# Liquor

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For the sweetened and flavored alcoholic beverages, see [Liqueur](/source/Liqueur).

**Liquor** (/ˈlɪkər/ LIK-ər, sometimes **hard liquor**), **spirit**, **distilled spirit**, or **spirituous liquor** are [alcoholic drinks](/source/Alcoholic_drinks) produced by the [distillation](/source/Distillation) of [grains](/source/Grain), [fruits](/source/Fruit), [vegetables](/source/Vegetable), or [sugar](/source/Sugar) that have already gone through [alcoholic fermentation](/source/Ethanol_fermentation). While the word *liquor* usually refers to distilled alcoholic spirits rather than drinks produced by fermentation alone,[1] it can sometimes be used more broadly to refer to any alcoholic beverage (or even non-alcoholic ones produced by distillation or some other practices, such as the brewed liquor of a [tea](/source/Tea)).[2]

The distillation process concentrates the alcohol, so the resulting condensate has an increased [alcohol by volume](/source/Alcohol_by_volume).[3] As liquors contain significantly more [alcohol](/source/Alcohol_(drug)) ([ethanol](/source/Ethanol)) than other alcoholic drinks, they are considered "harder". In [North America](/source/North_America), the term *hard liquor* is sometimes used to distinguish distilled alcoholic drinks from non-distilled ones, whereas the term *spirits* is more commonly used in the [United Kingdom](/source/United_Kingdom). Some examples of liquors are [vodka](/source/Vodka), [rum](/source/Rum), [gin](/source/Gin) and [tequila](/source/Tequila). Liquors are often aged in [barrels](/source/Barrel), such as for the production of [brandy](/source/Brandy), [tequila](/source/Tequila), and [whiskey](/source/Whiskey), or are infused with flavorings to form [flavored liquors](/source/Flavored_liquor), such as [absinthe](/source/Absinthe).

Like other alcoholic drinks, liquor is typically consumed for the [psychoactive](/source/Psychoactive_drug) effects of [alcohol](/source/Alcohol_(drug)). Liquor may be consumed on its own (i.e. "[neat](/source/Bartending_terminology#Neat)"), typically in amounts of around 50 millilitres (1.7 US fluid ounces) per served drink; or frequently mixed with other ingredients to form a [cocktail](/source/Cocktail). In their undiluted form, distilled beverages are typically slightly sweet and bitter, with a burning sensation on the palate and an aroma shaped by the alcohol as well as the production and aging processes; the exact flavor varies depending on the type of liquor and the impurities present.

Rapid consumption of a large amount of liquor can cause severe [alcohol intoxication](/source/Alcohol_intoxication) or [alcohol poisoning](/source/Alcohol_poisoning), which can be fatal either due to acute biochemical damage to vital [organs](/source/Organ_(biology)) (e.g. [alcoholic hepatitis](/source/Alcoholic_hepatitis) and [pancreatitis](/source/Alcoholic_pancreatitis)), or due to [trauma](/source/Major_trauma) (e.g. [falls](/source/Fall_(accident)) or [motor vehicle accidents](/source/Motor_vehicle_accident)) caused by alcohol-induced [delirium](/source/Delirium). Consistent consumption of liquor over time correlates with higher mortality and other harmful health effects, even when compared to other alcoholic beverages. In addition, all alcohol is an [IARC group 1](/source/IARC_group_1) carcinogen.[4][5]

## Nomenclature

The term "spirit" (singular and used without the additional term "drink") refers to liquor that should not contain added sugar[6] and is usually 35–40% [alcohol by volume](/source/Alcohol_by_volume) (ABV).[7] [Fruit brandy](/source/Fruit_brandy), for example, is also known as 'fruit spirit'.

Liquor bottled with added sugar and flavorings, such as [Grand Marnier](/source/Grand_Marnier), [Amaretto](/source/Amaretto), and [American](/source/United_States) [schnapps](/source/Schnapps), are known instead as [liqueurs](/source/Liqueur).[8]

Liquor generally has an alcohol concentration higher than 30% when bottled, and before being diluted for bottling, it typically has a concentration over 50%. [Beer](/source/Beer) and [wine](/source/Wine), which are not distilled, typically have a maximum alcohol content of about 15% ABV, as most [yeasts](/source/Yeast) cannot metabolize when the concentration of alcohol is above this level; as a consequence, [fermentation](/source/Fermentation) ceases at that point.

## Etymology

The origin of *liquor* and its close relative *liquid* is the Latin verb *liquere*, meaning 'to be fluid'. According to the *[Oxford English Dictionary](/source/Oxford_English_Dictionary)* (*OED*), an early use of the word in the English language, meaning simply "a liquid", can be dated to 1225. The first use documented in the *OED* defined as "a liquid for drinking" occurred in the 14th century. Its use as a term for "an intoxicating alcoholic drink" appeared in the 16th century.

## Legal definition

### European Union

In accordance with the regulation (EU) 2019/787 of the European Parliament and of the Council of April 17, 2019,[9] a *spirit drink* is an [alcoholic beverage](/source/Alcoholic_drink) that has been produced:

- either directly by using, individually or in combination, any of the following methods: 1. distillation, with or without added flavorings or flavoring foodstuffs, of [fermented products](/source/Fermentation); 1. maceration or similar processing of plant materials in [ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin](/source/Rectified_spirit#Legal_definition), distillates of agricultural origin or spirit drinks or a combination thereof; 1. addition, individually or in combination, to ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin, distillates of agricultural origin, or spirit drinks of flavorings, colors, other authorized ingredients, sweetening products, other agricultural products, and foodstuffs.
- or by adding, individually or in combination, to it any of the following: 1. other spirit drinks; 1. ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin; 1. distillates of agricultural origin; 1. other foodstuffs.

Spirit drinks must contain at least 15% ABV (except in the case of egg liqueur such as [Advocaat](/source/Advocaat), which must contain a minimum of 14% ABV).[9][10]

#### Distillate of agricultural origin

Regulation makes a difference between "ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin" and a "distillate of agricultural origin". *Distillate of agricultural origin* is defined as an alcoholic liquid that is the result of the distillation, after alcoholic fermentation, of agricultural products which does not have the properties of ethyl alcohol and which retain the aroma and taste of the raw materials used.[11]

#### Categories

Annex 1 to the regulation lists 44 categories of spirit drinks and their legal requirements.[12]

Some spirit drinks can fall into more than one category. Specific production requirements distinguish one category from another (London gin falls into the Gin category but any gin cannot be considered as London gin).

Spirit drinks that are not produced within the EU, such as [tequila](/source/Tequila) or [baijiu](/source/Baijiu), are not listed in the 44 categories.

1. Mahua Wine or [desi thhara](/source/Desi_thhara)
1. [Rum](/source/Rum)
1. [Whisky](/source/Whisky) or [whiskey](/source/Whiskey)
1. Grain spirit
1. Wine spirit
1. [Brandy](/source/Brandy)
1. [Grape marc spirit](/source/Pomace_brandy) or grape marc
1. Fruit marc spirit
1. [Raisin](/source/Raisin) spirit or [raisin brandy](/source/Raisin)
1. [Fruit spirit](/source/Fruit_brandy)
1. [Cider](/source/Cider) spirit, [perry](/source/Perry) spirit and cider and perry spirit
1. [Honey](/source/Honey) spirit
1. *Hefebrand* or [lees](/source/Lees_(fermentation)) spirit
1. *[Bierbrand](/source/Bierbrand)*, or beer spirit
1. Topinambur or [Jerusalem artichoke](/source/Jerusalem_artichoke#Fermented_products) spirit
1. [Vodka](/source/Vodka)
1. Spirit (supplemented by the name of the fruit, berries or nuts) obtained by maceration and distillation
1. *[Geist](/source/Geist_(liquor))* (supplemented by the name of the fruit or the raw materials used)
1. [Gentian](/source/Gentian_(spirit))
1. [Juniper-flavored spirit drink](/source/Gin#Juniper-flavoured_spirit_drink)
1. [Gin](/source/Gin#Gin)
1. [Distilled gin](/source/Gin#Distilled_gin)
1. [London gin](/source/Gin#London_gin)
1. [Caraway](/source/Caraway)-flavored spirit drink or *[Kümmel](/source/K%C3%BCmmel_(liqueur))*
1. *[Akvavit](/source/Akvavit)* or *aquavit*
1. [Aniseed](/source/Anise)-flavored spirit drink (e.g. [rakı](/source/Rak%C4%B1), [ouzo](/source/Ouzo))
1. [Pastis](/source/Pastis)
1. [Pastis](/source/Pastis) de [Marseille](/source/Marseille)
1. [Anis](/source/Anisette) or *janeževec*
1. Distilled anis
1. Bitter-tasting spirit drink or *[bitters](/source/Bitters)*
1. Flavored [vodka](/source/Vodka)
1. [Sloe](/source/Sloe)-aromatized spirit drink or [pacharán](/source/Pachar%C3%A1n)
1. [Liqueur](/source/Liqueur)
1. *[Crème](/source/Cr%C3%A8me_liqueur) de* (supplemented by the name of a fruit or other raw material used)
1. [Sloe gin](/source/Sloe_gin)
1. *[Sambuca](/source/Sambuca)*
1. *[Maraschino](/source/Maraschino)*, *marrasquino* or *maraskino*
1. *[Nocino](/source/Nocino)* ou *orehovec*
1. [Egg](/source/Egg_as_food) liqueur or *[advocaat](/source/Advocaat)*, *avocat* or *advokat*
1. Liqueur with egg
1. *Mistrà*
1. *Väkevä glögi* or *spritglögg*
1. *[Berenburg](/source/Beerenburg)* or *Beerenburg*
1. Honey nectar or [mead](/source/Mead) nectar

## History

Main article: [Distillation#History](/source/Distillation#History)

### Distillation of wine

The flammable nature of the exhalations of wine was already known to ancient natural philosophers such as [Aristotle](/source/Aristotle) (384–322 BCE), [Theophrastus](/source/Theophrastus) (c. 371 – c. 287 BCE), and [Pliny the Elder](/source/Pliny_the_Elder) (23/24–79 CE).[13] This did not immediately lead to the isolation of alcohol, however, despite the development of more advanced distillation techniques in second- and third-century [Roman Egypt](/source/Roman_Egypt).[14] An important recognition, first found in one of the writings attributed to [Jābir ibn Ḥayyān](/source/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan) (ninth century CE), was that by [adding salt](/source/Salt-effect_distillation) to boiling wine, which increases the wine's [relative volatility](/source/Relative_volatility), the flammability of the resulting vapors may be enhanced.[15] The distillation of wine is attested in Arabic works attributed to [al-Kindī](/source/Al-Kindi) (c. 801–873 CE) and to [al-Fārābī](/source/Al-Farabi) (c. 872–950), and in the 28th book of [al-Zahrāwī](/source/Al-Zahrawi)'s (Latin: Abulcasis, 936–1013) *Kitāb al-Taṣrīf* (later translated into Latin as *Liber servatoris*).[16] In the twelfth century, recipes for the production of *aqua ardens* ("burning water", i.e., alcohol) by distilling wine with salt started to appear in a number of Latin works, and by the end of the thirteenth century, it had become a widely known substance among Western European chemists.[17] Its medicinal properties were studied by [Arnald of Villanova](/source/Arnald_of_Villanova) (1240–1311 CE) and [John of Rupescissa](/source/John_of_Rupescissa) (c. 1310–1366), the latter of whom regarded it as a life-preserving substance able to prevent all diseases (the *[aqua vitae](/source/Aqua_vitae)* or "water of life", also called by John the *[quintessence](/source/Aether_(classical_element))* of wine).[18]

In China, archaeological evidence indicates that the true distillation of alcohol began during the 12th century [Jin](/source/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)) or [Southern Song](/source/Southern_Song_dynasty) dynasties.[19] A [still](/source/Still) has been found at an archaeological site in Qinglong, [Hebei](/source/Hebei), dating to the 12th century.[19]

In India, the true distillation of alcohol was introduced from the [Middle East](/source/Middle_East) and was in wide use in the [Delhi Sultanate](/source/Delhi_Sultanate) by the 14th century.[20][21]

The works of [Taddeo Alderotti](/source/Taddeo_Alderotti) (1223–1296) describe a method for concentrating alcohol involving repeated [fractional distillation](/source/Fractional_distillation) through a water-cooled still, by which an alcohol purity of 90% could be obtained.[22]

In 1437, "burned water" ([brandy](/source/Brandy)) was mentioned in the records of the [County of Katzenelnbogen](/source/County_of_Katzenelnbogen) in Germany.[23]

### Microdistilling

[Microdistilling](/source/Microdistillery) (also known as craft distilling) began to re-emerge as a trend in the United States following the [microbrewing](/source/Microbrewing) and [craft beer](/source/Craft_beer) movement in the last decades of the 20th century.

## Flammability

See also: [Alcohol proof](/source/Alcohol_proof), [Flash point](/source/Flash_point), [Fire point](/source/Fire_point) and [Flaming drink](/source/Flaming_drink)

Liquor that contains 40% [ABV](/source/Alcohol_by_volume) (80 [US proof](/source/Alcohol_proof)) will catch fire if heated to about 26 °C (79 °F) and if an ignition source is applied to it. This temperature is called its [flash point](/source/Flash_point).[24] The flash point of [pure alcohol](/source/Ethanol) is 16.6 °C (61.9 °F), less than average room temperature.[25]

The flammability of liquor is applied in the cooking technique [flambé](/source/Flamb%C3%A9).

The flash points of alcohol concentrations from 10% to 96% by weight are:[26]

- 10% – 49 °C (120 °F) – [ethanol](/source/Ethanol)-based water solution
- 12.5% – about 52 °C (126 °F) – [wine](/source/Wine)[27]
- 15% – 42 °C (108 °F) – [sake](/source/Sake), [mijiu](/source/Mijiu), [cheongju](/source/Cheongju_(beverage))
- 20% – 36 °C (97 °F) – [shōchū](/source/Sh%C5%8Dch%C5%AB), [fortified wine](/source/Fortified_wine)
- 30% – 29 °C (84 °F) – strong shōchū
- 40% – 26 °C (79 °F) – typical [vodka](/source/Vodka), [whisky](/source/Whisky) or [brandy](/source/Brandy)
- 50% – 24 °C (75 °F) – typical [baijiu](/source/Baijiu), strong whisky, [bottled in bond](/source/Bottled_in_bond) whisky, typical [blanche absinthe](/source/Absinthe#Styles)
- 60% – 22 °C (72 °F) – strong baijiu, normal [tsikoudia](/source/Tsikoudia) (called mesoraki or middle raki), [barrel proof](/source/Barrel_proof) whisky, typical [verte absinthe](/source/Absinthe#Styles)
- 70% – 21 °C (70 °F) – [slivovitz](/source/Slivovitz)
- 80% – 20 °C (68 °F) – [strong absinthe](/source/Absinthe#Bottled_strength)
- 90% or more – 17 °C (63 °F) – [neutral grain spirit](/source/Neutral_grain_spirit)

## Serving

See also: [Bartending terminology](/source/Bartending_terminology)

Liquor can be served:

- Neat – at room temperature without any additional ingredient(s)[28]
- Up – shaken or stirred with ice, strained, and served in a [stemmed glass](/source/Cocktail_glass)
- Down – shaken or stirred with ice, strained, and served in a [rocks glass](/source/Old_Fashioned_glass)
- On the rocks – over [ice cubes](/source/Ice_cube)
- Blended or frozen – blended with ice
- With a simple mixer, such as [club soda](/source/Carbonated_water), [tonic water](/source/Tonic_water), [juice](/source/Juice), or [cola](/source/Cola)
- As an ingredient of a [cocktail](/source/Cocktail)
- As an ingredient of a [shooter](/source/Shooter_(mixed_drink))
- With water
- With water poured over sugar (as with absinthe)

## Alcohol consumption by country

Main article: [List of countries by alcohol consumption](/source/List_of_countries_by_alcohol_consumption)

See also: [Alcohol preferences in Europe](/source/Alcohol_preferences_in_Europe)

The [World Health Organization](/source/World_Health_Organization) (WHO) measures and publishes alcohol consumption patterns in different countries. The WHO measures alcohol consumed by persons 15 years of age or older and reports it on the basis of liters of pure alcohol consumed [per capita](/source/Per_capita) in a given year in a country.[29]

In Europe, spirits (especially vodka) are more popular in the north and east of the continent.

### Government regulation

#### Production

It is legal to distill beverage alcohol as a hobby for personal use in some countries, including New Zealand[30] and the Netherlands.[note 1]

In many others including the [United States](/source/United_States), it is illegal to distill beverage alcohol without a license, and the licensing process is too arduous for hobbyist-scale production. In some parts of the U.S., it is also illegal to sell a still without a license. Nonetheless, all states allow unlicensed individuals to [make their own beer](/source/Homebrewing), and some also allow unlicensed individuals to make their own wine (although making beer and wine is also prohibited in some local jurisdictions).[citation needed]

#### Sale

Some countries and sub-national jurisdictions limit or prohibit the sale of certain high-percentage alcohol, commonly known as [neutral spirit](/source/Neutral_spirit). Due to its flammability (see below) alcoholic beverages with an alcohol content above 70% by volume are not permitted to be transported in aircraft.[31]

## Health effects of alcohol

Main article: [Health effects of alcohol](/source/Health_effects_of_alcohol)

Distilled spirits contain [ethyl alcohol](/source/Ethyl_alcohol), the same chemical that is present in [beer](/source/Beer) and [wine](/source/Wine), and as such, spirit consumption has short-term psychological and physiological effects on the user. Different concentrations of alcohol in the human body have different effects on a person. The effects of alcohol depend on the amount an individual has drunk, the percentage of alcohol in the spirits and the timespan over which the consumption took place.[32]

The short-term effects of alcohol consumption range from a decrease in anxiety and motor skills and [euphoria](/source/Euphoria) at lower doses to [intoxication](/source/Alcohol_intoxication) (drunkenness), to [stupor](/source/Stupor), unconsciousness, [anterograde amnesia](/source/Anterograde_amnesia) (memory "blackouts"), and [central nervous system depression](/source/Central_nervous_system_depression) at higher doses. [Cell membranes](/source/Cell_membrane) are highly permeable to [alcohol](/source/Alcohol_(drug)), so once it is in the bloodstream, it can diffuse into nearly every cell in the body. Alcohol can greatly exacerbate sleep problems. During [abstinence](/source/Abstinence), residual disruptions in sleep regularity and sleep patterns are the greatest predictors of [relapse](/source/Relapse).[32]

Drinking more than 1–2 drinks a day increases the risk of heart disease, [high blood pressure](/source/High_blood_pressure), [atrial fibrillation](/source/Atrial_fibrillation), and [stroke](/source/Stroke).[33] The risk is greater in younger people due to [binge drinking](/source/Binge_drinking), which may result in violence or accidents.[33] About 3.3 million deaths (5.9% of all deaths) are due to alcohol each year.[34] Unlike wine and perhaps beer, there is no evidence for a [J-shaped](/source/J_curve) health effect for the consumption of distilled alcohol.[4] Long-term use can lead to an [alcohol use disorder](/source/Alcoholism), an increased risk of developing [physical dependence](/source/Physical_dependence), [cardiovascular disease](/source/Alcohol_and_cardiovascular_disease) and [several types of cancer](/source/Alcohol_and_cancer).[32]

[Alcoholism](/source/Alcoholism), also known as "alcohol use disorder", is a broad term for any drinking of alcohol that results in problems.[35] Alcoholism reduces a person's life expectancy by around ten years[36] and alcohol use is the third-leading cause of early death in the United States.[33]

Consumption of alcohol in any quantity [can cause cancer](/source/Alcohol_and_cancer). Alcohol causes [breast cancer](/source/Breast_cancer), [colorectal cancer](/source/Colorectal_cancer), [esophageal cancer](/source/Esophageal_cancer), [liver cancer](/source/Liver_cancer), and [head-and-neck cancers](/source/Head-and-neck_cancer). The more alcohol is consumed, the higher the cancer risk.[37]

### Home-made liquor

Not to be confused with [Moonshine](/source/Moonshine).

A survey of high school students in Alstahaug, Nordland county, revealed that adolescents consume alcohol at rates above the national average, with home-made liquor being prevalent and easily accessible, highlighting an urgent need for preventive measures.[38]

## See also

- [Alcohol measurements#Liquor bottles](/source/Alcohol_measurements#Liquor_bottles)
- / [Shōchū](/source/Sh%C5%8Dch%C5%AB) / [Soju](/source/Soju)

## References

1. ["Liquor"](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/liquor). *[Merriam-Webster](/source/Merriam-Webster)*. Retrieved November 29, 2022.

1. ["Liquor"](https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/liquor). *[Collins Dictionary](/source/Collins_Dictionary)*. Retrieved November 29, 2022.

1. ["distilled spirit – alcoholic beverage"](https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9106006/distilled-spirit). *Encyclopædia Britannica*. December 21, 2023.

1. Korotayev, Andrey; Khaltourina, Daria; Meshcherina, Kira; Zamiatnina, Elena (2018). "Distilled Spirits Overconsumption as the Most Important Factor of Excessive Adult Male Mortality in Europe". *Alcohol and Alcoholism*. **53** (6): 742–752. [doi:10.1093/alcalc/agy054](https://doi.org/10.1093/alcalc/agy054). [PMID 30113627](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30113627)

1. Klatsky, A. L. (September 15, 2003). "Wine, Liquor, Beer, and Mortality". *American Journal of Epidemiology*. **158** (6): 585–595. Oxford University Press (OUP). [doi:10.1093/aje/kwg184](https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwg184). [ISSN 0002-9262](https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9262). [PMID 12965884](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12965884)

1. ["Alcohol and Blood Sugar"](https://www.diabetes.co.uk/alcohol-and-blood-sugar.html). *Diabetes.co.uk*. January 15, 2019. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220627030242/https://www.diabetes.co.uk/alcohol-and-blood-sugar.html) June 27, 2022 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved June 27, 2022.

1. ["Are spirits more dangerous than other alcoholic drinks?"](https://www.drinkaware.co.uk/facts/alcoholic-drinks-and-units/are-spirits-more-dangerous-than-other-alcoholic-drinks#thestrengthofspirits). *Drinkaware*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220627025156/https://www.drinkaware.co.uk/facts/alcoholic-drinks-and-units/are-spirits-more-dangerous-than-other-alcoholic-drinks#thestrengthofspirits) June 27, 2022 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved June 26, 2022.

1. Filippone, Peggy Trowbridge. ["The Difference Between a Liquor and a Liqueur"](https://www.thespruceeats.com/difference-between-liquor-and-liqueur-1807030). *www.thespruceeats.com*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230729203702/https://www.thespruceeats.com/difference-between-liquor-and-liqueur-1807030) July 29, 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 25 October 2023.

1. ["Consolidated text: Regulation (EU) 2019/787 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 April 2019 on the definition, description, presentation, and labelling of spirit drinks, the use of the names of spirit drinks in the presentation and labeling of other foodstuffs, the protection of geographical indications for spirit drinks, the use of ethyl alcohol and distillates of agricultural origin in alcoholic beverages, and repealing Regulation (EC) No 110/2008: Article 2 - Definition of and requirements for spirit drinks"](http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2019/787/2021-05-25). May 25, 2021. pp. 2–3.

1. ["Consolidated text: Regulation (EU) 2019/787 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 April 2019 on the definition, description, presentation, and labelling of spirit drinks, the use of the names of spirit drinks in the presentation and labeling of other foodstuffs, the protection of geographical indications for spirit drinks, the use of ethyl alcohol and distillates of agricultural origin in alcoholic beverages, and repealing Regulation (EC) No 110/2008: Annex 1 - Categories of spirit drinks - 39. Egg liqueur or advocaat or avocat or advokat"](http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2019/787/2021-05-25). May 25, 2021. p. 60.

1. ["Consolidated text: Regulation (EU) 2019/787 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 April 2019 on the definition, description, presentation, and labelling of spirit drinks, the use of the names of spirit drinks in the presentation and labeling of other foodstuffs, the protection of geographical indications for spirit drinks, the use of ethyl alcohol and distillates of agricultural origin in alcoholic beverages, and repealing Regulation (EC) No 110/2008"](http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2019/787/2021-05-25). May 25, 2021.

1. ["Consolidated text: Regulation (EU) 2019/787 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 April 2019 on the definition, description, presentation, and labelling of spirit drinks, the use of the names of spirit drinks in the presentation and labelling of other foodstuffs, the protection of geographical indications for spirit drinks, the use of ethyl alcohol and distillates of agricultural origin in alcoholic beverages, and repealing Regulation (EC) No 110/2008: Annex 1 - Categories of spirit drinks"](http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2019/787/2021-05-25). May 25, 2021. pp. 39–61.

1. Berthelot, Marcellin & Houdas, Octave V. (1893). *La Chimie au Moyen Âge*. Vol. I–III. Paris: Imprimerie nationale. vol. I, p. 137.

1. Berthelot & Houdas 1893, pp. vol. I, pp. 138–139.

1. al-Hassan, Ahmad Y. (2009). "Alcohol and the Distillation of Wine in [Arabic](/source/Arabic) Sources from the 8th Century". *Studies in al-Kimya': Critical Issues in Latin and Arabic Alchemy and Chemistry*. Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag. pp. 283–298. (same content also available on [the author's website](http://www.history-science-technology.com/notes/notes7.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20151229003135/http://www.history-science-technology.com/notes/notes7.html) December 29, 2015 at the Wayback Machine).

1. al-Hassan 2009 (same content also available on [the author's website](http://www.history-science-technology.com/notes/notes7.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20151229003135/http://www.history-science-technology.com/notes/notes7.html) December 29, 2015 at the Wayback Machine); cf. Berthelot & Houdas 1893, pp. vol. I, pp. 141, 143. Sometimes, sulfur was also added to the wine (see Berthelot & Houdas 1893, pp. vol. I, p. 143).

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## Bibliography

- Blue, Anthony Dias (2004). *The Complete Book of Spirits: A Guide to Their History, Production, and Enjoyment*. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 0-06-054218-7.
- Forbes, Robert (1997). *Short History of the Art of Distillation from the Beginnings up to the Death of Cellier Blumenthal*. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-00617-6.
- Multhauf, Robert (1993). *The Origins of Chemistry*. Gordon & Breach Science Publishers. ISBN 2-88124-594-3.
- *Distilled spirits*. Academic Press. 2023. [doi:10.1016/C2019-0-04197-0](https://doi.org/10.1016/C2019-0-04197-0). ISBN 978-0-12-822443-4.

## External links

1. In the Netherlands, the ABV of the distilled drink must be under 15% ABV without a license.

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Liquor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquor) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquor?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.