Champaign, Illinois](/source/Champaign%2C_Illinois).

- Heinrich, P.V., 2008, [*Loess map of Louisiana.*](https://web.archive.org/web/20090325233831/http://www.lgs.lsu.edu/deploy/uploads/Loess%20Map%20of%20LA.pdf), Public Information Series. no. 12, [Louisiana Geological Survey](/source/Louisiana_Geological_Survey), [Baton Rouge](/source/Baton_Rouge), [Louisiana](/source/Louisiana).

- Prior, J.C., and D.J. Quade, nd, [*The Loess Hills: A Geologic View.*](https://web.archive.org/web/20080521133019/http://www.igsb.uiowa.edu/browse/loess/loess.htm) [Iowa Geological Survey](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iowa_Geological_Survey&action=edit&redlink=1), [Department of Natural Resources](/source/Iowa_Department_of_Natural_Resources), [Iowa City](/source/Iowa_City), Iowa.

- [U.S. Geological Survey](/source/U.S._Geological_Survey), 1999, *[Geology of the Loess Hills, Iowa](https://pubs.usgs.gov/info/loess/)*

- [U.S. Geological Survey](/source/U.S._Geological_Survey), 2006, *[Eolian History of North America](https://web.archive.org/web/20080513165050/http://esp.cr.usgs.gov/info/eolian/task2.html)* Why is loess important to study?

- [*The Loess Hills of Western Iowa*](https://web.archive.org/web/20080626123416/http://www.nfinity.com/~exile/loesspg.htm)

- [*The Loess Hills of Roztocze in Poland*](http://www.mojeroztocze.pl/index.php/galeria?func=viewcategory&catid=3) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20110102213203/http://www.mojeroztocze.pl/index.php/galeria?func=viewcategory&catid=3) 2011-01-02 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)

v t e Soil classification World Reference Base for Soil Resources (1998–) Acrisols Alisols Andosols Anthrosols Arenosols Calcisols Cambisols Chernozem Cryosols Durisols Ferralsols Fluvisols Gleysols Gypsisols Histosol Kastanozems Leptosols Lixisols Luvisols Nitisols Phaeozems Planosols Plinthosols Podzols Regosols Retisols Solonchaks Solonetz Stagnosol Technosols Umbrisols Vertisols USDA soil taxonomy Alfisols Andisols Aridisols Entisols Gelisols Histosols Inceptisols Mollisols Oxisols Spodosols Ultisols Vertisols Other systems FAO soil classification (1974–1998) Unified Soil Classification System AASHTO Soil Classification System Référentiel pédologique (French classification system) Canadian system of soil classification Australian Soil Classification Polish Soil Classification 1938 USDA soil taxonomy List of U.S. state soils List of vineyard soil types PG-3 (Spanish classification system) Non-systematic soil types Sand Silt Clay Loam Topsoil Subsoil Soil crust Claypan Hardpan Gypcrust Caliche Parent material Pedosphere Laimosphere Rhizosphere Bulk soil Alkali soil Bay mud Blue goo Brickearth Brown earth Calcareous grassland Dark earth Dry quicksand Duplex soil Eluvium Expansive clay Fill dirt Fuller's earth Hydrophobic soil Loess Mud Muskeg Paleosol Peat Prime farmland Quicksand Serpentine soil Spodic soil Stagnogley Subaqueous soil Takir Terra preta Terra rossa Tropical peat Yedoma Soil on bodies other than Earth Lunar regolith Martian regolith Types of soil

v t e Geotechnical engineering Offshore geotechnical engineering Investigation and instrumentation Field (in situ) Core drill Cone penetration test Geo-electrical sounding Permeability test Load test Static Dynamic Statnamic Pore pressure measurement Piezometer Well Ram sounding Rock control drilling Rotary-pressure sounding Rotary weight sounding Sample series Screw plate test Deformation monitoring Inclinometer Settlement recordings Shear vane test Simple sounding Standard penetration test Total sounding Trial pit Visible bedrock Nuclear densometer test Exploration geophysics Crosshole sonic logging Pile integrity test Wave equation analysis Laboratory testing Soil classification Atterberg limits California bearing ratio Direct shear test Hydrometer Proctor compaction test R-value Sieve analysis Triaxial shear test Oedometer test Hydraulic conductivity tests Water content tests Soil Types Clay Silt Sand Gravel Peat Loam Loess Properties Hydraulic conductivity Water content Void ratio Bulk density Thixotropy Reynolds' dilatancy Angle of repose Friction angle Cohesion Porosity Permeability Specific storage Shear strength Sensitivity Structures (Interaction) Natural features Topography Vegetation Terrain Topsoil Water table Bedrock Subgrade Subsoil Earthworks Shoring structures Retaining walls Gabion Ground freezing Mechanically stabilized earth Pressure grouting Slurry wall Soil nailing Tieback Land development Landfill Excavation Trench Embankment Cut Causeway Terracing Cut-and-cover Cut and fill Fill dirt Grading Land reclamation Track bed Erosion control Earth structure Expanded clay aggregate Crushed stone Geosynthetics Geotextile Geomembrane Geosynthetic clay liner Cellular confinement Infiltration Foundations Shallow Deep Mechanics Forces Effective stress Pore water pressure Lateral earth pressure Overburden pressure Preconsolidation pressure Phenomena and problems Permafrost Frost heaving Consolidation Compaction Earthquake Response spectrum Seismic hazard Shear wave Landslide analysis Stability analysis Mitigation Classification Sliding criterion Slab stabilisation Bearing capacity Stress distribution in soil Numerical analysis software SEEP2D STABL SVFlux SVSlope UTEXAS Plaxis Related fields Geology Geochemistry Petrology Earthquake engineering Geomorphology Soil science Hydrology Hydrogeology Biogeography Earth materials Archaeology Agricultural science Agrology

Authority control databases National Japan Other Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Loess](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loess) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loess?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.