# Liberal internationalism

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International relations policy holding that states should advance liberal interests

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**Liberal internationalism** is a [foreign policy](/source/Foreign_policy) doctrine that supports international institutions, open markets, cooperative security, and [liberal democracy](/source/Liberal_democracy).[1][2][3] At its core, it holds that states should participate in [international institutions](/source/Multilateralism) that uphold [rules-based norms](/source/Rules-based_international_liberal_order), promote [liberal democracy](/source/Liberal_democracy), and facilitate cooperation on transnational problems (such as environmental problems, arms control, and public health).[3]

Proponents of liberal internationalism argue that the adoption of this foreign policy orientation by the United States during the 20th century has improved American liberty at home and ensured [American hegemony](/source/American_hegemony) in world politics, as well as facilitated the spread of liberal democracy and markets.[3] Critics of the foreign policy doctrine (such as [realists](/source/Realism_(international_relations)) and proponents of [retrenchment](/source/Retrenchment)) argue that it tends towards military interventionism and contributes to disorder (for example, through [democracy promotion](/source/Democracy_promotion) and trade liberalization).[4][3]

## History

Liberal internationalism emerged during the 19th century, notably under the auspices of British Foreign Secretary and Prime Minister [Lord Palmerston](/source/Henry_John_Temple%2C_3rd_Viscount_Palmerston).

Liberal internationalism was developed in the second decade of the 20th century under U.S. President [Woodrow Wilson](/source/Woodrow_Wilson).

Liberal internationalism emerged during the 19th century. Prominent thinkers included [Lionel Curtis](/source/Lionel_Curtis), [Alfred Zimmern](/source/Alfred_Eckhard_Zimmern) and [Norman Angell](/source/Norman_Angell).[5]

Among policymakers, liberal internationalism influenced British Foreign Secretary and Prime Minister [Lord Palmerston](/source/Henry_John_Temple%2C_3rd_Viscount_Palmerston), and was developed in the second decade of the 20th century under U.S. President [Woodrow Wilson](/source/Woodrow_Wilson). In this form it became known as [Wilsonianism](/source/Wilsonianism).[6] After [World War I](/source/World_War_I), the foreign policy doctrine of liberal internationalism was retained (but it also suffered a "jolt"[7] in the words of John Ikenberry as a result of WW1, namely against the "optimistic narratives"[8] that liberal internationalism espouses) by the intellectual founders of the [League of Nations](/source/League_of_Nations) and augmented somewhat with ideas from [classical radicalism](/source/Classical_radicalism) and the political party platform of the [International Entente of Radical and Similar Democratic Parties](/source/International_Entente_of_Radical_and_Similar_Democratic_Parties). [Daniel Deudney](/source/Daniel_Deudney) and [John Ikenberry](/source/John_Ikenberry) have also associated liberal internationalism with foreign policy ideas promoted by [Franklin D. Roosevelt](/source/Franklin_D._Roosevelt).[9][10] Paul K. MacDonald has linked diplomatic practices developed at the 1899 and 1907 Hague conferences as being key repertoires of subsequent liberal internationalism.[11]

## Theory

The goal of liberal internationalism is to achieve global structures within the international system that are inclined towards promoting a liberal world order (also referred to as "liberal international order"[12]). It foresees a gradual transformation of world politics from anarchy to common institutions and the rule of law. To that extent, global free trade, liberal economics and liberal political systems are all encouraged. In addition, liberal internationalists are dedicated towards encouraging democracy to emerge globally. Once realized, it will result in a "peace dividend", as liberal states have relations that are characterized by non-violence, and that relations between democracies are characterized by the [democratic peace theory](/source/Democratic_peace_theory).

Liberal internationalism states that, through [multilateral](/source/Multilateralism) organizations such as the [United Nations](/source/United_Nations), it is possible to avoid the worst excesses of "[power politics](/source/Power_politics)" in relations between nations. In addition, liberal internationalists believe that the best way to spread democracy is to treat all states equally and cooperatively, whether they are initially democratic or not.

According to Abrahamsen, liberal internationalism provides more opportunities to [middle powers](/source/Middle_power) to advance their economic, security, and political interests.[13]

## Examples

Examples of liberal internationalists include former British Prime Minister [Tony Blair](/source/Tony_Blair),[14] U.S. President [Barack Obama](/source/Barack_Obama),[15], British historian [Timothy Garton Ash](/source/Timothy_Garton_Ash), and then Secretary of State [Hillary Clinton](/source/Hillary_Clinton), and former Secretary of State [Antony Blinken](/source/Antony_Blinken).[16][17] In the US, it is often associated with the American [Democratic Party](/source/Democratic_Party_(United_States)).[18] Some liberal-leaning [neoconservatives](/source/Neoconservatism) shifted towards liberal internationalism in the 2010s.[16]

Commonly cited examples of liberal interventionism include [NATO](/source/NATO)'s [intervention in Bosnia and Herzegovina](/source/NATO_intervention_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina); the 1999 [NATO bombing of Yugoslavia](/source/NATO_bombing_of_Yugoslavia); the 1999 [UN intervention in East Timor](/source/International_Force_East_Timor); [British military intervention in the Sierra Leone Civil War](/source/British_military_intervention_in_the_Sierra_Leone_Civil_War); and the [2011 military intervention in Libya](/source/2011_military_intervention_in_Libya). According to historian [Timothy Garton Ash](/source/Timothy_Garton_Ash), these are distinct because of liberal motivations and limited objectives, from other larger scale military interventions.[19]

Multilateral institutions, such as [UNDP](/source/United_Nations_Development_Programme), [UNICEF](/source/UNICEF), [WHO](/source/World_Health_Organization), [IAEA](/source/IAEA), and the [UN General Assembly](/source/United_Nations_General_Assembly), have also been considered prominent examples of liberal internationalism.[20]

To cite a country-specific example, according to [John Ikenberry](/source/John_Ikenberry) and Yolchi Funabashi, one of the key pillars of liberal internationalism in practice is the democratic constitution and trade-based prosperity of Japan, which makes Japan a major stabilizer of liberal international order in the [APAC](/source/Asia-Pacific) region.[21]

## See also

- [Atlanticism](/source/Atlanticism)

- [City upon a Hill](/source/City_upon_a_Hill)

- [Cold War liberal](/source/Cold_War_liberal)

- [Cosmopolitan democracy](/source/Cosmopolitan_democracy)

- [Empire of Liberty](/source/Empire_of_Liberty)

- [Humanitarian intervention](/source/Humanitarian_intervention)

- [Idealism (international relations)](/source/Idealism_(international_relations))

- [Internationalism (politics)](/source/Internationalism_(politics))

- [Liberal hawk](/source/Liberal_hawk)

- [Liberal Imperialists](/source/Liberal_Imperialists)

- [Liberal international order](/source/Liberal_international_order)

- [Liberal institutionalism](/source/Institutional_liberalism)

- [Nation-building](/source/Nation-building)

- [Neoliberalism](/source/Neoliberalism)

- [Neoconservatism](/source/Neoconservatism)

- [Perpetual peace](/source/Perpetual_peace)

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** Ikenberry, G. John (2009). ["Liberal Internationalism 3.0: America and the Dilemmas of Liberal World Order"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/40407217). *Perspectives on Politics*. **7** (1): 71–87. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/S1537592709090112](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1537592709090112). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1537-5927](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1537-5927). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [40407217](https://www.jstor.org/stable/40407217). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [146430829](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146430829).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** Jahn, Beate (2018). ["Liberal internationalism: historical trajectory and current prospects"](https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/images/ia/INTA94_1_4_231_Jahn.pdf) (PDF). *International Affairs*. **94** (1): 43–61. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/ia/iix231](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fia%2Fiix231). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0020-5850](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-5850).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:1_3-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:1_3-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-:1_3-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-:1_3-3) Deudney, Daniel; Ikenberry, G. John (2021). ["Misplaced Restraint: The Quincy Coalition Versus Liberal Internationalism"](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00396338.2021.1956187). *Survival*. **63** (4): 7–32. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/00396338.2021.1956187](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00396338.2021.1956187). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0039-6338](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0039-6338). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [236504260](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:236504260).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** Desch, Michael C. (2007). ["America's Liberal Illiberalism: The Ideological Origins of Overreaction in U.S. Foreign Policy"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/30130517). *International Security*. **32** (3): 7–43. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1162/isec.2008.32.3.7](https://doi.org/10.1162%2Fisec.2008.32.3.7). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0162-2889](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0162-2889). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [30130517](https://www.jstor.org/stable/30130517). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [57572097](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:57572097).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** Persaud, Randolph B. (2022). ["Ideology, socialization and hegemony in Disciplinary International Relations"](https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiab200). *International Affairs*. **98** (1): 105–123. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/ia/iiab200](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fia%2Fiiab200). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0020-5850](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-5850).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** Stanley Hoffmann, "The Crisis of Liberal Internationalism", *Foreign Policy*, No. 98 (Spring 1995), pp. 159–177.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** Ikenberry, G. John (1 January 2018). ["The end of liberal international order?"](http://academic.oup.com/ia/article/94/1/7/4762691). *International Affairs*. **94** (1): 7–23. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/ia/iix241](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fia%2Fiix241). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0020-5850](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-5850).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** Ikenberry, G. John (1 January 2018). ["The end of liberal international order?"](http://academic.oup.com/ia/article/94/1/7/4762691). *International Affairs*. **94** (1): 7–23. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/ia/iix241](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fia%2Fiix241). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0020-5850](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-5850).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** Deudney, Daniel; Ikenberry, G. John (2 July 2021). ["The Intellectual Foundations of the Biden Revolution"](https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/07/02/biden-revolution-roosevelt-tradition-us-foreign-policy-school-international-relations-interdependence/). *Foreign Policy*. Retrieved 4 August 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** Drezner, Daniel (2021). ["Perspective | Roosevelt redux?"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2021/07/12/roosevelt-redux/). *Washington Post*. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0190-8286](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286). Retrieved 4 August 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** MacDonald, Paul K. (2021). [""Parliament of Man, Federation of the World": Repertoires of Statecraft, the Hague Conferences, and the Making of the Liberal Order"](https://doi.org/10.1080/09592296.2021.1996709). *Diplomacy & Statecraft*. **32** (4): 648–673. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/09592296.2021.1996709](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09592296.2021.1996709). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0959-2296](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0959-2296). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [246210893](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:246210893).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** Ikenberry, G. John (1 January 2018). ["The end of liberal international order?"](http://academic.oup.com/ia/article/94/1/7/4762691). *International Affairs*. **94** (1): 7–23. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/ia/iix241](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fia%2Fiix241). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0020-5850](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-5850).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** Abrahamsen, Rita; Andersen, Louise Riis; Sending, Ole Jacob (2019). ["Introduction: Making liberal internationalism great again?"](https://doi.org/10.1177/0020702019827050). *International Journal*. **74** (1): 5–14. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/0020702019827050](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0020702019827050). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[11250/2837725](https://hdl.handle.net/11250%2F2837725). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0020-7020](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-7020). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [151226407](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151226407).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** Ash, Timothy Garton (8 January 2010). ["Timothy Garton Ash: After 10 years Blair knows exactly what he stands for | Comment is free"](https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2007/apr/26/comment.labour). *The Guardian*. London. Retrieved 19 September 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** Suri, Jeremi (31 December 2018), Zelizer, Julian (ed.), ["Liberal Internationalism, Law, and the First African American President"](https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.23943/9781400889556-015/html), *The Presidency of Barack Obama*, Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 195–211, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.23943/9781400889556-015](https://doi.org/10.23943%2F9781400889556-015), [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4008-8955-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-8955-6), [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [158666358](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158666358), retrieved 20 August 2021{{[citation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Citation)}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_work_parameter_with_ISBN))

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:0_16-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:0_16-1) Lynch, Conor (15 July 2019). ["The Democratic foreign policy reckoning"](https://theweek.com/articles/852094/democratic-foreign-policy-reckoning). *The Week*. Retrieved 20 August 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** Heinmaa (29 August 2022). ["Can Antony Blinken Update Liberal Foreign Policy for a World Gone Mad?"](https://summitfordemocracyresources.eu/can-antony-blinken-update-liberal-foreign-policy-for-a-world-gone-mad/). *News and Resources Portal for the Summit of Democracy*. Retrieved 4 April 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** ["Debating Liberal Internationalism"](http://prospect.org/article/debating-liberal-internationalism). *The American Prospect*. 15 May 2008. Retrieved 30 May 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** Ash, Timothy Garton (3 March 2011). ["Libya's escalating drama reopens the case for liberal intervention"](https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/mar/03/libya-escalating-drama-case-liberal-intervention). *The Guardian*. London. Retrieved 14 June 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** Abrahamsen, Rita; Andersen, Louise Riis; Sending, Ole Jacob (2019). ["Introduction: Making liberal internationalism great again?"](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0020702019827050). *International Journal: Canada's Journal of Global Policy Analysis*. **74** (1): 5–14. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/0020702019827050](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0020702019827050). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[11250/2837725](https://hdl.handle.net/11250%2F2837725). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0020-7020](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-7020).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** Ikenberry, John; Funabashi, Yolchi (1 April 2019). ["The Crisis of Liberal Internationalism"](https://www.brookings.edu/book/the-crisis-of-liberal-internationalism/). *Brookings*. Retrieved 13 December 2021.

## Further reading

- [Robert Kagan](/source/Robert_Kagan) (2018). *The Jungle Grows Back: America and Our Imperiled World*. Knopf. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0525521655](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0525521655).

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