# Linen

> Mediated Wiki article. Canonical URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Linen
> Markdown URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Linen.md
> Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linen
> Source revision: 1356982055
> License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/)

Textile made from spun flax fibre

This article is about the textile. For other uses, see [Linen (disambiguation)](/source/Linen_(disambiguation)).

A linen [handkerchief](/source/Handkerchief) with [drawn thread work](/source/Drawn_thread_work) around the edges

Flax stem, fiber, yarn, and woven and knitted linen textiles

**Linen** ([/ˈlɪnən/](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English)) is a [textile](/source/Textile) made from the [bast fibers](/source/Bast_fibre) of the [flax](/source/Flax) plant. Linen cloth has been produced since ancient times primarily for use in clothing and household items.

Linen is very strong and absorbent and dries faster than [cotton](/source/Cotton). Because of these properties, linen is comfortable to wear in hot weather and is valued for use in garments. Linen also has other distinctive characteristics, such as its tendency to wrinkle. Linen textiles can be woven or knitted from flax fibers. It takes significantly longer to harvest and process than cotton. It is also more difficult to weave than cotton.[1]

Linen textiles appear to be some of the oldest in the world; their history goes back many thousands of years. Dyed flax fibers found in a cave in the Caucasus (present-day [Georgia](/source/Georgia_(country))) suggest the use of woven linen fabrics from wild flax may date back over 30,000 years.[2] Linen was used in ancient civilizations including [Mesopotamia](/source/Mesopotamia)[3] and [ancient Egypt](/source/Ancient_Egypt), and linen is mentioned in the [Bible](/source/Bible). In the 18th century and beyond, the linen industry was important in the economies of several countries in Europe as well as the American colonies.

Textiles in a [linen weave](/source/Linen_weave), even when made of cotton, [hemp](/source/Hemp), or other non-flax fibers, are also loosely referred to as "linen".

## Etymology

The word *linen* is of [West Germanic](/source/West_Germanic_languages) origin[4] and [cognate](/source/Cognate) to the [Latin](/source/Latin) name for the [flax](/source/Flax) plant, *linum*, and the earlier [Greek](/source/Ancient_Greek_language) λινόν (*linón*).

This word history has given rise to a number of other terms in English, most notably *[line](/source/Line_(geometry)),* from the use of a linen (flax) [thread](/source/Yarn) to determine a straight line. It is also etymologically related to a number of other terms, including *[lining](/source/Lining_(sewing))*, because linen was often used to create an inner layer for clothing,[5] and *[lingerie](/source/Lingerie)*, from French, which originally denoted underwear made of linen.[6]

## History

Linen cloth recovered from [Qumran](/source/Qumran) Cave 1 near the [Dead Sea](/source/Dead_Sea)

A bag of white linen, unopened. Contains rolls of linen. [Foundation deposit](/source/Foundation_deposit), [Heb Sed](/source/Heb_Sed) Chapel at [Lahun](/source/El_Lahun), [Faiyum](/source/Faiyum), Egypt. [12th Dynasty](/source/Twelfth_Dynasty_of_Egypt). The [Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology](/source/Petrie_Museum_of_Egyptian_Archaeology), London.

Many linen fragments have been found in archeological sites, suggesting people in various parts of the world began weaving linen at least several thousand years ago.[7]

### Early history

The discovery of dyed flax fibers in a cave in [Southern Caucasus](/source/Southern_Caucasus), [West Asia](/source/West_Asia) (modern-day country of [Georgia](/source/Georgia_(country))) dated to 36,000 years ago suggests that ancient people used wild flax fibers to create linen-like fabrics from an early date.[8][9] Fragments of straw, seeds, fibers, yarns, and various types of fabrics, including linen samples, dating to about 8,000 BC have been found in Swiss lake dwellings.[10] Linen was also recovered from [Qumran Cave 1](/source/Qumran_Caves) near the Dead Sea.[11]

In ancient [Mesopotamia](/source/Mesopotamia) flax was domesticated and linen was produced.[12] It was used mainly by wealthy people, such as priests.[13] Woven flax textile fragments have been "found between infant and child" in a burial at [Çatalhöyük](/source/%C3%87atalh%C3%B6y%C3%BCk), a large settlement dating to around 7,000 BC.[14] The [Sumerian](/source/Sumerian_art) poem of the courtship of [Inanna](/source/Inanna) mentions flax and linen.[15]

In [ancient Egypt](/source/Ancient_Egypt) linen was used for mummification and for burial shrouds. White linen was also [worn as clothing](/source/Clothing_in_ancient_Egypt) on a daily basis. The [Tarkhan dress](/source/Tarkhan_dress) (dated to between 3482 and 3102 BC), considered to be among the oldest woven garments in the world, is made of linen.[16] [Plutarch](/source/Plutarch) wrote that the priests of [Isis](/source/Isis) also wore linen because of its purity.[17][18] Egyptian [mummies](/source/Mummy) were wrapped in linen as a symbol of light and purity and as a display of wealth. Some of these fabrics, woven from hand-spun yarns, were very fine for their day, but are coarse compared with modern linen.[19]

[Diocletian](/source/Diocletian)'s 4th-century maximum prices edict showing prices for three grades of linen across the [Roman Empire](/source/Roman_Empire)

The earliest written documentation of a linen industry comes from the [Linear B](/source/Linear_B) tablets of [Pylos](/source/Pylos), Greece.[20][21] There are many references to linen throughout the [Bible](/source/Bible).[22]

Ancient [Coptic](/source/Copts) material

### Middle Ages

By the [Middle Ages](/source/Middle_Ages), there was a thriving trade for German flax and linen. The trade spread throughout [Germany](/source/Kingdom_of_Germany) by the 9th century and spread to [Flanders](/source/Flanders) and [Brabant](/source/Pagus_of_Brabant) by the 11th century. The [Lower Rhine](/source/Lower_Rhine_region) was a center of linen making in the Middle Ages.[23] Flax was cultivated and linen used for clothing in Ireland by the 11th century.[24] Evidence suggests that flax may have been grown and sold in Southern England in the 12th and 13th centuries.[25] Textiles, primarily linen and wool, were produced in decentralized home weaving mills.[26]

### Modern history

Linen continued to be valued for garments through the 16th century.[27] Specimens of linen garments worn by historical figures have survived. For example, a linen cap worn by [Emperor Charles V](/source/Charles_V%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor) was carefully preserved after his death in 1558.[27]

There is a long history of the production of linen in Ireland. When the [Edict of Nantes](/source/Edict_of_Nantes) was revoked in 1685, many of the [Huguenots](/source/Huguenots) who fled France settled in the British Isles and elsewhere. They brought improved methods for linen production with them, contributing to the growth of the linen industry in [Ireland](/source/Ireland).[28] Among them was [Louis Crommelin](/source/Louis_Crommelin), a leader who was appointed overseer of the royal linen manufacture of Ireland. He settled in the town of [Lisburn](/source/Lisburn), a major linen production center throughout history. During the [Victorian era](/source/Victorian_era) the majority of the world's linen was produced in Lisbrun, which gained it the name [Linenopolis](/source/Linenopolis).[29] Although the linen industry was already established in [Ulster](/source/Ulster), Louis Crommelin found scope for improvement in weaving. His efforts were so successful that he was appointed by the Government to develop the industry over a much wider range than the small confines of Lisburn and its surroundings. The result of his work was the establishment, under statute, of the Board of Trustees of the Linen Manufacturers of Ireland in the year 1711. Several grades were produced including coarse lockram.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] The [Living Linen](/source/Living_Linen) Project was set up in 1995 as an oral archive of the knowledge of the [Irish linen](/source/Irish_linen) industry, which was at that time still available within a nucleus of people who formerly worked in the industry in Ulster.

The linen industry was increasingly critical in the economies of Europe[30][31] in the 18th and 19th centuries. In England and Germany, industrialization and machine production replaced manual work, moving production from the home to new factories.[26]

Linen was also an important product in the American colonies, where it was brought over with the first settlers and became the most commonly used fabric and a valuable asset for colonial households.[32] The [homespun movement](/source/Homespun_movement) encouraged the use of flax to make home spun textiles.[33] Through the 1830s, most farmers in the northern United States continued to grow flax for linen to be used for the family's clothing.[34]

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, linen was very significant to Russia and its economy. At one time it was the country's greatest export item and Russia produced about 80% of the world's fiber flax crop.[10]

In December 2006, the General Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed 2009 to be the [International Year of Natural Fibres](/source/International_Year_of_Natural_Fibres) in order to raise people's awareness of linen and other [natural fibers](/source/Natural_fiber).[35]

## Uses

Green Pleated Linen Dress, 'Irish Moss' by Irish fashion designer [Sybil Connolly](/source/Sybil_Connolly)

Many products can be made with linen, such as clothing, bed sheets, aprons, bags, towels (swimming, bath, beach, body and wash towels), napkins, runners, and upholstery. It is used especially in sailcloth and lent cloth, sewing threads, handkerchiefs, table cloth, sheets, collars, cuffs etc. Linen fabric has been used for table coverings, bed coverings and clothing for centuries.

Today, linen is a usually expensive textile produced in relatively small quantities. It has a long [staple](/source/Staple_(textiles)) (individual fiber length) relative to cotton and other [natural fibers](/source/Natural_fiber).[36] The significant cost of linen derives not only from the difficulty of working with the thread due to its lack of elasticity but also because the flax plant itself requires a great deal of attention. Consequently linen is considerably more expensive to manufacture than cotton.[37]

The collective term "[linens](/source/Linens)" is still often used generically to describe a class of [woven](/source/Weaving) or [knitted](/source/Knitting) bed, bath, table and kitchen textiles traditionally made of flax-based linen but today made from a variety of fibers. The term "linens" refers to lightweight [undergarments](/source/Undergarment) such as shirts, [chemises](/source/Chemise), waist-shirts, [lingerie](/source/Lingerie) (a cognate with *linen*), and detachable shirt collars and cuffs, all of which were historically made almost exclusively out of linen. The inner layer of fine composite cloth garments (as for example dress jackets) was traditionally made of linen, hence the word *lining*.[38]

The uses for linen changed dramatically from the 1970s, when about 5% of linen produced was used for fashion fabrics, to the 1990s, when about 70% was for clothing textiles.[39]

Linen uses range across bed and bath fabrics ([tablecloths](/source/Tablecloths), bath towels, dish towels, bed sheets); home and commercial furnishing items (wallpaper/wall coverings, upholstery, window treatments); apparel items (suits, dresses, skirts, shirts); and industrial products (luggage, canvases, sewing thread).[36] It was once the preferred yarn for hand-sewing the uppers of [moccasin](/source/Moccasin_(footwear))-style shoes ([loafers](/source/Loafers)), but has been replaced by synthetics.

A linen [handkerchief](/source/Handkerchief), pressed and folded to display the corners, was a standard decoration of a well-dressed man's [suit](/source/Suit_(clothing)) during most of the first part of the 20th century.

Nowadays, linen is one of the most preferred materials for bed sheets due to its durability and hypoallergenic properties. Linen can be up to three times stronger than cotton. This is because the [cellulose fibers](/source/Cellulose_fiber) in linen yarn are slightly longer and wrapped tighter than those found in cotton yarn, which gives it great durability and allows linen products to be long-lasting.[40]

In 2005 researchers were working on a cotton/flax blend to create new yarns to improve the feel of denim during hot, humid weather.[41] Conversely, some brands such as 100% Capri specially treat the linen to look like denim.[42]

Linen fabric is one of the preferred traditional supports for [oil painting](/source/Oil_painting). In the United States cotton is popularly used instead, as linen is many times more expensive there, restricting its use to professional painters. In Europe, however, linen is usually the only fabric support available in art shops; in the UK both are freely available, cotton being cheaper. Linen is preferred to cotton for its strength, durability and [archival](/source/Archival) integrity.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

Linen is also used extensively by artisan bakers. Known as a [couche](/source/Couche), the flax cloth is used to hold the dough into shape while in the final rise, just before baking. The couche is heavily dusted with flour which is rubbed into the pores of the [fabric](/source/Fabric). Then the shaped dough is placed on the couche. The floured couche makes a "non stick" surface to hold the dough. Then ridges are formed in the couche to keep the dough from spreading.

In the past, linen was also used for books (the only surviving example of which is the [Liber Linteus](/source/Liber_Linteus)). Due to its strength, in the [Middle Ages](/source/Middle_Ages) linen was used for [shields](/source/Shield), [gambesons](/source/Gambeson), and [bowstrings](/source/Bowstring); in [classical antiquity](/source/Classical_antiquity) it was used to make a type of body armour, referred to as a [linothorax](/source/Linothorax). Additionally, linen was commonly used to make riggings, sail-cloths, nets, ropes, and canvases because the [tensility](/source/Tensility) of the cloth would increase by 20% when wet.[43]

[Irish linen](/source/Irish_linen) is very popular for wrapping pool and billiard cues, subject to absorption of sweat from hands—the linen maintains its strength when wet.[44]

In 1923, the city of [Bielefeld](/source/Bielefeld) in Germany issued [banknotes](/source/Banknote) printed on linen.[45] United States currency paper is made from 25% linen and 75% cotton.[46]

## Flax fiber

Main article: [Flax](/source/Flax)

### Description

[Flax](/source/Flax) stem cross-section, showing locations of underlying tissues. Ep = [epidermis](/source/Epidermis_(botany)); C = [cortex](/source/Cortex_(botany)); BF = bast fibres; P = [phloem](/source/Phloem); X = [xylem](/source/Xylem); Pi = [pith](/source/Pith)

Linen is a [bast fiber](/source/Bast_fibre). Flax fibers vary in length from about 25 to 150 mm (1 to 6 [in](/source/Inch)) and average 12–16 [micrometers](/source/Micrometre) in diameter. There are two varieties: shorter tow fibers used for coarser fabrics and longer line fibers used for finer fabrics. Flax fibers can usually be identified by their "nodes" which add to the flexibility and texture of the fabric.

The cross-section of the linen fiber is made up of irregular [polygonal](/source/Polygon) shapes which contribute to the coarse texture of the fabric.[47]

### Properties

Linen fabric feels cool to touch, a phenomenon which indicates its higher thermal conductivity (the same principle that makes metals feel "cold"). It is smooth, making the finished fabric lint-free, and gets softer the more it is washed. However, constant creasing in the same place in sharp folds will tend to break the linen threads. This wear can show up in collars, hems, and any area that is iron creased during laundering. Linen's poor elasticity means that it easily wrinkles.

Mildew, perspiration, and bleach can damage the fabric, but because it is not made from animal fibers ([keratin](/source/Keratin)) it is impervious to [clothes moths](/source/Clothes_moth) and [carpet beetles](/source/Varied_carpet_beetle). Linen is relatively easy to take care of, since it resists dirt and stains, has no lint or [pilling](/source/Pill_(textile)) tendency, and can be dry-cleaned, machine-washed, or steamed. It can withstand high temperatures, and has only moderate initial [shrinkage](/source/Shrinkage_(fabric)).[47]

Linen should not be dried too much by tumble drying, and it is much easier to iron when damp. Linen wrinkles very easily, and thus some more formal garments require ironing often, in order to maintain perfect smoothness. Nevertheless, the tendency to wrinkle is often considered part of linen's particular "charm", and many modern linen garments are designed to be air-dried on a good clothes hanger and worn without the necessity of ironing.

A characteristic often associated with linen yarn is the presence of *[slubs](/source/Slub_(textiles))*, or small, soft, irregular lumps, which occur randomly along its length. In the past, slubs were traditionally considered to be defects, and were associated with low-quality linen. However, in the case of many present-day linen fabrics, particularly in the decorative furnishing industry, slubs are considered as part of the aesthetic appeal of an expensive natural product. In addition, slubs do not compromise the integrity of the fabric, and therefore they are not viewed as a defect. However, the very finest linen has very consistent diameter threads, with no slubs at all.

Linen can [degrade](/source/Biodegradation) in a few weeks when buried in soil. Linen is more biodegradable than cotton, making it an eco friendly fiber.[48]

### Measure

The standard measure of bulk linen yarn is the "lea", which is the number of yards in a pound of linen divided by 300. For example, a yarn having a size of 1 lea will give 300 yards per pound. The fine yarns used in handkerchiefs, etc. might be 40 lea, and give 40x300 = 12,000 yards per pound. This is a specific length therefore an indirect measurement of the fineness of the linen (i.e. the number of length units per unit mass). The symbol is NeL. The metric unit, Nm, is more commonly used in continental Europe. This is the number of 1,000 m lengths per kilogram. In China, the English Cotton system unit, NeC, is common. This is the number of 840 yard lengths in a pound.

### Production method

Main article: [Flax § Preparation for spinning](/source/Flax#Preparation_for_spinning)

Further information: [Textile manufacturing § Flax](/source/Textile_manufacturing#Flax)

Linen is laborious to manufacture.[49]

Details of the flax plant, from which linen fibers are derived

Mechanical [baling](/source/Baler) of flax in [Belgium](/source/Belgium). On the left side, cut flax is waiting to be baled.

The quality of the finished linen product is often dependent upon growing conditions and [harvesting](/source/Harvesting) techniques. To generate the longest possible fibers, flax is either hand-harvested by pulling up the entire plant or stalks are cut very close to the root. After harvesting, the plants are dried, and then the seeds are removed through a mechanized process called "rippling" ([threshing](/source/Threshing)) and [winnowing](/source/Winnowing).

Retting, scutching, and heckling (narration in German)

Handweaving of linen (narration in German)

The fibers must then be loosened from the stalk. This is achieved through [retting](/source/Retting), a process which uses bacteria to decompose the pectin that binds the fibers together. Natural retting methods take place in tanks and pools, or directly in the fields. There are also chemical retting methods; these are faster, but are typically more harmful to the environment and to the fibers themselves.[50]

After retting, the stalks are ready for [scutching](/source/Scutching), which takes place between August and December. Scutching removes the woody portion of the stalks by crushing them between two metal rollers, so that the parts of the stalk can be separated. The fibers are removed and the other parts such as [linseed](/source/Linseed#Flax_seeds), [shives](/source/Shives), and [tow](/source/Tow_(fibre)) are set aside for other uses. Next the fibers are [heckled](/source/Heckling_(flax)): the short fibers are separated with [heckling combs](/source/Heckling_comb) by 'combing' them away, to leave behind only the long, soft flax fibers.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

After the fibers have been separated and processed, they are typically spun into yarns and woven or knit into linen textiles. These textiles can then be bleached, dyed, printed on, or finished with a number of treatments or coatings.[47]

An alternate production method is known as "cottonizing" which is quicker and requires less equipment. The flax stalks are processed using traditional cotton machinery; however, the finished fibers often lose the characteristic linen look.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

### Producers

In 2018, according to the [United Nations](/source/United_Nations)' repository of official international trade statistics, China was the top exporter of woven linen fabrics by trade value, with a reported $732.3 million in exports; Italy ($173.0 million), Belgium ($68.9 million) and the United Kingdom ($51.7 million) were also major exporters.[51]

## See also

- [Belgian Linen](/source/Belgian_Linen), a linen known for its high quality

- [Butcher's linen](/source/Butcher's_linen), a strong heavy linen cloth, primarily used for butchers' aprons

- [Crash (fabric)](/source/Crash_(fabric)) Crash fabric is coarse linen based rugged material made from both [dyed](/source/Dyeing) and raw yarns.

- [Dornix § Dornick linens](/source/Dornix#Dornick_linens), a stout linen table cloth made in [Scotland](/source/Scotland)

- [Dowlas](/source/Dowlas), a strong linen mentioned by Shakespeare

- [Linenize](/source/Linenize)

- [Linothorax](/source/Linothorax), armor of layers of linen

- [Madapollam](/source/Madapollam), a fabric manufactured from cotton yarn in a linen-style weave

- [Pleated linen](/source/Pleated_linen), a form of processing linen resulting in a fabric which is heavily [pleated](/source/Pleat) and does not crease like normal linen fabric

- [Ramie](/source/Ramie), another type of bast fiber with similar properties

- [Silesia (cloth)](/source/Silesia_(cloth)), a linen fabric, manufactured in Silesia, a province of [Prussia](/source/Prussia)

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** ["What Is Cotton and What Is Linen? Cotton vs. Linen Fabrics"](https://www.masterclass.com/articles/what-is-cotton-and-what-is-linen). *MasterClass*. 2021-08-12.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** Kvavadze, Eliso; Bar-Yosef, Ofer; Belfer-Cohen, Anna; Boaretto, Elisabetta; Jakeli, Nino; Matskevich, Zinovi; Meshveliani, Tengiz (2009-09-11). ["30,000-Year-Old Wild Flax Fibers"](https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1175404). *Science*. **325** (5946): 1359. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2009Sci...325.1359K](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009Sci...325.1359K). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1126/science.1175404](https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1175404). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0036-8075](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [19745144](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19745144). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [206520793](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206520793).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-McCorriston_3-0)** McCorriston, Joy (1997). "Textile Extensification, Alienation, and Social Stratification in Ancient Mesopotamia". *Current Anthropology*. **38** (4): 517–535. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1997CurrA..38..517M](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997CurrA..38..517M). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/204643](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F204643). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [10.1086/204643](https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/204643). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [154123464](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154123464).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** ["linen"](https://web.archive.org/web/20200803104231/https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/linen). *Lexico.com*. Oxford. Archived from [the original](https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/linen) on August 3, 2020. Retrieved 22 May 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** Harper, Douglas. ["line"](https://www.etymonline.com/word/line). *[Online Etymology Dictionary](/source/Online_Etymology_Dictionary)*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180126012710/https://www.etymonline.com/word/line) from the original on 2018-01-26. Retrieved 2018-01-25.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** Harper, Douglas. ["lingerie (n.)"](https://www.etymonline.com/word/lingerie). *[Online Etymology Dictionary](/source/Online_Etymology_Dictionary)*. Retrieved 22 May 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** Beckert, Sven (2014). *Empire of Cotton*. Alfred A. Knopf. p. 5. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-375-41414-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-375-41414-5).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** Balter, M. (2009). "Clothes Make the (Hu) Man". *Science*. **325** (5946): 1329. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1126/science.325_1329a](https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.325_1329a). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [19745126](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19745126).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** Kvavadze, E.; Bar-Yosef, O.; Belfer-Cohen, A.; Boaretto, E.; Jakeli, N.; Matskevich, Z.; Meshveliani, T. (2009). ["30,000-Year-Old Wild Flax Fibers"](http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:4270521). *Science*. **325** (5946): 1359. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2009Sci...325.1359K](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009Sci...325.1359K). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1126/science.1175404](https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1175404). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [19745144](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19745144). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [206520793](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206520793).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Akin_10-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Akin_10-1) Akin, Danny E. (30 December 2012). ["Linen Most Useful: Perspectives on Structure, Chemistry, and Enzymes for Retting Flax"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4403609). *ISRN Biotechnology*. **2013** 186534. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.5402/2013/186534](https://doi.org/10.5402%2F2013%2F186534). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [4403609](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4403609). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [25969769](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25969769).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** Sukenik, Naama; Shamir, Orit (2011). "Qumran Textiles and the Garments of Qumran's Inhabitants". *Dead Sea Discoveries*. **18** (2): 206–225. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1163/156851711x570427](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156851711x570427). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0929-0761](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0929-0761).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** Potts, Daniel T. (1997). *Mesopotamian Civilization: The Material Foundations*. The Athlone Press. p. 119. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-485-93001-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-485-93001-3).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** Roberts, Peter (2006). *HSC Ancient History*. Pascal Press. p. 63. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-74125-178-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-74125-178-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** [Çatalhöyük 2013 Archive Report](https://www.scribd.com/document/206552281/Archive-Report-2013). *Scribd.com* (Report).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** Kramer, Samuel Noah (20 December 1963). "Cuneiform Studies and the History of Literature: The Sumerian Sacred Marriage Texts". *Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society*. **107** (6): 504–505. [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [986108](https://www.jstor.org/stable/986108).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** Lobell, Jarretta (2016). "Dressing for the Ages". *Archeology*. **69** (3): 9. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0003-8113](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-8113).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** Plutarch (1940). Babbitt, Frank Cole (ed.). ["Isis and Osiris"](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Isis_and_Osiris*/A.html). *Nature*. **146** (3695): 262. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1940Natur.146U.262.](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1940Natur.146U.262.). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1038/146262e0](https://doi.org/10.1038%2F146262e0). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [4092286](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4092286). Retrieved 3 June 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** Warden, Alex. J. (1867). *The linen trade, ancient and modern* (2nd ed.). Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts & Green. p. 214. [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[2027/hvd.32044019641166](https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fhvd.32044019641166).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** Harris, Thaddeus Mason (1824). [*The natural history of the Bible; or, A description of all the quadrupeds, birds, fishes \[&c.\] mentioned in the Sacred scriptures*](https://archive.org/details/naturalhistoryof00harriala). p. [135](https://archive.org/details/naturalhistoryof00harriala/page/135). Retrieved 23 October 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** [Flax and Linen Textiles in the Mycenaean palatial economy](http://www3.lu.se/klass/textiles/throughsociety.html#rouge) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20080411124925/http://www3.lu.se/klass/textiles/throughsociety.html) 2008-04-11 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** Robkin, A.L.H. (1 January 1979). "The Agricultural Year, the Commodity SA and the Linen Industry of Mycenaean Pylos". *American Journal of Archaeology*. **83** (4): 469–474. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/504148](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F504148). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [504148](https://www.jstor.org/stable/504148).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** ["What Is Linen? Everything You Need to Know About Using and Caring for Linen"](https://www.masterclass.com/articles/what-is-linen-everything-you-need-to-know-about-using-and-caring-for-linen). MasterClass. Retrieved 4 June 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** Keller, Kenneth W. (1990). "From the Rhineland to the Virginia Frontier: Flax Production as a Commercial Enterprise". *The Virginia Backcountry*. **98** (3): 488. [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [4249165](https://www.jstor.org/stable/4249165).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** ["Flax to Fabric: The Story of Irish Linen"](https://web.archive.org/web/20200605222154/https://www.lisburnmuseum.com/2016/02/history-of-irish-linen-flax/). *Irish Linen Centre & Lisburn Museum*. Archived from [the original](https://www.lisburnmuseum.com/2016/02/history-of-irish-linen-flax/) on 5 June 2020. Retrieved 5 June 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** Collins, Brenda (1998). "Linen in Europe Conference 16–19 April 1998 Irish Linen Centre & Lisburn Museum". *Irish Economic and Social History*. **25**: 96–99. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/033248939802500109](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F033248939802500109). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [24341023](https://www.jstor.org/stable/24341023). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [164245290](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164245290).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Textiltechnikum_26-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Textiltechnikum_26-1) ["The Development of Textile Technology: Inside the TextilTechnikum (Textile Technology Center) in Monforts Quartier, Mönchengladbach"](https://artsandculture.google.com/exhibit/the-development-of-textile-technology-textiltechnikum/JQJCktufFk01IQ?hl=en). *Google Arts & Culture*. Textiltechnikum. Retrieved 4 June 2020.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Pollen_1914_27-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Pollen_1914_27-1) Pollen, John Hungerford (1914). "Ancient Linen Garments". *The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs*. **25** (136): 231–237. [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [859719](https://www.jstor.org/stable/859719).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** Lutton, S.C. ["Background history of Linen from the flax in the field to finished linen cloth"](https://web.archive.org/web/20210512024057/http://www.craigavonhistoricalsociety.org.uk/rev/luttonhistoryoflinen.html). *Journal of Craigavon Historical Society*. **8** (1). Archived from [the original](http://www.craigavonhistoricalsociety.org.uk/rev/luttonhistoryoflinen.html) on 12 May 2021. Retrieved 5 June 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Prance_29-0)** Prance, Sir Ghillean (2012). *The Cultural History of Plants*. Routledge. p. 295. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-135-95811-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-95811-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** Takei, Akihiro (1994). "The First Irish Linen Mills, 1800–1824". *Irish Economic and Social History*. **21**: 28–38. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/033248939402100102](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F033248939402100102). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [24341383](https://www.jstor.org/stable/24341383). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [199275871](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:199275871).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** Belfanti, Marco (2006). "Reviewed Work: The European Linen Industry in Historical Perspective by Brenda Collins, Philip Ollerenshaw". *Technology and Culture*. **47** (1): 193–195. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1353/tech.2006.0056](https://doi.org/10.1353%2Ftech.2006.0056). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [40061028](https://www.jstor.org/stable/40061028). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [108825085](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:108825085).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** Keegan, Tracy A. (1996). ["Flaxen fantasy: the history of linen"](https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A18599708/ITOF?u=dclib_main&sid=ITOF&xid=aa5e6d55). *Colonial Homes*. **22** (4): 62+. Retrieved 4 June 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** ["Spinning in Colonial America"](https://hudsonvalley.org/article/spinning-patriotic-sentiment-in-colonial-america/). *Historic Hudson Valley*. March 11, 2017. Retrieved September 8, 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-34)** Wyatt, Steve M. (1994). "Flax and Linen: An Uncertain Oregon Industry". *Oregon Historical Quarterly*. **95** (2): 150–175. [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [20614577](https://www.jstor.org/stable/20614577).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-UN_2009_35-0)** ["Profiles of 15 of the world's major plant and animal fibres"](https://web.archive.org/web/20201203113011/http://www.fao.org/natural-fibres-2009/about/15-natural-fibres/en/). *International Year of Natural Fibres 2009*. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Archived from [the original](http://www.fao.org/natural-fibres-2009/about/15-natural-fibres/en/) on 3 December 2020. Retrieved 15 May 2020.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-textiles_36-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-textiles_36-1) *Textiles*, Ninth Edition by Sara J. Kadolph and Anna L. Langford. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** ["Linen"](https://oecotextiles.blog/2010/06/30/linen/). *OEcotextiles*. 2010-06-30. Retrieved 2026-03-16.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-38)** lining. Dictionary.com. Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper, Historian. ["Lining | Define Lining at Dictionary.com"](http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/lining). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20141006115259/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/lining) from the original on 2014-10-06. Retrieved 2014-10-04. (accessed: October 3, 2014).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** Hakoo, Ashok (2018-03-28). ["Characteristics of Flax/Linen Fiber"](https://www.textileschool.com/2632/linen-fiber-from-flax-plants-and-the-linen-fabrics/). *TextileSchool.com*. Retrieved 2024-03-15.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-40)** Behera, B.K. (2007-03-01). ["Comfort and Handle Behaviour of Linen-Blended Fabrics"](https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/aut-2007-070104/html). *AUTEX Research Journal*. **7** (1): 33–47. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1515/aut-2007-070104](https://doi.org/10.1515%2Faut-2007-070104). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2300-0929](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2300-0929).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-agr_research_41-0)** "Flax Fiber Offers Cotton Cool Comfort". *Agricultural Research*. November 2005.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-MH_42-0)** ["Just add water"](https://www.miamiherald.com/latest-news/article1964798.html). *Miami Herald*. 5 June 2014. Retrieved 11 March 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-43)** *Textiles and the Medieval Economy: Production, Trade, and Consumption of Textiles, 8th–16th Centuries*. Vol. 16. Oxbow Books. 2015. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/j.ctvh1dm0t](https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctvh1dm0t). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-78925-209-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78925-209-5). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [j.ctvh1dm0t](https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvh1dm0t).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-44)** Game and Entertain. ["Complete Guide to Pool Cue Wraps: Everything You Need to Know"](https://gameandentertain.com/complete-guide-to-pool-cue-wraps-everything-you-need-to-know/). *Game and Entertain*. Retrieved 2024-02-01.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-45)** Grasser, Walter; Pick, Albert (1972). *Das Bielefelder Stoffgeld 1917-1923*. Berlin, Germany: Erich Pröh.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-46)** ["U.S. Currency"](https://www.moneyfactory.gov/hmimpaperandink.html). *Bureau of Engraving and Printing*. U.S. Department of the Treasury. Retrieved 12 May 2020.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-classifications_47-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-classifications_47-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-classifications_47-2) Classifications & Analysis of Textiles: A Handbook by Karen L. LaBat, Ph.D. and Carol J. Salusso, Ph.A. University of Minnesota, 2003

1. **[^](#cite_ref-48)** Arnett, George (29 November 2019). ["How quickly do fashion materials biodegrade?"](https://www.voguebusiness.com/sustainability/fashion-biodegradable-material-circularity-cotton). *Vogue Business*. Conde Nast. Retrieved 27 May 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-49)** Hakoo, Ashok (28 March 2018). ["Linen Fiber and Linen Fabrics from the Flax Plants"](https://www.textileschool.com/2632/linen-fiber-from-flax-plants-and-the-linen-fabrics/). *TextileSchool*. Retrieved 15 May 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-50)** Ruan, Pifu; Tang, Sheng (2022). ["A Review on Flax and Hemp Retting: Current Status and Future Perspectives"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9572697). *Plants*. **11** (19). MDPI: 2596. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3390/plants11192596](https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fplants11192596). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [9572697](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9572697). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [36235461](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36235461).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-51)** ["5309 - Woven fabrics of flax"](https://web.archive.org/web/20220328082545/https://comtrade.un.org/data/). UN Comtrade Database. Archived from [the original](https://comtrade.un.org/data/) on 28 March 2022. Retrieved 13 May 2020.

## External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to [Linen (flax)](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Linen_(flax)).

[Wikisource](/source/Wikisource) has the text of the [1911 *Encyclopædia Britannica*](/source/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition) article "[Linen and Linen Manufactures](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Linen_and_Linen_Manufactures)".

[Wikisource](/source/Wikisource) has the text of the 1921 *[Collier's Encyclopedia](/source/Collier's_Encyclopedia)* article  ***[Linen](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Collier%27s_New_Encyclopedia_(1921)/Linen)***.

- The dictionary definition of [*linen*](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/linen) at Wiktionary

v t e Fibers Natural Plant Abacá Bagasse Bamboo Bashō Coir Cotton Fique Flax Linen Hemp Jute Kapok Kenaf Lotus silk Piña Pine Raffia Ramie Rattan Sisal Wood Animal Alpaca Angora Byssus Camel hair Cashmere Catgut Chiengora Guanaco Hair Llama Mohair Pashmina Qiviut Rabbit Silk Tendon Spider silk Wool Vicuña Yak Mineral Asbestos Synthetic Regenerated Artificial silk Milk fiber Semi-synthetic Acetate Diacetate Lyocell Modal Piñatex Rayon Triacetate Mineral Boron Basalt Carbon Glass Wool Metallic Mineral wool Polymer Acrylic Aramid Twaron Kevlar Technora Nomex Microfiber Modacrylic Nylon Olefin Polyester Polyethylene UHMWPE Spandex Vectran Vinylon Vinyon Zylon Category Commons

v t e Fabric Types Woven Abacá cloth (Medriñaque) Aertex Almerían silk Aso oke Aso Olona Armazine Barathea Barkcloth Batiste Bedford cord Bengaline Beta cloth Bombazine Brilliantine Broadcloth Buckram Bunting Burlap Byrd Cloth Calico Cambric Canvas Chambray Capilene Cedar bark textile Challis Char cloth Charmeuse Charvet Cheesecloth Chiffon Chino Chintz Cloqué Cloth of gold Cordura Corduroy Cotton duck Coutil Crêpe Cretonne Denim Dimity Donegal tweed Dornix Dowlas Drill Drugget Eolienne Faille Flannel Foulard Fustian Gabardine Gauze Gazar Georgette Ghalamkar Gingham Grenadine Grenfell Cloth Grosgrain Habutai Haircloth Harris tweed Herringbone Himroo Hodden Huckaback Irish linen Jamdani Kerseymere Khādī Khaki drill Kijōka-bashōfu Kente cloth Lamé Lawn Linsey-woolsey Loden Longcloth Mackinaw Madapollam Madras Moleskin Muslin Nainsook Nankeen Ninon Oilskin Organdy Organza Osnaburg Ottoman Oxford Paduasoy Percale Perpetuana Pongee Poplin Rakematiz Rayadillo Rep Ripstop Russell cord Saga Nishiki Samite Sateen Satin Saye Scarlet Seerhand muslin Seersucker Sendal Serge Scrim Shot silk Stuff Taffeta Tais Taiwan floral fabric Tartan Ticking Toile Tucuyo Tweed Twill Ultrasuede Vegetable flannel Ventile Vinyl coated polyester Viyella Voile Wadmal Waffle Wigan Whipcord Zephyr Zorbeez Figured woven Brocade Camlet Damask Lampas Songket Rinzu Pile woven Baize Chenille Corduroy Crimplene Fustian Mockado Moquette Plush Polar fleece Terrycloth Velours du Kasaï Velvet Velveteen Zibeline Nonwoven Felt Cedar bark Knitted Boiled wool Coolmax Machine knitting Milliskin Jersey Velour Netted Bobbinet Carbon fibers Lace Mesh Needlerun net Ninon Tulle Technical Ballistic nylon Ban-Lon Conductive textile Darlexx E-textiles Gannex Gore-Tex Lenticular fabric Silnylon Spandex Stub-tex SympaTex Patterns Argyle Bizarre silk Check Chiné Glen plaid Herringbone Houndstooth Kelsch Paisley Pinstripes Polka dot Shweshwe Tartan or plaid Tattersall Textile fibers Abacá (Manila hemp) Acrylic Alpaca Angora Bashō Cashmere Coir Cotton Eisengarn Hemp Jute Kevlar Linen Mohair Nylon Microfiber Olefin Pashmina Polyester Piña Ramie Rayon Sea silk Silk Sisal Spandex Spider silk Wool Finishing and printing Androsia Batik Beetling Bingata Bògòlanfini Burnout Calendering Decatising Devoré Finishing Fulling Heatsetting Indienne Kasuri Katazome Mercerization Moire Nap Parchmentising Rogan printing Rōketsuzome Roller printing Sanforization Tenterhook Textile printing Tsutsugaki Warp printing Waxed cotton Woodblock printing Yūzen Fabric mills Carlo Barbera Cerruti Dormeuil E. Thomas Holland & Sherry Larusmiani Loro Piana Piacenza Reda Scabal Thomas Mason Vitale Barberis Canonico Zegna Manufacturing industry Design Manufacturing Performance Preservation Recycling Terminology Related Dyeing Fiber History of textiles History of silk Knitting Pandy Shrinkage Swatches and strike-offs Synthetic fabric Weaving Yarn

v t e Clothing materials and parts Garment structures Armscye Collar Clerical collar Collar stays Detachable collar Cuff Dart Facing Fly Lapel Gore Hem Lining Placket Pleat Pocket Revers Ruffle Shoulder pad Strap Spaghetti strap Sleeve Train Waistband Yoke Textiles Natural Cotton Fur Linen Silk Wool Synthetic Artificial leather Elastic Nylon Polyester Rayon Spandex Animal hides / leather Calf Deer Goat Kangaroo Ostrich Seal Sheep Snake Stingray Fasteners Back closure Belt hook Buckle Button Buttonhole Frog Shank Hook-and-eye Hook-and-loop Velcro Snap Zipper Seams Neckline Bustline Waistline Hemline

Authority control databases International GND National United States Czech Republic Spain Israel Other NARA

---
Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Linen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linen) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linen?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.