# Laozi

> Mediated Wiki article. Canonical URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Laozi
> Markdown URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Laozi.md
> Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laozi
> Source revision: 1356453036
> License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/)

Semi-legendary Chinese philosopher, founder of Taoism

For the book also known as Laozi, see [Dao De Jing](/source/Dao_De_Jing). For 'Lao Tzu' by Mark di Suvero, see [Lao Tzu (sculpture)](/source/Lao_Tzu_(sculpture)).

Laozi 老子 Ming era portrait by Zhang Lu Born trad. 6th century BC, sometimes dated 4th century BC Quren Village, Chu (present-day Luyi, Henan) Died trad. 5th century BC Philosophical work Era Ancient philosophy Region Chinese philosophy School Taoism Notable works Dao De Jing Notable ideas Tao Wu wei

Laozi "Laozi" in Chinese seal script (top)and regular script (bottom) Honorific Chinese 老子 Hanyu Pinyin Lǎozǐ Literal meaning "Old Master" Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Lǎozǐ Bopomofo ㄌㄠˇ ㄗˇ Wade–Giles Lao3-tzŭ3 Tongyong Pinyin Lǎo-zǐh Yale Romanization Lǎudž IPA [làʊ.tsɹ̩̀] Wu Suzhounese Lao6-tsy3 Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Lóuhjí Jyutping Lou5-zi2 IPA [lɔw˩˧ tsi˧˥] Southern Min Hokkien POJ Ló-chú Tâi-lô Ló-tsú Old Chinese Baxter–Sagart (2014) C.rˤuʔ tsəʔ[1] Personal name Chinese 李耳 Hanyu Pinyin Lǐ Ěr Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Lǐ Ěr Wade–Giles Li3 Erh3 Tongyong Pinyin Lǐ Ěr IPA [lì àɚ] Old Chinese Baxter–Sagart (2014) C.rəʔ C.nəʔ[1] Courtesy name Traditional Chinese 李伯陽 Simplified Chinese 李伯阳 Hanyu Pinyin Lǐ Bóyáng Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Lǐ Bóyáng Bopomofo ㄌㄧˇ ㄅㄛˊ ㄧㄤˊ Wade–Giles Li3 Po2-yang2 Tongyong Pinyin Lǐ Bó-yáng IPA [lì pwǒ.jǎŋ] Old Chinese Baxter–Sagart (2014) C.rəʔ pˤrak laŋ Posthumous name Chinese 李聃 老聃 Hanyu Pinyin Lǐ Dān Lǎo Dān Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Lǐ Dān Lǎo Dān Bopomofo ㄌㄧˇ ㄉㄢ ㄌㄠˇ ㄉㄢ Wade–Giles Li3 Tan1 Lao3 Tan1 Tongyong Pinyin Lǐ Dan Lǎo Dan IPA [lì tán] [làʊ tán] Theonym Chinese 老君 Hanyu Pinyin Lǎojūn Literal meaning the Old Lord Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Lǎojūn Bopomofo ㄌㄠˇ ㄐㄩㄣ Wade–Giles Lao3-chün1 Tongyong Pinyin Lǎo-jyun IPA [làʊ.tɕýn] Japanese name Kanji 老子 Hiragana ろうし Katakana ロウシ Transcriptions Revised Hepburn Rōshi Kunrei-shiki Rousi

**Laozi** ([/ˌlaʊ.ˈtsʌ/](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English); [Chinese](/source/Chinese_language): 老子; [pinyin](/source/Pinyin): *Lǎozǐ*), also romanized as **Lao Tzu**, was a legendary [Chinese philosopher](/source/Chinese_philosophy) and sage traditionally credited with writing the *[Tao Te Ching](/source/Tao_Te_Ching)* ([Pinyin](/source/Pinyin): *Dào Dé Jīng*), one of the foundational texts of [Taoism](/source/Taoism). Traditional accounts identify him as **Li Er**, born in the 6th century BC in the [state of Chu](/source/State_of_Chu) during China's [Spring and Autumn period](/source/Spring_and_Autumn_period) (c. 770 – c. 481 BC). He is said to have served as the royal [archivist](/source/Archivist) for the [Zhou](/source/Zhou_dynasty) court, to have met [Confucius](/source/Confucius) (c. 551 – c. 479 BC), and to have composed the *Dào Dé Jīng* before withdrawing into the western wilderness. Modern scholarship, however, has questioned both Laozi’s historicity and the traditional attribution of the *Dào Dé Jīng* to a single author.

Part of a series on Taoism Outline History Concepts Taoist philosophy Tao De Wuji Taiji Yin and yang Bagua Wuxing (five phases) Bianhua Fan (reversal) Wu wei (non-action) Wu xin (no-mind) Ziran Xian (immortal) Zhenren True form Three Treasures Jing Qi Shen Hun and po Practices Three Treasures (virtues) Five Precepts Ten Precepts Meditation Alchemy Neidan Waidan Bugang Chu Diet (Bigu) Sexual practices Art Fulu Priesthood Texts I Ching Tao Te Ching Zhuangzi Huainanzi Taipingjing Xiang'er Liezi Sanhuangjing Huahujing Qingjing Jing Baopuzi Daozang Theology Three Pure Ones Yuanshi Tianzun Lingbao Tianzun Daode Tianzun Four heavenly ministers Jade Emperor Ziwei Emperor Tianhuang Emperor Houtu Queen Mother of the West King Father of the East Three Great Emperor-Officials Eight Immortals Chang'e Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors Yellow Emperor Guan Yu Li Hong Body god People Laozi Zhuang Zhou Lie Yukou Heshang Gong Wei Boyang Zhang Daoling Gan Ji Zhang Jue Zhang Lu Ge Xuan He Yan Wang Bi Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove Guo Xiang Sun Hanhua Wei Huacun Ge Hong Bao Jingyan Kou Qianzhi Lu Xiujing Tao Hongjing Cheng Xuanying Chen Tuan Zhang Boduan Sun Bu'er Wang Chongyang Qiu Chuji Zhang Guoxiang Zhang Sanfeng Zhu Quan Fangshi Schools Huang–Lao Way of the Taiping Xuanxue Shangqing School Way of the Li Family Lingbao School Chongxuan School Quanzhen School Dragon Gate Wuliupai Way of the Celestial Masters Way of the Five Pecks of Rice The Southern Celestial Masters The Northern Celestial Masters Zhengyi Dao Chinese ritual mastery traditions Yao Taoism Sacred places Grotto-heavens Sacred Mountains of China Wudang Mountains Mount Penglai Mount Kunlun Taoist temple White Cloud Temple Louguantai Cebu Taoist Temple Taoist Temple (Hanford, California) Institutions and organizations Chinese Taoist Association Celestial Masters Taoist priests Category v t e

Laozi seated before a cauldron; the inscription in the top-right corner reads "Impression of [Taishang Laojun](/source/Taishang_Laojun)".

A central figure in [Chinese culture](/source/Chinese_culture), Laozi is traditionally considered the founder of Taoism. In religious Taoism, he is venerated as [Taishang Laojun](/source/Taishang_Laojun), one of the [Three Pure Ones](/source/Three_Pure_Ones) of the Taoist pantheon. In philosophical Taoism, the work attributed to Laozi influenced [Zhuangzi](/source/Zhuangzi), another figure of Taoism. He was also claimed as an ancestor by the [Li](/source/Li_(surname_%E6%9D%8E)) clans, including the ruling Li family of the [Tang dynasty](/source/Tang_dynasty).[2]

Advocating harmony with nature and [wu wei](/source/Wu_wei), the *Dào Dé Jīng* is an influential work of Chinese philosophy, though the identity of its author remains uncertain. Modern textual and historical scholarship commonly dates the received text to the [Warring States period](/source/Warring_States_period) (c. 475 – 221 BC) and regards it as a composite work rather than the product of a single historical author.[3]

## Name

**Lǎozǐ** is the [pinyin](/source/Pinyin) [romanization](/source/Romanization_of_Chinese) of 老子, a name also romanized as **Lao Tzu,** **Lao-tse**, or **Laou-tsze**, with various pronunciations in English. It is not a personal name, but rather an [honorific title](/source/Chinese_honorifics) or [epithet](/source/Epithet), meaning 'old teacher' or 'venerable master'. Its structure, with *zǐ* in the second syllable, matches that of other ancient Chinese philosophers, such as [Kongzi](/source/Kongzi) (Confucius), [Mengzi](/source/Mencius), and [Zhuangzi](/source/Zhuang_Zhou).[4]

Traditional accounts give Laozi the personal name **Li Er** (李耳, *Lǐ Ěr*), whose [Old Chinese](/source/Old_Chinese) pronunciation [has been reconstructed](/source/Reconstruction_of_Old_Chinese) as [**C.rəʔ C.nəʔ*.](/source/Reconstructions_of_Old_Chinese#Yakhontov_(1959–1965))[1] [Li](/source/Li_(surname_%E6%9D%8E)) is a common [Chinese surname](/source/Chinese_surname) which also has the meaning 'plum' or 'plum tree' when used as a common noun; there is a legend tying Laozi's birth to a plum tree.[5] Laozi has long been identified with the persona **Lao Dan** (老聃, *Lǎo Dān*).[6][7][8] *Dan* similarly means "Long-Ear" or "the Long-Eared One". The character 耳 is the Chinese word for 'ear'.[9]

Laozi is recorded bearing the [courtesy name](/source/Courtesy_name) **Boyang** (伯陽, *Bóyáng*), whose Old Chinese pronunciation has been reconstructed as **pˤrak laŋ*.[1] The character 伯 was the title of the eldest son born to the primary wife, or an uncle of the father's family who was older than one's father, also used as a [noble title](/source/Zhou_dynasty_nobility) indicating an aristocratic lineage head with rulership over a small to medium domain, and as a general mark of respect. The character 陽 is [yang](/source/Yang_(concept)), the solar and masculine life force in Taoist belief. Lao Dan seems to have been used more generally, however, including by [Sima Qian](/source/Sima_Qian) in his *[Shiji](/source/Shiji)* (c. 91 BC),[10] in the *[Zhuangzi](/source/Zhuangzi_(book))*,[10] and by some modern scholars.[11]

## Identity

By the mid-twentieth century, consensus had emerged among Western scholars that the [historicity](/source/Historicity) of a person known as Laozi is doubtful and that the *Dào Dé Jīng* is "a compilation of Taoist sayings by many hands",[12][13] with an author being invented afterwards.[14] While multiple authorship over time is typical for early Chinese texts,[15] the book's conspicuous absence of a central Master figure places it in marked contrast with nearly all other early Chinese philosophical works.[16]

As of 2024[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laozi&action=edit), the oldest manuscript containing text from the *Dào Dé Jīng* dates to the late 4th century BC, written on [bamboo slips](/source/Bamboo_slips) excavated as part of the [Guodian Chu Slips](/source/Guodian_Chu_Slips). These passages correspond with roughly one third of the received text,[17] and some are placed in the same order. These are mixed in with passages not carried by the transmitted *Dào Dé Jīng*, indicating that its makeup was still undergoing revisions and modifications.[18] The oldest manuscripts of the *Dào Dé Jīng* in a complete form by itself were discovered at a tomb in [Mawangdui](/source/Mawangdui), and date to the early 2nd century BC.[19] Analysis of early commentary on passages that appear in the received *Dào Dé Jīng* supports an accretionary evolution for the text rather than a singular authorship event.[20]

### Traditional accounts

The earliest biographical reference to Laozi is found in the 1st‑century BC *[Records of the Grand Historian](/source/Records_of_the_Grand_Historian)* by [Sima Qian](/source/Sima_Qian). Multiple accounts of Laozi's biography are presented, with Sima Qian expressing various levels of doubt in his sources.[21]

In one account, Sima Qian reports that Laozi was said to be a contemporary of Confucius during the 6th or 5th century BC. His personal name was Er or Dan. He was born in the village of Quren (曲仁里, *Qūrén lǐ*) in the southern [state of Chu](/source/State_of_Chu),[22] within present-day [Luyi](/source/Luyi) in [Henan](/source/Henan).[23] He was said to be the son of the Censor-in-Chief of the [Zhou dynasty](/source/Zhou_dynasty) and Lady Yishou (益壽氏), and was a scholar who worked as the Keeper of the Archives for the royal Zhou court. This reportedly allowed him broad access to the works of the [Yellow Emperor](/source/Yellow_Emperor) and other classics of the time, and he wrote a book in two parts before departing to the west.

In another, Laozi was a different contemporary of Confucius called [Lao Laizi](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lao_Laizi&action=edit&redlink=1) [[zh](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%80%81%E8%8E%B1%E5%AD%90)] (老莱子), one of [the Twenty-four Filial Exemplars](/source/The_Twenty-four_Filial_Exemplars), and wrote a book in 15 parts. The story tells of Zong the Warrior who defeats an enemy and triumphs, and then abandons the corpses of the enemy soldiers to be eaten by vultures. By coincidence Laozi, traveling and teaching the way of the Tao, comes on the scene and is revealed to be the father of Zong, from whom he was separated in childhood. Laozi tells his son that it is better to treat respectfully a beaten enemy, and that the disrespect to their dead would cause his foes to seek revenge. Convinced, Zong orders his soldiers to bury the enemy dead. Funeral mourning is held for the dead of both parties and a lasting peace is made.

In a third, he was the court astrologer Lao Dan who lived during the 4th century BC reign of the [Duke Xian of Qin](/source/Duke_Xian_of_Qin_(424%E2%80%93362_BC))[24][25] who grew weary of the moral decay of life in [Chengzhou](/source/Chengzhou) and noted the kingdom's decline. He ventured west to live as a hermit in the unsettled frontier at the age of 80. At the western gate of the city (or kingdom), he was recognized by the guard [Yinxi](/source/Yinxi). The sentry asked the old master to record his wisdom for the good of the country before he would be permitted to pass. The text Laozi wrote was said to be the *Dào Dé Jīng*, although the present version of the text includes additions from later periods. In some versions of the tale, the sentry was so touched by the work that he became a disciple and left with Laozi, never to be seen again.[26] In some later interpretations, the "Old Master" journeyed all the way to India and was the teacher of Siddartha Gautama, [the Buddha](/source/The_Buddha). Others say he was the Buddha himself.[27][28]

The stories assert that Laozi never opened a formal school but nonetheless attracted a large number of students and loyal disciples. There are many variations of a story retelling his encounter with Confucius, most famously in the *Zhuangzi*.[27][29] [A.C. Graham](/source/A._C._Graham) suggested that the Confucian version of the story presented in the *[Book of Rites](/source/Book_of_Rites)* was the original, which was borrowed and re-interpreted by the followers of [Zhuang Zhou](/source/Zhuang_Zhou).[30] His birthday is popularly held to be the 15th day of the second month of the [Chinese calendar](/source/Chinese_calendar).[31] In accounts where Laozi married, he was said to have had a son who became a celebrated soldier of [Wei](/source/Wei_(state)) during the [Warring States period](/source/Warring_States_period).

		- *Confucius meets Laozi*, Shi Gang (史杠), [Yuan dynasty](/source/Yuan_dynasty)

		- Depiction of Laozi in [E. T. C. Werner](/source/E._T._C._Werner)'s *Myths and Legends of China*

## *Dào Dé Jīng*

Main article: [Tao Te Ching](/source/Tao_Te_Ching)

See also: [Tao](/source/Tao) and [Wu wei](/source/Wu_wei)

Carving of Laozi at Ping Sien Si Temple in [Perak](/source/Perak), Malaysia

The *Dào Dé Jīng* (or "Tao Te Ching", according to an older romanization) is one of the most significant treatises in Chinese [cosmogony](/source/Cosmogony). It is often called the *Laozi*, and has always been associated with that name. The identity of the person or people who wrote or compiled the text has been the source of considerable speculation and debate throughout history.[32][33] As with many works of ancient [Chinese philosophy](/source/Chinese_philosophy), ideas are often explained by way of paradox, analogy, appropriation of ancient sayings, repetition, symmetry, rhyme, and rhythm. The *Dào Dé Jīng* stands as an exemplar of this literary form.[34] Unlike most works of its genre, the book conspicuously lacks a central "master" character and seldom references historical people or events, giving it an air of timelessness.[35]

The *Dào Dé Jīng* describes the Tao as the source and ideal of all existence: it is unseen, but not transcendent, immensely powerful yet supremely humble, being the root of all things. People have desires and free will (and thus are able to alter their own nature). Many act "unnaturally", upsetting the natural balance of the Tao. The *Dào Dé Jīng* intends to lead students to a "return" to their natural state, in harmony with Tao.[36] Language and conventional wisdom are critically assessed. Taoism views them as inherently biased and artificial, widely using paradoxes to sharpen the point.[37]

*[Wu wei](/source/Wu_wei)*, literally 'non-action' or 'not acting', is a central concept of the *Dào Dé Jīng*. The concept of *wu wei* is multifaceted, and reflected in the words' multiple meanings, even in English translation; it can mean "not doing anything", "not forcing", "not acting" in the theatrical sense, "creating nothingness", "acting spontaneously", and "flowing with the moment".[38]

This concept is used to explain *[ziran](/source/Ziran)*, or harmony with the Tao. It includes the concepts that value distinctions are ideological and seeing ambition of all sorts as originating from the same source. *Dào Dé Jīng* used the term broadly with simplicity and humility as key virtues, often in contrast to selfish action. On a political level, it means avoiding such circumstances as war, harsh laws and heavy taxes. Some Taoists see a connection between *wu wei* and [esoteric](/source/Eastern_esotericism) practices, such as *[zuowang](/source/Zuowang)* ('sitting in oblivion': emptying the mind of bodily awareness and thought) found in the *[Zhuangzi](/source/Zhuangzi_(book))*.[37]

Alan Chan provides an example of how Laozi encouraged a change in approach, or return to "nature", rather than action. Technology may bring about a false sense of progress. The answer provided by Laozi is not the rejection of technology, but instead seeking the calm state of *wu wei*, free from desires. This relates to many statements by Laozi encouraging rulers to keep their people in "ignorance", or "simple-minded". Some scholars insist this explanation ignores the religious context, and others question it as an [apologetic](/source/Apologetic) of the philosophical coherence of the text. It would not be unusual political advice if Laozi literally intended to tell rulers to keep their people ignorant. However, some terms in the text, such as "valley spirit" (谷神, *gǔshén*) and 'soul' (魄, *pò*), bear a metaphysical context and cannot be easily reconciled with a purely ethical reading of the work.[37]

		- A [Western Han](/source/Western_Han) [fresco](/source/Fresco) depicting [Confucius](/source/Confucius) and Laozi, from a tomb of [Dongping County](/source/Dongping_County), Shandong, China

		- A stone sculpture of Laozi, located north of [Quanzhou](/source/Quanzhou) at the foot of [Mount Qingyuan](/source/Mount_Qingyuan)

## Influence

Part of a series on Eastern philosophy China Confucianism Classical Confucius Mencius Xun Zi Dong Zhongshu Zheng Xuan Wang Yun Neo-Confucianism Han Yu Zhou Dunyi Zhang Zai Cheng Hao Cheng Yi Shao Yong Zhu Xi Lu Jiuyuan Wang Shouren Liu Zongzhou Li Zhi Wang Fuzhi Huang Zongxi Gu Yanwu Dai Zhen New Confucianism Kang Youwei Tan Sitong Liang Shuming Xiong Shili Feng Youlan Mou Zongsan Du Weiming Buddhism Han Buddhism Tientai Zhiyi Huayan school Fazang Guifeng Zongmi East Asian Mādhyamaka Jizang Kumārajīva Yogācāra Xuanzang Chinese Chan Bodhidharma Huineng Chinese Esoteric Buddhism Tibetan Buddhism Sakya Sakya Pandita Nyingma Longchenpa Gelug Tsongkhapa Four Tenets system Rangtong-Shentong Svatantrika-Prasaṅgika distinction Daoism Classical Laozi Zhuangzi Lie Yukou Neo-Daoism Wang Bi Ruan Ji Guo Xiang Ge Hong Cheng Xuanying Hundred Schools of Thought Legalism Guan Zhong Han Feizi Shang Yang Li Si Mohism Mozi Military and Strategy Sun Tzu Wu Qi Modern Hong Xiuquan Hong Rengan Yan Fu Zhang Taiyan Sun Yat-sen Lu Xun Dai Jitao Li Dazhao Chen Duxiu Ai Siqi Mao Zedong Liu Shaoqi Zhang Chunqiao Teng Wensheng Wang Huning Yi Junqing Zhao Tingyang Wang Hui Qin Hui Li Zehou India Āstika (orthodox) Vedic philosophy Agastya Aruni Ashtavakra Atri Vashistha Yajnavalkya Mimamsa Jaimini Vedanta Advaita Badarayana Gaudapada Adi Shankara Dvaita Madhvacharya Svābhāvika Bhedābheda Nimbarka Srinivasacharya Sri Vaishnavism Ramanuja Neo-Vedanta Vivekananda Aurobindo Samkhya Kapila Yoga Patanjali Nyaya Gotama Navya-Nyāya Gangesha Upadhyaya Vaisheshika Kanada Nāstika (heterodox) Ājīvika Charvaka Kashmir Shaivism Abhinavagupta Pratyabhijna Tantra Tamil Valluvam Valluvar Other Chanakya General topics Ahimsa Atomism Atman Ātman (Hinduism) Ātman (Buddhism) Ātman (Jainism) Artha Anekantavada Brahman Dharma Indian logic Karma Kama Maya Moksha Nondualism Samadhi Pramana Yoga Jainism Haribhadra Umaswati Buddhism The Buddha Traditions Madhyamika Nagarjuna Yogacara Vasubandhu Dharmakirti Indian logic Dignāga Topics Dukkha Anatta Anicca Maitrī Nirvana Pratītyasamutpāda Emptiness Japan Traditions Japanese Buddhism Japanese Zen Sōtō school Dogen Rinzai school Eisai Shingon Kukai Japanese Confucianism Tokugawa Mitsukuni Fujiwara Seika Hayashi Razan Nakae Tōju Itō Jinsai Ogyū Sorai Kokugaku Motoori Norinaga Modern thought Statism Fukuzawa Yukichi Tokutomi Soho Kita Ikki Kyoto School Kitaro Nishida Hajime Tanabe Jun Tosaka Shūzō Kuki Tetsuro Watsuji Kiyoshi Miki Keiji Nishitani Shin'ichi Hisamatsu Masao Abe D. T. Suzuki liberalism and Marxism Masao Maruyama Kojin Karatani Hiroki Azuma Chizuko Ueno Korea Traditions Korean Buddhism Wonhyo Uisang Hwaeom Uicheon Cheontae Jinul Seon Korean Confucianism Persons Chŏng Tojŏn Sŏ Kyŏngdŏk Yi Ŏnjŏk Yi Hwang Yi I Yi Ik Pak Chiwŏn Chŏng Yagyong Kim Chŏnghŭi Choe Han-gi Topics Silhak, Seohak Donghak Choe Je-u Modern thought Persons Jaegwon Kim Topics Minjung theology Juche Philosophy portal v t e

Potential officials throughout Chinese history drew on the authority of non-Confucian sages, especially Laozi and [Zhuangzi](/source/Zhuang_Zhou), to deny serving any ruler at any time. Zhuangzi, the other founder of Taoism, had a great deal of influence on Chinese [literati](/source/Scholar-bureaucrats) and culture.[39] Political theorists influenced by Laozi have advocated humility in leadership and a restrained approach to statecraft, either for ethical and pacifist reasons, or for tactical ends. In a different context, various [antiauthoritarian movements](/source/Antiauthoritarianism) have embraced Laozi's teachings on the power of the weak.[40]

### Han dynasty

The story of Laozi has taken on strong religious overtones since the [Han dynasty](/source/Han_dynasty). As [Taoism](/source/Taoism) took root, Laozi was worshipped as a god. Belief in the revelation of the Tao from the divine Laozi resulted in the formation of the [Way of the Celestial Masters](/source/Way_of_the_Celestial_Masters), the first organized religious Taoist sect. In later Taoist tradition, Laozi came to be seen as a personification of the Tao. He is said to have undergone numerous "transformations" and taken on guises in various incarnations throughout history to initiate the faithful in the Way. Religious Taoism often holds that the "Old Master" did not disappear after writing the *Dào Dé Jīng* but rather spent his life traveling and revealing the Tao.[41]

[Taoist myths](/source/Chinese_mythology) state that Laozi was a [virgin birth](/source/Miraculous_births), conceived when his mother gazed upon a falling star. He supposedly remained in her womb for 62 years before being born while his mother was leaning against a plum tree. Laozi was said to have emerged as a grown man with a full grey beard and long earlobes, both symbols of wisdom and long life.[42] Other myths state that he was [reborn](/source/Reincarnation) 13 times after his first life during the days of [Fuxi](/source/Fuxi). In his last incarnation as Laozi, he lived 990 years and spent his life traveling to reveal the Tao.[41]

### Tang dynasty

Due to his traditional name *Li Er*, Laozi has been [venerated](/source/Chinese_ancestral_veneration) as the ancestor of all subsequent [Lis](/source/Li_(surname_%E6%9D%8E)), and many clans of the Li family trace their descent to Laozi,[43] including the [emperors](/source/List_of_rulers_of_China) of the [Tang dynasty](/source/Tang_dynasty).[44][43][45] This family was known as the [Longxi Li](/source/Li_clan_of_Longxi) lineage ([隴西李氏](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9A%B4%E8%A5%BF%E6%9D%8E%E6%B0%8F)). According to the Simpkinses, while many (if not all) of these lineages are questionable, they provide a testament to Laozi's impact on Chinese culture.[46] Under the [Tang](/source/Tang_dynasty), Laozi received a series of [temple names](/source/Temple_name) of increasing grandeur. In the year 666, [Emperor Gaozong](/source/Emperor_Gaozong_of_Tang) named Laozi the "Supremely Mysterious and Primordial Emperor" ([太上](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%AA%E4%B8%8A)[玄](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%8E%84)[元](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%83)[皇帝](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D), *Tàishàng Xuán Yuán Huángdì*).[47] In 743, [Emperor Xuanzong](/source/Emperor_Xuanzong_of_Tang) declared him the "[Sage](/source/Sage_(philosophy)) [Ancestor](/source/Chinese_ancestral_veneration)" ([聖祖](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%81%96%E7%A5%96), *Shèngzǔ*) of the dynasty with the posthumous title of "Mysterious and Primordial Emperor" ([玄](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%8E%84)[元](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%83)[皇帝](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D), *Xuán Yuán Huángdì*). Emperor Xuanzong also elevated Laozi's parents to the ranks of "Innately Supreme Emperor" ([先天](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%88%E5%A4%A9)[太上](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%AA%E4%B8%8A)[皇](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%9A%87), *Xiāntiān Tàishàng Huáng*) and "Innate Empress" ([先天](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%88%E5%A4%A9)[太后](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%AA%E5%90%8E), *Xiāntiān Tàihòu*). In 749, Laozi was further honored as the "Sage Ancestor and Mysterious and Primordial Emperor of the Great Way" ([聖祖](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%81%96%E7%A5%96)[大道](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E9%81%93)[玄](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%8E%84)[元](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%83)[皇帝](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D), *Shèngzǔ Dàdào Xuán Yuán Huángdì*) and then, in 754, as the "Great Sage Ancestor and Mysterious and Primordial Heavenly Emperor and Great Sovereign of the Golden Palace of the High and Supreme Great Way" ([大](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7)[聖祖](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%81%96%E7%A5%96)[高](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%AB%98)[上](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8A)[大道](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E9%81%93)[金闕](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%87%91%E9%97%95)[玄](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%8E%84)[元](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%83)[天皇](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E7%9A%87)[大帝](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E5%B8%9D), *Dà Shèngzǔ Gāo Shǎng Dàdào Jīnquē Xuán Yuán Tiānhuáng Dàdì*).

A seventh-century work, the *Sandong Zhunang* (三洞珠囊; "Pearly Bag of the Three Caverns"), presents Laozi as the perfect Taoist master and a character named [Yinxi](/source/Yinxi) as the ideal Taoist student. Yinxi follows a formal sequence of preparation, testing, training and attainment.[48]

### Contemporary

Many contemporary philosophers have seen Laozi as a proponent of limited government.[49] The [right-libertarian](/source/Right-libertarianism) economist [Murray Rothbard](/source/Murray_Rothbard) suggested that Laozi was the first [libertarian](/source/Libertarianism),[50] likening Laozi's ideas on government to [Friedrich Hayek](/source/Friedrich_Hayek)'s theory of [spontaneous order](/source/Spontaneous_order).[51] James A. Dorn agreed, writing that Laozi, like many 18th-century liberals, "argued that minimizing the role of government and letting individuals develop spontaneously would best achieve social and economic harmony."[52] Similarly, the [Cato Institute](/source/Cato_Institute)'s [David Boaz](/source/David_Boaz) includes passages from the *Dào Dé Jīng* in his 1997 book *The Libertarian Reader* and noted in an article for the *Encyclopædia Britannica* that Laozi advocated for rulers to "do nothing" because "without law or compulsion, men would dwell in harmony."[53][54] Philosopher Roderick Long argues that libertarian themes in Taoist thought are actually borrowed from earlier [Confucian](/source/Confucian) writers.[55]

The [anarcho-syndicalist](/source/Anarcho-syndicalism) writer and activist [Rudolf Rocker](/source/Rudolf_Rocker) praised Laozi's "gentle wisdom" and understanding of the opposition between political power and the cultural activities of the people and community in his 1937 book *[Nationalism and Culture](/source/Nationalism_and_Culture)*.[56] In his 1910 article for the *[Encyclopædia Britannica](/source/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica)*, [Peter Kropotkin](/source/Peter_Kropotkin) also noted that Laozi was among the earliest proponents of essentially [anarchist](/source/Anarchism) concepts.[57] More recently, anarchists such as John P. Clark and [Ursula K. Le Guin](/source/Ursula_K._Le_Guin) have written about the conjunction between anarchism and Taoism in various ways, highlighting the teachings of Laozi in particular.[58] In her rendition of the Dào Dé Jīng, Le Guin writes that Laozi "does not see political power as magic. He sees rightful power as earned and wrongful power as usurped... He sees sacrifice of self or others as a corruption of power, and power as available to anyone who follows the Way. No wonder anarchists and Taoists make good friends."[59]

## Notes

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-baxsag_1-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-baxsag_1-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-baxsag_1-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-baxsag_1-3) Baxter, William; Sagart, Laurent (20 September 2014), ["Baxter–Sagart Old Chinese Reconstruction"](https://web.archive.org/web/20220428050156/https://ocbaxtersagart.lsait.lsa.umich.edu/BaxterSagartOCbyMandarinMC2014-09-20.pdf) (PDF), archived from [the original](http://ocbaxtersagart.lsait.lsa.umich.edu/BaxterSagartOCbyMandarinMC2014-09-20.pdf) (PDF) on 28 April 2022, retrieved 1 May 2018

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** Wright, Edmund, ed. (2006), *The Desk Encyclopedia of World History*, New York: [Oxford University Press](/source/Oxford_University_Press), p. 365, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0739478097](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0739478097)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** Goldin, Paul R., *The Art of Chinese Philosophy: Eight Classical Texts and How to Read Them*, Princeton University Press, p. 110, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1515/9780691200811-008](https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9780691200811-008), [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0691200811](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691200811), [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [242423709](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:242423709)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** Lin, Derek (29 December 2016), ["The "Ancient Child" Fallacy"](https://taoism.net/ancient-child/), [*Taoism.net*](https://taoism.net)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** [Ames, Roger T.](/source/Roger_T._Ames); Kaltenmark, Max (2009), ["Laozi"](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Laozi), *Encyclopædia Britannica*

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELuo2004118_6-0)** [Luo (2004)](#CITEREFLuo2004), p. 118.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKramer1986118_7-0)** [Kramer (1986)](#CITEREFKramer1986), p. 118.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChan20002_8-0)** [Chan (2000)](#CITEREFChan2000), p. 2.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** [耳字](https://www.zdic.net/hant/%E8%80%B3), *Zdic* 漢典 (in Chinese)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-LDR_10-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-LDR_10-1) Rainey, Lee Dian (2013), [*Decoding Dao: Reading the*Dao De Jing*(*Dào Dé Jīng*) and the*Zhuangzi*(*Chuang Tzu*)*](https://books.google.com/books?id=YNFiAgAAQBAJ), John Wiley & Sons, p. [31](https://books.google.com/books?id=YNFiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT31), [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1118465677](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1118465677).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** Fu, Charles Wei-hsun (2002), ["Daoism in Chinese Philosophy"](https://books.google.com/books?id=xIwrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA497), in Carr, Brian; Mahalingam, Indira (eds.), *Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy*, Routledge, pp. 497–519, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1134960583](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1134960583)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson19688_12-0)** [Watson (1968)](#CITEREFWatson1968), p. 8.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Kohn4_13-0)** [Chan (2000)](#CITEREFChan2000), p. 4

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis199961_14-0)** [Lewis (1999)](#CITEREFLewis1999), p. 61.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhang201826,_30_15-0)** [Zhang (2018)](#CITEREFZhang2018), pp. 26, 30.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDenecke2011208,_212–213Lewis199991_16-0)** [Denecke 2011](#CITEREFDenecke2011), pp. 208, 212–213; [Lewis 1999](#CITEREFLewis1999), p. 91.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** [Qiu Xigui](/source/Qiu_Xigui) (1999), "Guodian *Laozi* jian chu tan" 郭店老子簡初談 [An initial discussion of the Guodian *Laozi* slips], 道家文化研究, **17**: 26 n. 1 Cited in [Shaughnessy (2005)](#CITEREFShaughnessy2005), p. 451

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaughnessy2005445_18-0)** [Shaughnessy (2005)](#CITEREFShaughnessy2005), p. 445.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-stanford_19-0)** Chan, Alan (2018) [2001], ["Laozi"](http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/laozi/), in Edward N. Zalta; Uri Nodelman; et al. (eds.), *[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy](/source/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy)*, Stanford University Department of Philosophy, The discovery of two *Laozi* silk manuscripts at Mawangdui, near Changsha, Hunan province in 1973 marks an important milestone in modern *Laozi* research. The manuscripts, identified simply as 'A' (*[jia](/source/Sexagenary_cycle)*) and 'B' (*yi*), were found in a tomb that was sealed in 168 B.C.E. The texts themselves can be dated earlier, the 'A' manuscript being the older of the two, copied in all likelihood before 195 B.C.E." [...] "Until about two decades ago, the Mawangdui manuscripts have held the pride of place as the oldest extant manuscripts of the *Laozi*. In late 1993, the excavation of a tomb (identified as M1) in Guodian, Jingmen city, [Hubei](/source/Hubei), has yielded among other things some 800 [bamboo slips](/source/Guodian_Chu_slips), of which 730 are inscribed, containing over 13,000 Chinese characters. Some of these, amounting to about 2,000 characters, match the *Laozi*. The tomb...is dated around 300 B.C.E.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** Queen, Sarah A. (2013), "*Han Feizi* and the Old Master: A Comparative Analysis and Translation of *Han Feizi* Chapter 20, "Jie Lao," and Chapter 21, "Yu Lao"", in Paul R. Goldin (ed.), *Dao Companion to the Philosophy of Han Fei*, Dao Companions to Chinese Philosophy, Springer, pp. 197–256, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-94-007-4318-2_10](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-007-4318-2_10), [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9400743175](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9400743175)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKern2015349–350_21-0)** [Kern (2015)](#CITEREFKern2015), pp. 349–350.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** [Sima Qian](/source/Sima_Qian); [Sima Tan](/source/Sima_Tan) (1959) [90s BCE], "[Vol. 63: 老子韓非列傳](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/s:%E5%8F%B2%E8%A8%98/%E5%8D%B7063#老子)", *Records of the Grand Historian* 史記 (in Chinese), Zhonghua Shuju

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgan2001_23-0)** [Morgan (2001)](#CITEREFMorgan2001).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowler200596_24-0)** [Fowler (2005)](#CITEREFFowler2005), p. 96.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinet199726_25-0)** [Robinet (1997)](#CITEREFRobinet1997), p. 26.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKohnLafargue199814,_17,_54–55_26-0)** [Kohn & Lafargue (1998)](#CITEREFKohnLafargue1998), pp. 14, 17, 54–55.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Simpkins_1999_pp_12-13_27-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Simpkins_1999_pp_12-13_27-1) [Simpkins & Simpkins (1999)](#CITEREFSimpkinsSimpkins1999), pp. 12–13

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgan2001224–225_28-0)** [Morgan (2001)](#CITEREFMorgan2001), pp. 224–225.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgan2001223–224_29-0)** [Morgan (2001)](#CITEREFMorgan2001), pp. 223–224.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** [Graham, Angus C.](/source/A._C._Graham) (2001) [1981], "The dialogues of Confucius and Old Tan", [*Chuang-tzŭ: the Inner Chapters*](https://archive.org/details/chuangtzuinnerch0000zhua) (Reprinted ed.), Indianapolis Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc, pp. 126–129, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0872205826](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0872205826)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Stepanchuk_Mooncakes_and_Hungry_Ghosts_Lao_Tze_31-0)** Stepanchuk, Carol (1991), *Mooncakes and Hungry Ghosts: Festivals of China*, San Francisco: China Books & Periodicals, p. 125, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0835124819](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0835124819)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimpkinsSimpkins199911–13_32-0)** [Simpkins & Simpkins (1999)](#CITEREFSimpkinsSimpkins1999), pp. 11–13.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgan2001223_33-0)** [Morgan (2001)](#CITEREFMorgan2001), p. 223.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-34)** Schaberg, David (2015), "On the Range and Performance of *Laozi*-Style Tetrasyllables", in Joachim Gentz; Dirk Meyer (eds.), *Literary Forms of Argument in Early China*, Sinica Leidensia, vol. 123, Brill, pp. 87–111, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9004299702](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004299702)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDenecke2011208,_213_35-0)** [Denecke (2011)](#CITEREFDenecke2011), pp. 208, 213.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_NordenIvanhoe2005162_36-0)** [Van Norden & Ivanhoe (2005)](#CITEREFVan_NordenIvanhoe2005), p. 162.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Kohn-22_37-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Kohn-22_37-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Kohn-22_37-2) [Chan (2000)](#CITEREFChan2000), p. 22

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWattsHuang197578–86_38-0)** [Watts & Huang (1975)](#CITEREFWattsHuang1975), pp. 78–86.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** Reynolds, Beatrice K. (February 1969), ["Lao Tzu: Persuasion through inaction and non-speaking"](http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01463376909368862), *Today's Speech*, **17** (1): 23–25, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/01463376909368862](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01463376909368862), [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0040-8573](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0040-8573)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoberts20041–2_40-0)** [Roberts (2004)](#CITEREFRoberts2004), pp. 1–2.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Kohn_3-4_41-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Kohn_3-4_41-1) [Chan (2000)](#CITEREFChan2000), pp. 3–4

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimpkinsSimpkins199911–12_42-0)** [Simpkins & Simpkins1999](#CITEREFSimpkinsSimpkins1999), pp. 11–12.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Woolf2007_1_43-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Woolf2007_1_43-1) Woolf, Greg (2007), [*Ancient civilizations: the illustrated guide to belief, mythology, and art*](https://books.google.com/books?id=94NuSg3tlsgC&q=Li+Er+Laozi), Barnes & Noble, pp. 218–219, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1435101210](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1435101210)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-44)** Latourette, Kenneth Scott (1934), [*The Chinese: their history and culture, Volume 1*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ultxAAAAMAAJ) (2 ed.), Macmillan, p. 191, retrieved 8 February 2012, T'ai Tsung's family professed descent from Lao Tzu (for the latter's reputed patronymic was likewise Li)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hargett2006_45-0)** Hargett, James M. (2006), [*Stairway to Heaven: A Journey to the Summit of Mount Emei*](https://books.google.com/books?id=m21KGsV8ihgC&pg=PA54), State University of New York Press, p. 54 ff, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0791466827](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0791466827)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimpkinsSimpkins199912_46-0)** [Simpkins & Simpkins (1999)](#CITEREFSimpkinsSimpkins1999), p. 12.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-47)** Fu Qinjia (傅勤家) (1996), [道教史概論](https://books.google.com/books?id=goTcCDAOHh0C&pg=PA82) [*Outline of the History of Daoism*] (in Chinese), [Taipei](/source/Taipei): Commercial Printing House, p. 82, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9570513240](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9570513240)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKohnLafargue199855–56_48-0)** [Kohn & Lafargue (1998)](#CITEREFKohnLafargue1998), pp. 55–56.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDorn2008282–283_49-0)** [Dorn (2008)](#CITEREFDorn2008), pp. 282–283.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-50)** Rothbard, Murray (2005). Excerpt from "Concepts of the Role of Intellectuals in Social Change Toward Laissez Faire", *The Journal of Libertarian Studies*, Vol. IX, No. 2 (Fall 1990) at [mises.org](https://mises.org/daily/1967)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-51)** [Rothbard, Murray](/source/Murray_Rothbard) (2005). "The Ancient Chinese Libertarian Tradition", *Mises Daily*, (5 December 2005) (original source unknown) at [mises.org](https://mises.org/daily/1967)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDorn2008_52-0)** [Dorn (2008)](#CITEREFDorn2008).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Boaz_53-0)** [Boaz, David](/source/David_Boaz) (30 January 2009), ["Libertarianism"](https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339321/libertarianism), *Encyclopædia Britannica*, [archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150504222253/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339321/libertarianism) from the original on 4 May 2015, retrieved 21 February 2017, An appreciation for spontaneous order can be found in the writings of the ancient Chinese philosopher Lao-tzu (6th century bce), who urged rulers to "do nothing" because "without law or compulsion, men would dwell in harmony."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoaz1997_54-0)** [Boaz (1997)](#CITEREFBoaz1997).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2003_55-0)** [Long (2003)](#CITEREFLong2003).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERocker199782_&_256_56-0)** [Rocker (1997)](#CITEREFRocker1997), pp. 82 & 256.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-57)** ["Britannica: Anarchism"](http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/kropotkin/britanniaanarchy.html), Dwardmac.pitzer.edu, retrieved 14 November 2011

1. **[^](#cite_ref-58)** Clark, John P., ["Master Lao and the Anarchist Prince"](https://web.archive.org/web/20171020015752/https://raforum.info/spip.php?article4488&lang=fr), archived from [the original](http://raforum.info/spip.php?article4488&lang=fr) on 20 October 2017, retrieved 1 November 2011

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Guin200920_59-0)** [Le Guin (2009)](#CITEREFLe_Guin2009), p. 20.

## References

- [Boaz, David](/source/David_Boaz) (1997), *The libertarian reader: classic and contemporary readings from Lao-tzu to Milton Friedman*, New York: Free Press, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0684847672](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0684847672)

- Denecke, Wiebke (2011), *The Dynamics of Masters Literature: Early Chinese Thought from Confucius to Han Feizi*, Harvard–Yenching Institute Monographs, vol. 74, Brill, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1163/9781684170586](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9781684170586), [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1684170586](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1684170586)

- Dorn, James A. (2008), ["Lao Tzu (c. 600 B.C.)"](https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC), in [Hamowy, Ronald](/source/Ronald_Hamowy) (ed.), *The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism*, Thousand Oaks, CA: [Sage](/source/SAGE_Publishing); [Cato Institute](/source/Cato_Institute), [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4135/9781412965811.n169](https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781412965811.n169), [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1412965804](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1412965804), [LCCN](/source/LCCN_(identifier)) [2008009151](https://lccn.loc.gov/2008009151), [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [750831024](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/750831024), retrieved 12 May 2010

- Fowler, Jeaneane (2005), *An Introduction to the Philosophy and Religion of Taoism: Pathways to Immortality*, Brighton: Sussex Academic Press, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1845190859](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1845190859)

- Kern, Martin (2015), "The "Masters" in the *Shiji*", *T'oung Pao*, **101** (4–5), Leiden: Brill: 335–362, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1163/15685322-10145P03](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15685322-10145P03), [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [24754939](https://www.jstor.org/stable/24754939)

- Kohn, Livia, ed. (2000), *Daoism Handbook*, Handbook of Oriental Studies, Section 4: China, vol. 14, Boston: Brill Academic, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1163/9789004391840](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004391840), [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9004112087](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004112087) - Chan, Alan K.L. "The *Daode Jing* and Its Tradition". In [Kohn (2000)](#CITEREFKohn2000), pp. 1–29.

- Kohn, Livia; Lafargue, Michael, eds. (1998), *Lao-Tzu and the Tao-Te-Ching*, Albany: State University of New York Press, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0791435991](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0791435991).

- Kramer, Kenneth (1986), *World scriptures: an introduction to comparative religions*, New York: Paulist Press, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0809127818](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0809127818)

- [Le Guin, Ursula K.](/source/Ursula_K._Le_Guin) (2009), *Lao Tzu: Tao Te Ching: A Book about the Way and the Power of the Way* (2nd ed.), Washington, DC: Shambhala Publications Inc., [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1590307441](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1590307441)

- [Lewis, Mark Edward](/source/Mark_Edward_Lewis) (1999), *Writing and Authority in Early China*, SUNY series in Chinese Philosophy and Culture, Albany: State University of New York Press, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0791441148](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0791441148)

- Long, Roderick T. (Summer 2003), ["Austro-Libertarian Themes in Early Confucianism"](https://mises.org/journal-libertarian-studies/austro-libertarian-themes-early-confucianism), *The Journal of Libertarian Studies*, 3, **17**: 35–62

- Luo Jing (2004), [*Over a cup of tea: an introduction to Chinese life and culture*](https://archive.org/details/overcupoftea00jing), Washington, DC: University Press of America, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0761829379](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0761829379)

- Morgan, Diane (2001), *The Best Guide to Eastern Philosophy and Religion*, New York: St. Martin's Griffin, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1580631976](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1580631976)

- Roberts, Moss (2004), *Dao De Jing: The Book of the Way*, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0520242210](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520242210)

- Robinet, Isabelle (1997), *Taoism: Growth of a Religion*, Stanford: Stanford University Press, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0804728393](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0804728393)

- [Rocker, Rudolf](/source/Rudolf_Rocker) (1997) [1937], [*Nationalism and Culture*](/source/Nationalism_and_Culture), translated by Ray E. Chase, Montreal: Black Rose Books, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1551645001](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1551645001)

- [Shaughnessy, Edward L.](/source/Edward_L._Shaughnessy) (2005), "The Guodian Manuscripts and Their Place in Twentieth-Century Historiography on the *Laozi*", *Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies*, **65** (2), Harvard Yenching Institute: 417–457, [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [25066782](https://www.jstor.org/stable/25066782)

- Simpkins, Annellen M.; Simpkins, C. Alexander (1999), *Simple Taoism: a guide to living in balance* (3rd Printing ed.), Boston: Tuttle Publishing, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0804831734](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0804831734)

- Van Norden, Bryan W.; [Ivanhoe, Philip J.](/source/Philip_J._Ivanhoe) (2006), *Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy* (2nd ed.), Indianapolis, Ind: Hackett Publishing Company, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0872207806](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0872207806)

- [Watson, Burton](/source/Burton_Watson) (1968), *Complete Works of Chuang Tzu*, New York: Columbia Univ. Press ([UNESCO Collection of Representative Works](/source/UNESCO_Collection_of_Representative_Works): Chinese Series), [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0231031479](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0231031479)

- [Watts, Alan](/source/Alan_Watts); Huang, Al Chung-liang (1975), [*Tao: The Watercourse Way*](https://archive.org/details/taowatercoursewa00watt_0), New York, NY: Pantheon Books, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0394733111](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0394733111)

- Zhang, Hanmo (2018), "Text, Author, and the Function of Authorship", *Authorship and Text-Making in Early China*, Library of Sinology, vol. 2, De Gruyter, pp. 10–34, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1515/9781501505133-003](https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9781501505133-003), [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1501505133](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1501505133), [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [j.ctvbkk21j.5](https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvbkk21j.5)

## Further reading

- Kaltenmark, Max (1969), *Lao Tzu and Taoism*, translated by Greaves, Roger, [Stanford](/source/Stanford%2C_California): Stanford University Press, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0804706896](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0804706896).

- Sterckx, Roel (2019), *Ways of Heaven: An Introduction to Chinese Thought*, New York: Basic Books.

- Welch, Holmes Hinkley Jr. (1957), [*Taoism: The Parting of the Way*](https://books.google.com/books?id=giThXv6OvSAC), Beacon Press, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780807059739](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807059739) {{[citation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Citation)}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#invalid_isbn_date))

## External links

**Laozi**  at Wikipedia's [sister projects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects)

- [Definitions](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Laozi) from Wiktionary
- [Media](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Laozi) from Commons
- [Quotations](https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Laozi) from Wikiquote
- [Texts](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Laozi) from Wikisource
- [Textbooks](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Saylor.org%27s_Ancient_Civilizations_of_the_World/Lao-tzu_and_Taoism) from Wikibooks

- [Works by Laozi in eBook form](https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/laozi) at [Standard Ebooks](/source/Standard_Ebooks)

- [Works by Laozi](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/2427) at [Project Gutenberg](/source/Project_Gutenberg)

- [Works by or about Laozi](https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%22Lao-Tze%22+OR+%22Laozi%22+OR+%22Lao-Tzu%22+OR+%22Lao+Zi%22+OR+%22Lao+Zih%22+OR+%22Lao+Tse%22+OR+%22Laotze%22+OR+%22Lao+Tzu%22%29) at the [Internet Archive](/source/Internet_Archive)

- [Works by Laozi](https://librivox.org/author/4205) at [LibriVox](/source/LibriVox) (public domain audiobooks)

- [Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Laozi](http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/laozi/)

- [Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Laozi](http://www.iep.utm.edu/l/laozi.htm)

Links to related articles v t e Chinese philosophy Schools Agriculturalism Buddhism Confucianism Han learning Neo-Confucianism New Confucianism Huang–Lao Legalism Mohism Marxism School of Diplomacy School of Names Naturalism Taoism Daoxue Xuanxue Yangism Mixed School Nine Schools of Thought Hundred Schools of Thought Philosophers Eastern Zhou Bu Shang Chunyu Kun Confucius Deng Xi Duanmu Ci Gaozi Gongsun Long Guan Zhong Han Fei Hui Shi Kong Chuan Laozi Li Kui Li Si Lie Yukou Mencius Mozi Shang Yang Shen Buhai Shen Dao Su Qin Sun Tzu Wu Qi Ximen Bao Xu Xing Xunzi Yang Zhu Yin Wen Yuan Xian Zhang Yi Zhuang Zhou Zichan Zisi Zou Yan Qin Han Ban Zhao Dong Zhongshu Dongfang Shuo Dou Wu Huan Tan Jia Yi Jia Kui Jing Fang Kong Anguo Liu An Lu Jia Liu Xiang Ma Rong Wang Chong Wang Fu Xun Yue Yang Xiong Three Kingdoms Jin Northern and Southern Bao Jingyan Fan Zhen Fan Ye Ge Hong Guo Xiang Fu Xuan He Yan Huiyuan Ji Kang Sengzhao Wang Su Wang Bi Xiahou Xuan Xie Daoyun Xun Can Yan Zhitui Zhi Dun Sui Tang Fu Yi Jizang Wang Tong Zhang Zhihe Han Yu Li Ao Liu Yuxi Liu Zongyuan Linji Yixuan Five Dynasties Ten Kingdoms Song Cheng Hao Cheng Yi Fan Zhongyan Hu Hong Lu Jiuyuan Shao Yong Shen Kuo Su Song Wang Anshi Wang Chongyang Wang Chuyi Ye Shi Zhang Zai Zhou Dunyi Zhu Xi Yuan Ming Chen Jiru Huang Zongxi Hong Zicheng Jiao Hong Jiao Yu Lai Zhide Li Zhi Liu Bowen Liu Zongzhou Luo Rufang Qian Dehong Wang Ji Wang Gen Wang Yangming Wu Cheng Xu Ai Zhan Ruoshui Qing Chen Hongmou Chen Menglei Dai Zhen Fang Bao Fang Lanfen Fang Quan Feng Guifen Gong Zizhen Gu Yanwu Hong Liangji Ji Yun Ma Qixi Lin Zexu Liu Yiming Pan Pingge Tan Sitong Tang Zhen Wang Fuzhi Wei Yuan Yan Yuan Yu Yue Yu Zhengxie Zhang Xuecheng Zhuang Cunyu Zeng Guofan 20th century Cai Yuanpei Carsun Chang P. C. Chang Chen Daqi Chen Duxiu Chung-ying Cheng Ch'ien Mu Chu Anping Fang Keli Feng Youlan Gan Yang Gu Su Gu Zhun He Guanghu Hu Qiaomu Hu Shih Hua Gang Ray Huang Jiang Qing Jin Yuelin Kang Youwei Lee Shui-chuen Li Shicen Li Zehou Liang Qichao Liang Shuming Lin Yutang Liu Xiaofeng Lu Xun Mao Zedong Mou Zongsan Qiu Renzong Sun Yat-sen Tang Chun-i Tang Yijie Tsang Lap Chuen Xiong Shili Xu Fuguan Yang Changji Yin Haiguang Yu Dunkang Zhang Dongsun Zhang Shenfu Zhou Guoping Zhou Zuoren Concepts Tao De Fa Jian'ai Jing Jing zuo Li Confucianism Neo-Confucianism Ming yun Qi Qing Ren Three teachings Shen Si Ti Tian Mandate of Heaven Wu wei Filial piety Xin Human nature Self-cultivation Yi Yin and yang Yong Zhengming Ziran Topics Logic Theology Metaphysics Politics Ethics Role ethics State consequentialism Ink wash Shan shui Society Epistemology Metaphilosophy Legitimacy v t e Taoism Philosophy Metaphysics Tao (way) Taiji (ultimate) Wuji (non-polarity) Yin and yang (duality) Bagua (eight trigrams) Feng shui Wuxing (five phases) Bianhua (transformation) Fan (reversion) Ethics De (integrity) Wu wei (nonaction) Ziran (spontenaity) Pu (plainness) Zhenren Five precepts Ten precepts Practice Neidan (internal alchemy) Waidan (external alchemy) Yangsheng (self-cultivation) Daoyin (calisthenics) Meditation Three Treasures Jing (essence) Qi (breath) Shen (spirit) Diet Xian (immortality) Art Fulu (talismancy) Jiji ru lüling (common spell) Texts Tao Te Ching Zhuangzi Liezi Huainanzi Taipingjing Xiang'er Sanhuangjing Huahujing Qingjing Jing Baopuzi Daozang Deities Hongjun Laozu Three Pure Ones Yuanshi Tianzun Lingbao Tianzun Daode Tianzun Four Sovereigns Jade Emperor Ziwei Emperor Tianhuang Emperor Houtu Three Great Emperor-Officials Queen Mother of the West King Father of the East Eight Immortals Chang'e Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors Yellow Emperor Guan Shengdi Other deities People Laozi Zhuang Zhou Lie Yukou Heshang Gong Wei Boyang Zhang Daoling Gan Ji Zhang Jue Zhang Lu Ge Xuan He Yan Wang Bi Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove Guo Xiang Wei Huacun Ge Hong Bao Jingyan Kou Qianzhi Lu Xiujing Tao Hongjing Cheng Xuanying Chen Tuan Zhang Boduan Sun Bu'er Wang Chongyang Qiu Chuji Zhang Guoxiang Zhang Sanfeng Zhu Quan Fangshi Schools Huang–Lao Taiping Way of the Five Pecks of Rice Way of the Celestial Masters Northern Celestial Masters Zhengyi Xuanxue Shangqing Lingbao Jingming Chongxuan Quanzhen (Dragon Gate) Wuliu Yao Sacred places Grotto-heavens Sacred Mountains of China Wudang Mountains Mount Penglai Mount Kunlun Temples Cebu Hanford Louguantai Tong Jee Teung White Cloud v t e Social philosophy Concepts Advocacy/activism Agency Anomie Convention Cosmopolitanism Customs Cultural heritage Culturalism Inter Mono Multi Culture Counter Emotion regime Familialism History Honour Human nature Identity Formation Ideology Institutions Invisible hand Loyalty Modernity Morality Public Mores National character Natural law Organization Personhood Reification Ressentiment Rights Sittlichkeit Social alienation Social norms Spontaneous order Stewardship Traditions Values Family Worldview Schools Budapest School Catholic social teaching Distributism Communitarianism Confucianism Conservatism Social Frankfurt School Personalism Philosophers Ancient Aristotle Confucius Laozi Mencius Mozi Plato Polybius Socrates Xunzi Medieval Al-Ghazali Al-Farabi Aquinas Augustine Avempace Ibn Khaldun Maimonides Ibn Tufayl Early modern Bruni Calvin Erasmus Guicciardini Locke Luther Machiavelli Milton Montaigne Müntzer 18th and 19th centuries Arnold Bentham Bonald Burke Carlyle Comte Condorcet Emerson Engels Fichte Fourier Franklin Hegel Helvétius Herder Hume Jefferson Kant Kierkegaard Le Bon Le Play Marx Mill Nietzsche Owen Renan Rousseau Royce Ruskin Smith Spencer de Staël Stirner Taine Thoreau Tocqueville Vico Vivekananda Voltaire 20th and 21st centuries Adorno Agamben Arendt Aron Badiou Baudrillard Bauman Benoist Berlin Butler Camus de Beauvoir Debord Deleuze Dewey Du Bois Durkheim Eco Evola Fanon Foucault Fromm Gandhi Gehlen Gentile Gramsci Guénon Habermas Han Heidegger Hoppe Irigaray Kirk Kołakowski Kropotkin Land Lasch Lenin MacIntyre Marcuse Maritain Negri Niebuhr Nussbaum Oakeshott Ortega Pareto Polanyi Radhakrishnan Röpke Santayana Scruton Shariati Simmel Skinner Sombart Sowell Spengler Strauss Taylor Voegelin Walzer Weber Weil Zinn Žižek Works De Officiis (44 BC) Oration on the Dignity of Man (1486) A Vindication of Natural Society (1756) Democracy in America (1835–1840) Civilization and Its Discontents (1930) The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction (1935) The Second Sex (1949) One-Dimensional Man (1964) The Society of the Spectacle (1967) The History of Sexuality (1976) The Culture of Narcissism (1979) A Conflict of Visions (1987) The Closing of the American Mind (1987) Gender Trouble (1990) The Malaise of Modernity (1991) Intellectuals and Society (2010) See also Agnotology Critical theory Cultural criticism Cultural pessimism Ethics Historism Historicism Humanities Philosophy of culture Philosophy of education Philosophy of history Political philosophy Social criticism Social science Social theory Sociology Value theory Category

Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF 2 3 4 5 6 GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Italy Czech Republic Spain Portugal Netherlands Norway 2 Latvia Chile Greece Argentina Korea Sweden Poland Vatican Israel Catalonia Croatia Academics CiNii Artists MusicBrainz KulturNav FID People Trove 2 LibraryThing Deutsche Biographie DDB Other IdRef Open Library SNAC RISM Yale LUX

---
Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Laozi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laozi) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laozi?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.