# Liquid

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State of matter

For other uses, see [Liquid (disambiguation)](/source/Liquid_(disambiguation)).

The formation of a spherical [droplet](/source/Drop_(liquid)) of liquid [water](/source/Water) minimizes the [surface area](/source/Surface_area), which is the natural result of [surface tension](/source/Surface_tension) in liquids.

Part of a series on Continuum mechanics J = − D d φ d x {\displaystyle J=-D{\frac {d\varphi }{dx}}} Fick's laws of diffusion Laws Conservations Mass Momentum Energy Inequalities Clausius–Duhem (entropy) Solid mechanics Deformation Elasticity linear Plasticity Hooke's law Stress Strain Finite strain Infinitesimal strain Compatibility Bending Contact mechanics frictional Material failure theory Fracture mechanics Fluid mechanics Fluids Statics · Dynamics Archimedes' principle · Bernoulli's principle Navier–Stokes equations Poiseuille equation · Pascal's law Viscosity (Newtonian · non-Newtonian) Buoyancy · Mixing · Pressure Liquids Adhesion Capillary action Chromatography Cohesion (chemistry) Surface tension Gases Atmosphere Boyle's law Charles's law Combined gas law Fick's law Gay-Lussac's law Graham's law Plasma Magnetohydrodynamics Rheology Viscoelasticity Rheometry Rheometer Smart fluids Electrorheological Magnetorheological Ferrofluids Scientists Bernoulli Boyle Cauchy Charles Euler Fick Gay-Lussac Graham Hooke Newton Navier Noll Pascal Stokes Truesdell v t e

**Liquid** is a [state of matter](/source/State_of_matter) with a definite volume but no fixed shape. When confined in a container and subjected to a force such as [gravity](/source/Gravity), liquids will adapt to the internal shape of the container in the direction of the force.[note 1] Liquids are nearly [incompressible](/source/Compressibility), maintaining their volume even under pressure. The [density](/source/Density) of a liquid is usually close to that of a [solid](/source/Solid), and much higher than that of a [gas](/source/Gas). Liquids are a form of [condensed matter](/source/Condensed_matter_physics) alongside solids, and a form of [fluid](/source/Fluid) alongside gases.

A liquid is composed of atoms or molecules held together by [intermolecular bonds](/source/Intermolecular_bonds) of intermediate strength. These forces allow the particles to move around one another while remaining closely packed. In contrast, solids have particles that are tightly bound by strong intermolecular forces, limiting their movement to small vibrations in fixed positions. Gases, on the other hand, consist of widely spaced, freely moving particles with only weak intermolecular forces.

As temperature increases, the molecules in a liquid vibrate more intensely, causing the distances between them to increase. At the [boiling point](/source/Boiling_point), the cohesive forces between the molecules are no longer sufficient to keep them together, and the liquid transitions into a gaseous state. Conversely, as temperature decreases, the distance between molecules shrinks. At the [freezing point](/source/Melting_point), the molecules typically arrange into a structured order in a process called [crystallization](/source/Crystallization), and the liquid transitions into a solid state.

Although liquid water is abundant on Earth, this state of matter is actually the least common in the known universe, because liquids require a relatively narrow temperature/pressure range to exist. Most known matter in the universe is either gaseous (as [interstellar clouds](/source/Interstellar_cloud)) or plasma (as [stars](/source/Star)).

## Examples

Only two [elements](/source/Chemical_element) are liquid at [standard conditions for temperature and pressure](/source/Standard_conditions_for_temperature_and_pressure): [mercury](/source/Mercury_(element)) and [bromine](/source/Bromine). Four more elements have melting points slightly above [room temperature](/source/Room_temperature): [francium](/source/Francium), [caesium](/source/Caesium), [gallium](/source/Gallium) and [rubidium](/source/Rubidium).[1]

[Pure substances](/source/Pure_substance) that are liquid under normal conditions include [water](/source/Water), [ethanol](/source/Ethanol) and many other organic solvents. Liquid water is of vital importance in chemistry and biology, and it is necessary for all known forms of life.[2][3] [Inorganic](/source/Inorganic_compound) liquids in this category include [inorganic nonaqueous solvents](/source/Inorganic_nonaqueous_solvent) and many [acids](/source/Acid).

[Mixtures](/source/Mixture) that are liquid at room temperature include [alloys](/source/Alloy) such as [galinstan](/source/Galinstan) (a gallium-indium-tin alloy that melts at −19 °C or −2 °F) and some [amalgams](/source/Amalgam_(chemistry)) (alloys involving mercury).[4] Certain mixtures, such as the sodium-potassium metal alloy [NaK](/source/NaK), are liquid at room temperature even though the individual elements are solid under the same conditions (see [eutectic mixture](/source/Eutectic_mixture)).[5] Everyday liquid mixtures include [aqueous solutions](/source/Aqueous_solution) like household [bleach](/source/Bleach), other mixtures of different substances such as [mineral oil](/source/Mineral_oil) and gasoline, [emulsions](/source/Emulsion) like [vinaigrette](/source/Vinaigrette) or [mayonnaise](/source/Mayonnaise), [suspensions](/source/Suspension_(chemistry)) like blood, and [colloids](/source/Colloid) like [paint](/source/Paint) and [milk](/source/Milk).

Many gases can be [liquefied](/source/Liquefaction_of_gases) by cooling, producing liquids such as [liquid oxygen](/source/Liquid_oxygen), [liquid nitrogen](/source/Liquid_nitrogen), [liquid hydrogen](/source/Liquid_hydrogen) and [liquid helium](/source/Liquid_helium). However, not all gases can be liquefied at atmospheric pressure. [Carbon dioxide](/source/Carbon_dioxide), for example, solidifies directly into [dry ice](/source/Dry_ice) rather than becoming a liquid, and it can only be liquified at pressures above 5.1 [atm](/source/Atmosphere_(unit)).[6] Most liquids solidify as the temperature is decreased further. [Liquid helium](/source/Liquid_helium) is exceptional in that it does not become solid even at [absolute zero](/source/Absolute_zero) (0 K) under standard pressure due to its quantum properties.[7]

## Properties

### Volume

Cavitation in water from a boat propeller

Quantities of liquids are measured in units of [volume](/source/Volume). These include the [SI](/source/International_System_of_Units) unit cubic metre (m3) and its divisions, in particular the cubic decimeter, more commonly called the litre (1 dm3 = 1 L = 0.001 m3), and the cubic centimetre, also called millilitre (1 cm3 = 1 mL = 0.001 L = 10−6 m3).[8]

The volume of a quantity of liquid is fixed by its temperature and [pressure](/source/Pressure). Liquids generally expand when heated, and contract when cooled. Water between 0 °C and 4 °C is a notable exception.[9]

On the other hand, liquids have little [compressibility](/source/Compressibility). Water, for example, will compress by only 46.4 parts per million for every unit increase in [atmospheric pressure](/source/Standard_atmospheric_pressure) (bar).[10] At around 4000 bar (400 [megapascals](/source/Megapascal) or 58,000 [psi](/source/Pounds_per_square_inch)) of pressure at room temperature water experiences only an 11% decrease in volume.[11] Incompressibility makes liquids suitable for [transmitting hydraulic power](/source/Hydraulics), because a change in pressure at one point in a liquid is transmitted undiminished to every other part of the liquid and very little energy is lost in the form of compression.[12]

However, the negligible compressibility does lead to other phenomena. The banging of pipes, called [water hammer](/source/Water_hammer), occurs when a valve is suddenly closed, creating a huge pressure-spike at the valve that travels backward through the system at just under the speed of sound. Another phenomenon caused by liquid's incompressibility is [cavitation](/source/Cavitation). Because liquids have little [elasticity](/source/Elasticity_(physics)) they can literally be pulled apart in areas of high turbulence or dramatic change in direction, such as the trailing edge of a boat propeller or a sharp corner in a pipe. A liquid in an area of low pressure (vacuum) vaporizes and forms bubbles, which then collapse as they enter high pressure areas. This causes liquid to fill the cavities left by the bubbles with tremendous localized force, eroding any adjacent solid surface.[13]

### Pressure

Main article: [Liquid pressure](/source/Liquid_pressure)

Further information: [Fluid statics](/source/Fluid_statics)

In a [gravitational field](/source/Gravitational_field), liquids exert [pressure](/source/Pressure) on the sides of a container as well as on anything within the liquid itself. Liquid pressure is transmitted in all directions and increases with depth. If a liquid is at rest in a uniform gravitational field, the pressure p {\displaystyle p} at depth z {\displaystyle z} is given by[14]

- p = p 0 + ρ g z {\displaystyle p=p_{0}+\rho gz\,}

where:

- p 0 {\displaystyle p_{0}\,} is the pressure at the surface

- ρ {\displaystyle \rho \,} is the [density](/source/Density) of the liquid, assumed uniform with depth

- g {\displaystyle g\,} is the [gravitational acceleration](/source/Gravity)

For a body of water open to the air, p 0 {\displaystyle p_{0}} would be the [atmospheric pressure](/source/Atmospheric_pressure).

#### Buoyancy

Static liquids in uniform gravitational fields also exhibit the phenomenon of [buoyancy](/source/Buoyancy), where objects immersed in the liquid experience a net force due to the pressure variation with depth. The magnitude of the force is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the object, and the direction of the force depends on the average density of the immersed object. If the density is *smaller* than that of the liquid, the buoyant force points *upward* and the object floats, whereas if the density is *larger*, the buoyant force points *downward* and the object sinks. This is known as [Archimedes' principle](/source/Archimedes'_principle).[15]

### Surfaces

Main articles: [Surface tension](/source/Surface_tension) and [Surface science](/source/Surface_science)

[Surface waves](/source/Surface_wave) in water

Unless the volume of a liquid exactly matches the volume of its container, one or more surfaces are observed. The presence of a surface introduces new phenomena which are not present in a bulk liquid. This is because a molecule at a surface possesses bonds with other liquid molecules only on the inner side of the surface, which implies a net force pulling surface molecules inward. Equivalently, this force can be described in terms of energy: there is a fixed amount of energy associated with forming a surface of a given area. This quantity is a material property called the [surface tension](/source/Surface_tension), in units of energy per unit area (SI units: [J](/source/Joule)/[m](/source/Meter)2). Liquids with strong intermolecular forces tend to have large surface tensions.[16]

A practical implication of surface tension is that liquids tend to minimize their surface area, forming spherical [drops](/source/Drop_(liquid)) and [bubbles](/source/Bubble_(physics)) unless other constraints are present. Surface tension is responsible for a range of other phenomena as well, including [surface waves](/source/Surface_wave), [capillary action](/source/Capillary_action), [wetting](/source/Wetting), and [ripples](/source/Capillary_wave). In liquids under [nanoscale confinement](/source/Confined_liquid), surface effects can play a dominating role since – compared with a macroscopic sample of liquid – a much greater fraction of molecules are located near a surface.

The surface tension of a liquid directly affects its [wettability](/source/Wettability). Most common liquids have tensions ranging in the tens of mJ/m2, so droplets of oil, water, or glue can easily merge and adhere to other surfaces, whereas liquid metals such as mercury may have tensions ranging in the hundreds of mJ/m2, thus droplets do not combine easily and surfaces may only wet under specific conditions.

The surface tensions of common liquids occupy a relatively narrow range of values when exposed to changing conditions such as temperature, which contrasts strongly with the enormous variation seen in other mechanical properties, such as viscosity.[17]

### Flow

A simulation of [viscosity](/source/Viscosity). The fluid on the left has a lower viscosity and Newtonian behavior while the liquid on the right has higher viscosity and non-Newtonian behavior.

Main articles: [Fluid mechanics](/source/Fluid_mechanics) and [Fluid dynamics](/source/Fluid_dynamics)

An important physical property characterizing the flow of liquids is [viscosity](/source/Viscosity). Intuitively, viscosity describes the resistance of a liquid to flow. More technically, viscosity measures the resistance of a liquid to deformation at a given rate, such as when it is being sheared at finite velocity.[18] A specific example is a liquid flowing through a pipe: in this case the liquid undergoes shear deformation since it flows more slowly near the walls of the pipe than near the center. As a result, it exhibits viscous resistance to flow. In order to maintain flow, an external force must be applied, such as a pressure difference between the ends of the pipe.

The viscosity of liquids decreases with increasing temperature.[19]

Precise control of viscosity is important in many applications, particularly the lubrication industry. One way to achieve such control is by blending two or more liquids of differing viscosities in precise ratios.[20] In addition, various additives exist which can modulate the temperature-dependence of the viscosity of lubricating oils. This capability is important since machinery often operate over a range of temperatures (see also [viscosity index](/source/Viscosity_index)).[21]

The viscous behavior of a liquid can be either [Newtonian](/source/Newtonian_fluid) or [non-Newtonian](/source/Non-Newtonian_fluid). A Newtonian liquid exhibits a linear strain/stress curve, meaning its viscosity is independent of time, shear rate, or shear-rate history. Examples of Newtonian liquids include water, [glycerin](/source/Glycerin), [motor oil](/source/Motor_oil), [honey](/source/Honey), or mercury. A non-Newtonian liquid is one where the viscosity is not independent of these factors and either thickens (increases in viscosity) or thins (decreases in viscosity) under shear. Examples of non-Newtonian liquids include [ketchup](/source/Ketchup), [custard](/source/Custard), or [starch](/source/Starch) solutions.[22]

### Sound propagation

Main article: [Speed of sound § Speed of sound in liquids](/source/Speed_of_sound#Speed_of_sound_in_liquids)

The speed of sound in a liquid is given by c = K / ρ {\displaystyle c={\sqrt {K/\rho }}} where K {\displaystyle K} is the [bulk modulus](/source/Bulk_modulus) of the liquid and ρ {\displaystyle \rho } the density. As an example, water has a bulk modulus of about 2.2 [GPa](/source/Pascal_(unit)) and a density of 1000 kg/m3, which gives *c* = 1.5 km/s.[23]

## Microscopic structure

See also: [Structure of liquids and glasses](/source/Structure_of_liquids_and_glasses)

The microscopic structure of liquids is complex and historically has been the subject of intense research and debate.[24][25][26][27] Liquids consist of a dense, disordered packing of molecules. This contrasts with the other two common phases of matter, gases and solids. Although gases are disordered, the molecules are well-separated in space and interact primarily through molecule-molecule collisions. Conversely, although the molecules in solids are densely packed, they usually fall into a regular structure, such as a [crystalline lattice](/source/Crystalline_lattice) ([glasses](/source/Glass) are a notable exception).

### Short-range ordering

Structure of a classical monatomic liquid. Atoms have many nearest neighbors in contact, yet no long-range order is present.

While liquids do not exhibit [long-range ordering](/source/Order_and_disorder#Long-range_order) as in a crystalline lattice, they do possess [short-range order](/source/Short_range_order), which persists over a few molecular diameters.[28][29]

In all liquids, excluded volume interactions induce short-range order in molecular positions (center-of-mass coordinates). Classical monatomic liquids like argon and krypton are the simplest examples. Such liquids can be modeled as disordered "heaps" of closely packed spheres, and the short-range order corresponds to the fact that nearest and next-nearest neighbors in a packing of spheres tend to be separated by integer multiples of the diameter.[30][31]

In most liquids, molecules are not spheres, and intermolecular forces possess a directionality, i.e., they depend on the relative orientation of molecules. As a result, there is short-ranged orientational order in addition to the positional order mentioned above. Orientational order is especially important in [hydrogen-bonded](/source/Hydrogen_bond) liquids like water.[32][33] The strength and directional nature of hydrogen bonds drives the formation of local "networks" or "clusters" of molecules. Due to the relative importance of thermal fluctuations in liquids (compared with solids), these structures are highly dynamic, continuously deforming, breaking, and reforming.[30][32]

While ordinary liquids lack long-range order, some materials exhibit intermediate behavior. [Liquid crystals](/source/Liquid_crystal), for example, flow like liquids but exhibit long-range orientational alignment of their molecules. Unlike solids, they lack long-range translational order, yet their anisotropic properties set them apart from conventional liquids. As a result, liquid crystals are considered a distinct [state of matter](/source/State_of_matter). They are utilized in technologies such as [liquid-crystal displays](/source/Liquid-crystal_display) (LCDs).[34]

### Energy and entropy

The microscopic features of liquids derive from an interplay between attractive intermolecular forces and [entropic forces](/source/Entropic_force).[35]

The attractive forces tend to pull molecules close together, and along with short-range repulsive interactions, they are the dominant forces behind the regular structure of solids. The entropic forces are not "forces" in the mechanical sense; rather, they describe the tendency of a system to maximize its [entropy](/source/Entropy) at fixed energy (see [microcanonical ensemble](/source/Microcanonical_ensemble)). Roughly speaking, entropic forces drive molecules apart from each other, maximizing the volume they occupy. Entropic forces dominant in gases and explain the tendency of gases to fill their containers. In liquids, by contrast, the intermolecular and entropic forces are comparable, so it is not possible to neglect one in favor of the other. Quantitatively, the binding energy between adjacent molecules is the same order of magnitude as the thermal energy k B T {\displaystyle k_{\text{B}}T} .[36]

#### No small parameter

The competition between energy and entropy makes liquids difficult to model at the molecular level, as there is no idealized "reference state" that can serve as a starting point for tractable theoretical descriptions. Mathematically, there is no small parameter from which one can develop a systematic [perturbation theory](/source/Perturbation_theory).[25] This situation contrasts with both gases and solids. For gases, the reference state is the [ideal gas](/source/Ideal_gas), and the density can be used as a small parameter to construct a theory of real (nonideal) gases (see [virial expansion](/source/Virial_expansion)).[37] For crystalline solids, the reference state is a perfect crystalline lattice, and possible small parameters are thermal motions and [lattice defects](/source/Lattice_defect).[32]

### Role of quantum mechanics

Like all known forms of matter, liquids are fundamentally [quantum mechanical](/source/Quantum_mechanical). However, under standard conditions (near room temperature and pressure), much of the macroscopic behavior of liquids can be understood in terms of [classical mechanics](/source/Classical_mechanics).[36][38] The "classical picture" posits that the constituent molecules are discrete entities that interact through intermolecular forces according to [Newton's laws of motion](/source/Newton's_laws_of_motion). As a result, their macroscopic properties can be described using [classical statistical mechanics](/source/Classical_statistical_mechanics). While the intermolecular force law technically derives from quantum mechanics, it is usually understood as a model input to classical theory, obtained either from a fit to experimental data or from the [classical limit](/source/Classical_limit) of a quantum mechanical description.[39][28] An illustrative, though highly simplified example is a collection of spherical molecules interacting through a [Lennard-Jones potential](/source/Lennard-Jones_potential).[36]

Table 1: Thermal de Broglie wavelengths Λ {\displaystyle \Lambda } of selected liquids.[36] Quantum effects are negligible when the ratio Λ / a {\displaystyle \Lambda /a} is small, where a {\displaystyle a} is the average distance between molecules. Liquid Temperature (K) Λ {\displaystyle \Lambda } (nm) Λ / a {\displaystyle \Lambda /a} Hydrogen (H2) 14.1 0.33 0.97 Neon 24.5 0.078 0.26 Krypton 116 0.018 0.046 Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) 250 0.009 0.017

For the classical limit to apply, a necessary condition is that the thermal [de Broglie wavelength](/source/De_Broglie_wavelength),

- Λ = ( 2 π ℏ 2 m k B T ) 1 / 2 {\displaystyle \Lambda =\left({\frac {2\pi \hbar ^{2}}{mk_{\text{B}}T}}\right)^{1/2}}

is small compared with the length scale under consideration.[36][40] Here, ℏ {\displaystyle \hbar } is the [Planck constant](/source/Planck_constant) and m {\displaystyle m} is the molecule's mass. Typical values of Λ {\displaystyle \Lambda } are about 0.01-0.1 nanometers (Table 1). Hence, a high-resolution model of liquid structure at the nanoscale may require quantum mechanical considerations. A notable example is hydrogen bonding in associated liquids like water,[41][42] where, due to the small mass of the proton, inherently quantum effects such as [zero-point motion](/source/Zero-point_motion) and [tunneling](/source/Quantum_tunneling) are important.[43]

For a liquid to behave classically at the macroscopic level, Λ {\displaystyle \Lambda } must be small compared with the average distance a ≈ ρ − 1 / 3 {\displaystyle a\approx \rho ^{-1/3}} between molecules.[36] That is,

- Λ a ≪ 1 {\displaystyle {\frac {\Lambda }{a}}\ll 1}

Representative values of this ratio for a few liquids are given in Table 1. The conclusion is that quantum effects are important for liquids at low temperatures and with small [molecular mass](/source/Molecular_mass).[36][38] For dynamic processes, there is an additional timescale constraint:

- τ ≫ h k B T {\displaystyle \tau \gg {\frac {h}{k_{B}T}}}

where τ {\displaystyle \tau } is the timescale of the process under consideration. For room-temperature liquids, the right-hand side is about 10−14 seconds, which generally means that time-dependent processes involving translational motion can be described classically.[36]

At extremely low temperatures, even the macroscopic behavior of certain liquids deviates from classical mechanics. Notable examples are hydrogen and helium. Due to their low temperature and mass, such liquids have a thermal de Broglie wavelength comparable to the average distance between molecules.[36]

### Dynamic phenomena

The expression for the sound velocity of a liquid,

- c = K / ρ {\displaystyle c={\sqrt {K/\rho }}} ,

contains the [bulk modulus](/source/Bulk_modulus) *K*. If *K* is frequency-independent, then the liquid behaves as a linear medium, so that sound propagates without [dissipation](/source/Dissipation) or [mode coupling](/source/Mode_coupling). In reality, all liquids show some [dispersion](/source/Acoustic_dispersion): with increasing frequency, *K* crosses over from the low-frequency, liquid-like limit K 0 {\displaystyle K_{0}} to the high-frequency, solid-like limit K ∞ {\displaystyle K_{\infty }} . In normal liquids, most of this crossover takes place at frequencies between GHz and THz, sometimes called [hypersound](/source/Hypersound).

At sub-GHz frequencies, a normal liquid cannot sustain [shear waves](/source/Shear_wave): the zero-frequency limit of the [shear modulus](/source/Shear_modulus) is 0. This is sometimes seen as the defining property of a liquid.[44][45] However, like the bulk modulus *K*, the shear modulus *G* is also frequency-dependent and exhibits a similar crossover at hypersound frequencies.

According to [linear response theory](/source/Linear_response_theory), the Fourier transform of *K* or *G* describes how the system returns to equilibrium after an external perturbation; for this reason, the dispersion step in the GHz to THz region is also called [relaxation](/source/Relaxation_(physics)). As a liquid is supercooled toward the glass transition, the structural relaxation time exponentially increases, which explains the viscoelastic behavior of glass-forming liquids.

Radial distribution function of the [Lennard-Jones model fluid](/source/Lennard-Jones_potential)

### Experimental methods

The absence of long-range order in liquids is mirrored by the absence of [Bragg peaks](/source/Bragg_peak) in [X-ray](/source/X-ray_diffraction) and [neutron diffraction](/source/Neutron_diffraction). Under normal conditions, the diffraction pattern has circular symmetry, expressing the [isotropy](/source/Isotropy) of the liquid. Radially, the diffraction intensity smoothly oscillates. This can be described by the [static structure factor](/source/Static_structure_factor) S ( q ) {\displaystyle S(q)} , with wavenumber q = ( 4 π / λ ) sin ⁡ θ {\displaystyle q=(4\pi /\lambda )\sin \theta } given by the wavelength λ {\displaystyle \lambda } of the probe (photon or neutron) and the [Bragg angle](/source/Bragg_angle) θ {\displaystyle \theta } . The oscillations of S ( q ) {\displaystyle S(q)} express the short-range order of the liquid, i.e., the correlations between a molecule and "shells" of nearest neighbors, next-nearest neighbors, and so on.

An equivalent representation of these correlations is the [radial distribution function](/source/Radial_distribution_function) g ( r ) {\displaystyle g(r)} , which is related to the [Fourier transform](/source/Fourier_transform) of S ( q ) {\displaystyle S(q)} .[30] It represents a spatial average of a temporal snapshot of pair correlations in the liquid.

## Phase transitions

Main articles: [Boiling](/source/Boiling), [Boiling point](/source/Boiling_point), [Melting](/source/Melting), and [Melting point](/source/Melting_point)

A typical [phase diagram](/source/Phase_diagram). The dotted line gives the anomalous behaviour of water. The green lines show how the [freezing point](/source/Freezing_point) can vary with pressure, and the blue line shows how the [boiling point](/source/Boiling_point) can vary with pressure. The red line shows the boundary where [sublimation](/source/Sublimation_(chemistry)) or [deposition](/source/Deposition_(physics)) can occur.

At a temperature below the [boiling point](/source/Boiling_point), any matter in liquid form will evaporate until reaching equilibrium with the reverse process of condensation of its vapor. At this point the vapor will condense at the same rate as the liquid evaporates. Thus, a liquid cannot exist permanently if the evaporated liquid is continually removed.[46] A liquid at or above its boiling point will normally boil, though [superheating](/source/Superheating) can prevent this in certain circumstances.

At a temperature below the freezing point, a liquid will tend to [crystallize](/source/Crystallization), changing to its solid form. Unlike the transition to gas, there is no equilibrium at this transition under constant pressure,[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] so unless [supercooling](/source/Supercooling) occurs, the liquid will eventually completely crystallize. However, this is only true under constant pressure, so that (for example) water and ice in a closed, strong container might reach an equilibrium where both phases coexist. For the opposite transition from solid to liquid, see [melting](/source/Melting).

The phase diagram explains why liquids do not exist in space or any other vacuum. Since the pressure is essentially zero (except on surfaces or interiors of planets and moons) water and other liquids exposed to space will either immediately boil or freeze depending on the temperature. In regions of space near the Earth, water will freeze if the sun is not shining directly on it and vaporize (sublime) as soon as it is in sunlight. If water exists as ice on the Moon, it can only exist in shadowed holes where the sun never shines and where the surrounding rock does not heat it up too much. At some point near the orbit of Saturn, the light from the Sun is too faint to sublime ice to water vapor. This is evident from the longevity of the ice that composes Saturn's rings.[47]

## Solutions

Main article: [Solution (chemistry)](/source/Solution_(chemistry))

Liquids can form [solutions](/source/Solution_(chemistry)) with gases, solids, and other liquids.

Two liquids are said to be [miscible](/source/Miscible) if they can form a solution in any proportion; otherwise they are immiscible. As an example, water and [ethanol](/source/Ethanol) (drinking alcohol) are miscible whereas water and [gasoline](/source/Gasoline) are immiscible.[48] In some cases a mixture of otherwise immiscible liquids can be stabilized to form an [emulsion](/source/Emulsion), where one liquid is dispersed throughout the other as microscopic droplets. Usually this requires the presence of a [surfactant](/source/Surfactant) in order to stabilize the droplets. A familiar example of an emulsion is [mayonnaise](/source/Mayonnaise), which consists of a mixture of water and oil that is stabilized by [lecithin](/source/Lecithin), a substance found in [egg yolks](/source/Yolk).[49]

## Applications

A [lava lamp](/source/Lava_lamp) contains two immiscible liquids (a molten wax and a watery solution) which add movement due to convection. In addition to the top surface, surfaces also form between the liquids, requiring a tension breaker to recombine the wax droplets at the bottom.

### Lubrication

See also: [Tribology](/source/Tribology)

Liquids are useful as [lubricants](/source/Lubricant) due to their ability to form a thin, freely flowing layer between solid materials. Lubricants such as oil are chosen for [viscosity](/source/Viscosity) and flow characteristics that are suitable throughout the [operating temperature](/source/Operating_temperature) range of the component. Oils are often used in engines, [gear boxes](/source/Gear_box), [metalworking](/source/Metalworking), and hydraulic systems for their good lubrication properties.[50]

### Solvation

Many liquids are used as [solvents](/source/Solvent), to dissolve other liquids or solids. [Solutions](/source/Solution_(chemistry)) are found in a wide variety of applications, including [paints](/source/Paint), [sealants](/source/Sealant), and [adhesives](/source/Adhesive). [Naphtha](/source/Naphtha) and [acetone](/source/Acetone) are used frequently in industry to clean oil, grease, and tar from parts and machinery. [Body fluids](/source/Body_fluid) are water-based solutions.

[Surfactants](/source/Surfactant) are commonly found in soaps and [detergents](/source/Detergent). Solvents like alcohol are often used as [antimicrobials](/source/Antimicrobial). They are found in cosmetics, [inks](/source/Ink), and liquid [dye lasers](/source/Dye_laser). They are used in the food industry, in processes such as the extraction of [vegetable oil](/source/Vegetable_oil).[51]

### Cooling

See also: [Water cooling](/source/Water_cooling) and [Immersion cooling](/source/Immersion_cooling)

Liquids tend to have better [thermal conductivity](/source/Thermal_conductivity) than gases, and the ability to flow makes a liquid suitable for removing excess heat from mechanical components. The heat can be removed by channeling the liquid through a [heat exchanger](/source/Heat_exchanger), such as a [radiator](/source/Radiator), or the heat can be removed with the liquid during [evaporation](/source/Evaporation).[52] Water or [glycol](/source/Glycol) coolants are used to keep engines from overheating.[53] The coolants used in [nuclear reactors](/source/Nuclear_reactor) include water or liquid metals, such as [sodium](/source/Sodium) or [bismuth](/source/Bismuth).[54] [Liquid propellant](/source/Liquid_propellant) films are used to cool the thrust chambers of [rockets](/source/Rocket).[55] In [machining](/source/Machining), water and oils are used to remove the excess heat generated, which can quickly ruin both the work piece and the tooling. During [perspiration](/source/Perspiration), sweat removes heat from the human body by evaporating. In the [heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning](/source/Heating%2C_ventilation%2C_and_air-conditioning) industry (HVAC), liquids such as water are used to transfer heat from one area to another.[56]

### Cooking

Liquids are often used in [cooking](/source/Cooking) due to their excellent heat-transfer capabilities. In addition to thermal conduction, liquids transmit energy by convection. In particular, because warmer fluids expand and rise while cooler areas contract and sink, liquids with low [kinematic viscosity](/source/Kinematic_viscosity) tend to transfer heat through [convection](/source/Convection) at a fairly constant temperature, making a liquid suitable for [blanching](/source/Blanching_(cooking)), [boiling](/source/Boiling), or [frying](/source/Frying). Even higher rates of heat transfer can be achieved by condensing a gas into a liquid. At the liquid's boiling point, all of the heat energy is used to cause the phase change from a liquid to a gas, without an accompanying increase in temperature, and is stored as chemical [potential energy](/source/Potential_energy). When the gas condenses back into a liquid this excess heat-energy is released at a constant temperature. This phenomenon is used in processes such as [steaming](/source/Steaming).

### Distillation

Since liquids often have different boiling points, mixtures or solutions of liquids or gases can typically be separated by [distillation](/source/Distillation), using heat, cold, [vacuum](/source/Vacuum), pressure, or other means. Distillation can be found in everything from the production of [alcoholic beverages](/source/Alcoholic_beverage), to [oil refineries](/source/Oil_refinery), to the [cryogenic distillation](/source/Air_separation) of gases such as [argon](/source/Argon), [oxygen](/source/Oxygen), [nitrogen](/source/Nitrogen), [neon](/source/Neon), or [xenon](/source/Xenon) by [liquefaction](/source/Liquefaction) (cooling them below their individual boiling points).[57]

### Hydraulics

Liquid is the primary component of [hydraulic](/source/Hydraulic) systems, which take advantage of [Pascal's law](/source/Pascal's_law) to provide [fluid power](/source/Fluid_power). Devices such as [pumps](/source/Pump) and [waterwheels](/source/Waterwheel) have been used to change liquid motion into [mechanical work](/source/Mechanical_work) since ancient times. Oils are forced through [hydraulic pumps](/source/Hydraulic_pump), which transmit this force to [hydraulic cylinders](/source/Hydraulic_cylinder). Hydraulics can be found in many applications, such as [automotive brakes](/source/Automotive_brakes) and [transmissions](/source/Automotive_transmission), [heavy equipment](/source/Heavy_equipment_(construction)), and airplane control systems. Various [hydraulic presses](/source/Hydraulic_press) are used extensively in repair and manufacturing, for lifting, pressing, clamping and forming.[58]

### Liquid metals

See also: [Liquid metal § Applications](/source/Liquid_metal#Applications)

Liquid metals have several properties that are useful in [sensing](/source/Sensor) and [actuation](/source/Actuator), particularly their [electrical conductivity](/source/Electrical_conductivity) and ability to transmit forces (incompressibility). As freely flowing substances, liquid metals retain these bulk properties even under extreme deformation. For this reason, they have been proposed for use in [soft robots](/source/Soft_robotics) and [wearable healthcare devices](/source/Wearable_technology), which must be able to operate under repeated deformation.[59][60] The metal [gallium](/source/Gallium) is considered to be a promising candidate for these applications as it is a liquid near room temperature, has low toxicity, and evaporates slowly.[61]

### Miscellaneous

Liquids are sometimes used in measuring devices. A [thermometer](/source/Thermometer) often uses the [thermal expansion](/source/Thermal_expansion) of liquids, such as [mercury](/source/Mercury_(element)), combined with their ability to flow to indicate temperature. A [manometer](/source/Manometer) uses the weight of the liquid to indicate [air pressure](/source/Air_pressure).[62]

The free surface of a rotating liquid forms a circular [paraboloid](/source/Paraboloid) and can therefore be used as a [telescope](/source/Telescope). These are known as [liquid-mirror telescopes](/source/Liquid-mirror_telescope).[63] They are significantly cheaper than conventional telescopes,[64] but can only point straight upward ([zenith telescope](/source/Zenith_telescope)). A common choice for the liquid is mercury.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

## Prediction of liquid properties

See also: [Computational materials science](/source/Computational_materials_science)

Methods for predicting liquid properties can be organized by their "scale" of description, that is, the [length scales](/source/Length_scale) and time scales over which they apply.[65][66]

- **Macroscopic methods** use equations that directly model the large-scale behavior of liquids, such as their thermodynamic properties and flow behavior.

- **Microscopic methods** use equations that model the dynamics of individual molecules.

- **Mesoscopic methods** fall in between, combining elements of both continuum and particle-based models.

### Macroscopic

#### Empirical correlations

Empirical correlations are simple mathematical expressions intended to approximate a liquid's properties over a range of experimental conditions, such as varying temperature and pressure.[67] They are constructed by [fitting](/source/Regression_analysis) simple functional forms to experimental data. For example, the [temperature-dependence of liquid viscosity](/source/Temperature_dependence_of_viscosity) is sometimes approximated by the function η ( T ) = A e B / T {\displaystyle \eta (T)=Ae^{B/T}} , where A {\displaystyle A} and B {\displaystyle B} are fitting constants.[68] Empirical correlations allow for extremely efficient estimates of physical properties, which can be useful in thermophysical simulations. However, they require high quality experimental data to obtain a good fit and cannot reliably extrapolate beyond the conditions covered by experiments.

#### Thermodynamic potentials

See also: [Equation of state](/source/Equation_of_state)

Thermodynamic potentials are functions that characterize the [equilibrium state](/source/Equilibrium_state) of a substance. An example is the [Gibbs free energy](/source/Gibbs_free_energy) G ( p , T ) {\displaystyle G(p,T)} , which is a function of pressure and temperature. Knowing any one thermodynamic potential F {\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}} is sufficient to compute all equilibrium properties of a substance, often simply by taking [derivatives](/source/Derivative) of F {\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}} .[37] Thus, a single correlation for F {\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}} can replace separate correlations for individual properties.[69][70] Conversely, a variety of experimental measurements (e.g., density, heat capacity, vapor pressure) can be incorporated into the same fit; in principle, this would allow one to predict hard-to-measure properties like heat capacity in terms of other, more readily available measurements (e.g., vapor pressure).[71]

#### Hydrodynamics

Main articles: [Fluid dynamics](/source/Fluid_dynamics) and [Computational fluid dynamics](/source/Computational_fluid_dynamics)

Hydrodynamic theories describe liquids in terms of space- and time-dependent macroscopic [fields](/source/Field_(physics)), such as density, velocity, and temperature. These fields obey [partial differential equations](/source/Partial_differential_equation), which can be linear or [nonlinear](/source/Nonlinear_partial_differential_equation).[72] Hydrodynamic theories are more general than equilibrium thermodynamic descriptions, which assume that liquids are approximately [homogeneous](/source/Homogeneous) and time-independent. The Navier-Stokes equations are a well-known example: they are partial differential equations giving the time evolution of density, velocity, and temperature of a viscous fluid. There are numerous methods for numerically solving the Navier-Stokes equations and its variants.[73][74]

### Mesoscopic

See also: [Mesoscopic physics](/source/Mesoscopic_physics)

Mesoscopic methods operate on length and time scales between the particle and continuum levels. For this reason, they combine elements of particle-based dynamics and continuum hydrodynamics.[65]

An example is the [lattice Boltzmann method](/source/Lattice_Boltzmann_methods), which models a fluid as a collection of fictitious particles that exist on a lattice.[65] The particles evolve in time through streaming (straight-line motion) and [collisions](/source/Collision). Conceptually, it is based on the [Boltzmann equation](/source/Boltzmann_equation) for dilute gases, where the dynamics of a molecule consists of free motion interrupted by discrete binary collisions, but it is also applied to liquids. Despite the analogy with individual molecular trajectories, it is a coarse-grained description that typically operates on length and time scales larger than those of true molecular dynamics (hence the notion of "fictitious" particles).

Other methods that combine elements of continuum and particle-level dynamics include [smoothed-particle hydrodynamics](/source/Smoothed-particle_hydrodynamics),[75][76] [dissipative particle dynamics](/source/Dissipative_particle_dynamics),[77] and [multiparticle collision dynamics](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Multiparticle_collision_dynamics&action=edit&redlink=1).[78]

### Microscopic

Microscopic simulation methods work directly with the equations of motion (classical or quantum) of the constituent molecules.

#### Classical molecular dynamics

Main articles: [Molecular dynamics](/source/Molecular_dynamics) and [Molecular mechanics](/source/Molecular_mechanics)

Classical molecular dynamics (MD) simulates liquids using Newton's law of motion; from [Newton's second law](/source/Newton's_second_law) ( F = m x ¨ {\displaystyle F=m{\ddot {x}}} ), the trajectories of molecules can be traced out explicitly and used to compute macroscopic liquid properties like density or viscosity. However, classical MD requires expressions for the [intermolecular forces](/source/Interatomic_potential) ("*F*" in Newton's second law). Usually, these must be approximated using experimental data or some other input.[28]

#### Ab initio (quantum) molecular dynamics

See also: [Car–Parrinello molecular dynamics](/source/Car%E2%80%93Parrinello_molecular_dynamics)

Ab initio quantum mechanical methods simulate liquids using only the laws of quantum mechanics and fundamental atomic constants.[39] In contrast with classical molecular dynamics, the intermolecular force fields are an output of the calculation, rather than an input based on experimental measurements or other considerations. In principle, ab initio methods can simulate the properties of a given liquid without any prior experimental data. However, they are very expensive computationally, especially for large molecules with internal structure.

## See also

- [Ionic liquid](/source/Ionic_liquid)

- [Heavy liquid](/source/Heavy_liquid)

- [Liquid dielectric](/source/Liquid_dielectric)

- [Liquid marbles](/source/Liquid_marbles)

- [Liquid breathing](/source/Liquid_breathing)

- [Liquid resistor](/source/Liquid_resistor)

- [Microfluidics](/source/Microfluidics)

- [Fluidized bed](/source/Fluidized_bed)

- [Supercritical fluid](/source/Supercritical_fluid)

## Notes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** Liquid does not have this property in a [low gravity](/source/Low_gravity) environment, unless some other force or balance of forces of sufficient magnitude acts upon it, such as in an [ullage motor](/source/Ullage_motor). On the Earth's surface under [standard gravity](/source/Standard_gravity), this property can also be disrupted by other forces such as [surface tension](/source/Surface_tension), when the liquid suspended as an [aerosol](/source/Aerosol), or when it is in motion.

## References

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnight2008455–459_16-0)** [Knight 2008](#CITEREFKnight2008), pp. 455–459.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-Español2017_78-0)** Español, Pep; Warren, Patrick B. (2017-04-21). "Perspective: Dissipative particle dynamics". *The Journal of Chemical Physics*. **146** (15). AIP Publishing: 150901. [arXiv](/source/ArXiv_(identifier)):[1612.04574](https://arxiv.org/abs/1612.04574). [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2017JChPh.146o0901E](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017JChPh.146o0901E). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1063/1.4979514](https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.4979514). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0021-9606](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-9606). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [28433024](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28433024). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [961922](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:961922).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Gompper2008_79-0)** Gompper, G.; Ihle, T.; Kroll, D. M.; Winkler, R. G. (2009). "Multi-Particle Collision Dynamics: A Particle-Based Mesoscale Simulation Approach to the Hydrodynamics of Complex Fluids". *Advanced Computer Simulation Approaches for Soft Matter Sciences III*. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 1–87. [arXiv](/source/ArXiv_(identifier)):[0808.2157](https://arxiv.org/abs/0808.2157). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-3-540-87706-6_1](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-540-87706-6_1). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-540-87705-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-87705-9). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [8433369](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8433369).

v t e States of matter (list, timeline) State Solid Liquid Gas / Vapor Supercritical fluid Plasma Low energy Bose–Einstein condensate Fermionic condensate Degenerate matter Quantum Hall Rydberg matter Strange matter Superfluid Supersolid Photonic molecule High energy QCD matter Quark–gluon plasma Color-glass condensate Other states Colloid Crystal Liquid crystal Time crystal Quantum spin liquid Exotic matter Programmable matter Dark matter Antimatter Magnetically ordered Antiferromagnet Ferrimagnet Ferromagnet String-net liquid Superglass Phase transitions Boiling Boiling point Condensation Critical line Critical point Crystallization Deposition Evaporation Flash evaporation Freezing Chemical ionization Ionization Lambda point Melting Melting point Recombination Regelation Saturated fluid Sublimation Supercooling Triple point Vaporization Vitrification Quantities Enthalpy of fusion Enthalpy of sublimation Enthalpy of vaporization Latent heat Latent internal energy Trouton's rule Volatility Concepts Baryonic matter Binodal Compressed fluid Cooling curve Equation of state Leidenfrost effect Macroscopic quantum phenomena Mpemba effect Order and disorder (physics) Spinodal Superconductivity Superheated vapor Superheating Thermo-dielectric effect

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