# Languages constructed by Tolkien

> Mediated Wiki article. Canonical URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Languages_constructed_by_Tolkien
> Markdown URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Languages_constructed_by_Tolkien.md
> Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_constructed_by_Tolkien
> Source revision: 1352233040
> License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/)

Constructed languages

The English [philologist](/source/Philologist) and author [J. R. R. Tolkien](/source/J._R._R._Tolkien) created several [constructed languages](/source/Constructed_language), mostly related to his fictional world of [Middle-earth](/source/Middle-earth). Inventing languages, something that he called *[glossopoeia](/source/Glossopoeia)* (paralleling his idea of *[mythopoeia](/source/Mythopoeia)* or myth-making), was a lifelong occupation for Tolkien, starting in his teens.

Tolkien's glossopoeia has two temporal dimensions: the internal (fictional) timeline of events in [Middle-earth](/source/Middle-earth) described in *[The Silmarillion](/source/The_Silmarillion)* and other writings, and the external timeline of Tolkien's own life during which he often revised and refined his languages and their fictional history. [Tolkien scholars](/source/Tolkien_research) have published a substantial volume of Tolkien's linguistic material in the *[History of Middle-earth](/source/The_History_of_Middle-earth)* books, and the *[Vinyar Tengwar](/source/Vinyar_Tengwar)* and *[Parma Eldalamberon](/source/Parma_Eldalamberon)* journals. Scholars such as [Carl F. Hostetter](/source/Carl_F._Hostetter), [David Salo](/source/David_Salo) and [Elizabeth Solopova](/source/Elizabeth_Solopova) have published grammars and studies of the languages.

He created a large family of [Elvish languages](/source/Elvish_languages_(Middle-earth)), the best-known and most developed being [Quenya](/source/Quenya) and [Sindarin](/source/Sindarin). In addition, he sketched in the [Mannish](/source/Men_in_Middle-earth) languages of [Adûnaic](/source/Ad%C3%BBnaic) and Rohirric; the Dwarvish language of [Khuzdul](/source/Khuzdul); the [Entish](/source/Ent) language; and the [Black Speech](/source/Black_Speech), in the fiction a constructed language enforced on the [Orcs](/source/Orc) by the Dark Lord [Sauron](/source/Sauron). Tolkien supplemented his languages with [several scripts](/source/Tolkien's_scripts).

## Context

### Tolkien's hobby: glossopoeia

Further information: [A Secret Vice](/source/A_Secret_Vice)

Tolkien was a professional [philologist](/source/Philologist) of ancient [Germanic languages](/source/Germanic_languages), specialising in [Old English](/source/Old_English_language). Glossopoeia, the construction of languages, was Tolkien's hobby for most of his life.[1][2]

One of the first constructed languages Tolkien encountered was "Animalic", invented by his cousins Mary and Marjorie Incledon. The language mainly used animal names, for example "Dog nightingale woodpecker forty" translated to "You are an ass". Tolkien's name in Animalic was "Otter". He learned a bit of it, but was not fluent in Animalic. Together with Mary, Tolkien invented Nevbosh,[3] a sound substitution cypher known,[T 1] 'new nonsense', based on English with French and Latin borrowings, which grew to include some elements of actual invented language.[3] Tolkien stated that this was not his first effort in invented languages.[T 2] Shortly thereafter, he developed a true invented language called Naffarin,[T 3] which used Latin and Spanish elements.[3] One of his early projects was the reconstruction of an unrecorded early [Germanic language](/source/Germanic_languages) which might have been spoken by the people of *[Beowulf](/source/Beowulf)* in the [Germanic Heroic Age](/source/Germanic_Heroic_Age).[4]

Tolkien was well aware of [Esperanto](/source/Esperanto), from c. 1907-1911, when he used it in one of his notebooks.[3] In 1931, he gave a lecture about his passion for constructed languages, titled *[A Secret Vice](/source/A_Secret_Vice)*. Here he contrasts his project of [artistic languages](/source/Artistic_language) constructed for aesthetic pleasure with the pragmatism of [international auxiliary languages](/source/International_auxiliary_language). In *Secret Vice*, he noted that he "particularly like Esperanto, not least because it is the creation ultimately of one man, not a philologist, and is therefore something like a 'human language bereft of the inconveniences due to too many successive cooks' - which is as good a description of the ideal artificial language (in a particular sense) as I can give."[3] The lecture also discusses Tolkien's views on [phonaesthetics](/source/Phonaesthetics), citing Greek, [Finnish](/source/Finnish_language), and [Welsh](/source/Welsh_language) as examples of "languages which have a very characteristic and in their different ways beautiful word-form".[T 4] Part of the lecture was published in *[The Monsters and the Critics, and Other Essays](/source/The_Monsters_and_the_Critics%2C_and_Other_Essays)*; in the part that was not, Tolkien gave the example of "Fonwegian", a language with "no connection whatever with any other known language".[5][a]

In 1932, Tolkien became a member of the Board of Honorary Advisers to the Education Committee of the [British Esperanto Association](/source/British_Esperanto_Association), even though he was not an active Esperantist and admitted himself that he did not speak or read Esperanto, but only learned its grammar 25 years ago. Nevertheless, Tolkien wrote an article for the *British Esperantist*, titled "A Philologist on Esperanto". There, while writing positively about Esperanto, he criticized another constructed language, [Novial](/source/Novial), describing it as "hideous", a "factory product ... made of spare parts".[3]

The latest mention of Esperanto by Tolkien was in a 1956 letter; he became much more critical of universal constructed languages, writing that:[3]

Volapuk, Esperanto, Ido, Novial, &c. &c. are dead, far deader than ancient unused languages, because their authors never invented any Esperanto legends.

Being a skilled [calligrapher](/source/Calligraphy), [Tolkien invented scripts](/source/Tolkien's_scripts) for his languages.[6] The scripts included [Sarati](/source/Sarati), [Cirth](/source/Cirth), and [Tengwar](/source/Tengwar).[7]

### Tolkien's theory of invented languages

Further information: [Sound and language in Middle-earth](/source/Sound_and_language_in_Middle-earth)

Tolkien was of the opinion that the invention of an [artistic language](/source/Artistic_language) in order to be convincing and pleasing must include not only the language's [historical development](/source/Historical_linguistics), but also the history of its speakers, and especially the mythology associated with both the language and the speakers. It was this idea that an "Elvish language" must be associated with a complex history and mythology of the [Elves](/source/Elves_(Middle-earth)) that was at the core of the development of [Tolkien's legendarium](/source/Tolkien's_legendarium).

Tolkien wrote in one of his letters:

what I think is a primary 'fact' about my work, that it is all of a piece, and fundamentally linguistic in inspiration. ... It is not a 'hobby', in the sense of something quite different from one's work, taken up as a relief-outlet. The invention of languages is the foundation. The 'stories' were made rather to provide a world for the languages than the reverse. To me a name comes first and the story follows. I should have preferred to write in 'Elvish'. But, of course, such a work as *The Lord of the Rings* has been edited and only as much 'language' has been left in as I thought would be stomached by readers. (I now find that many would have liked more.) ... It is to me, anyway, largely an essay in 'linguistic aesthetic', as I sometimes say to people who ask me 'what is it all about'.[T 5]

The Tolkien scholar and folklorist [Dimitra Fimi](/source/Dimitra_Fimi) questions this claim. In particular, his September 1914 *The Voyage of Earendel the Evening Star*, based on the [Old English](/source/Old_English) poem [Crist 1](/source/Crist_1), shows that he was starting to think about a mythology before he started to sketch his first invented Middle-earth language, Qenya, in March 1915. Further, the steps that led to his first attempt at the mythology,[b] the 1917 draft of *[The Book of Lost Tales](/source/The_Book_of_Lost_Tales)*, involving the character of [Earendel](/source/E%C3%A4rendel) in its first story, did not involve his invented languages.[8] Tolkien was, rather, in Fimi's view, emphasizing that language and myth "began to flow together when I was an undergraduate [at Oxford, 1911–1915]" (as Tolkien wrote in 1954),[T 6] and stayed that way for the rest of his life.[8]

### *Lhammas*

Main article: [Lhammas](/source/Lhammas)

In 1937, Tolkien wrote the *[Lhammas](/source/Lhammas)*, a linguistic treatise addressing the relationships of the languages spoken in [Middle-earth](/source/Middle-earth) during the [First Age](/source/First_Age), principally the Elvish languages. The text purports to be [a translation of an Elvish work](/source/Found_manuscript), written by one Pengolodh, whose historical works are presented as being [the main source of the narratives](/source/Tolkien's_frame_stories) in *[The Silmarillion](/source/The_Silmarillion)* concerning the First Age.[9]

The *Lhammas* exists in three versions, the shortest one being called the *Lammasathen*.[c] The main linguistic thesis in this text is that the languages of Middle-earth are all descended from the language of the [Valar](/source/Valar) (the "gods"), [Valarin](/source/Valarin), and divided into three branches:[9]

- Oromëan, named after [Oromë](/source/Orom%C3%AB), who taught the first [Elves](/source/Elf_(Middle-earth)) to speak. All languages of Elves and most languages of [Men](/source/Man_(Middle-earth)) are Oromëan.[9]

- Aulëan, named after [Aulë](/source/Aul%C3%AB), maker of the [Dwarves](/source/Dwarf_(Middle-earth)), is the origin of the [Khuzdul](/source/Khuzdul) language. It has had some influences on the tongues of Men.[9]

- Melkian, named after the rebellious [Melkor](/source/Morgoth) or Morgoth, is the origin in the First Age of the many tongues used by the [Orcs](/source/Orc_(Middle-earth)) and other evil beings.[9]

## Middle-earth languages

### Elvish

Main article: [Elvish languages (Middle-earth)](/source/Elvish_languages_(Middle-earth))

#### Internal and external histories

The internal history of [Elvish Languages](/source/Elvish_languages_(Middle-earth)) mapped to kindreds and migrations in the [Sundering of the Elves](/source/Sundering_of_the_Elves). [Quenya](/source/Quenya) was the ancient language; [Sindarin](/source/Sindarin) was initially spoken in [Beleriand](/source/Beleriand), and continued to be spoken in Middle-earth in the [Third Age](/source/Third_Age). Beneath the name of each language is the word for "Elves" in that language.

Internally, in the fiction, the [Elvish language](/source/Elvish_languages_(Middle-earth)) family is a group of languages related by descent from a common ancestor, called the proto-language.[11]

Externally, in Tolkien's life, he constructed the family from around 1910, working on it up to his death in 1973. He constructed the grammar and vocabulary of at least fifteen languages and dialects in roughly three periods:[11]

1. Early, 1910 – c. 1930: most of the proto-language Primitive Quendian, Common Eldarin, [Quenya](/source/Quenya), and Goldogrin[11]

1. Mid: c. 1935–1955: Goldogrin changed into Noldorin, joined by Telerin, Ilkorin, Doriathrin and Avarin[11]

1. Late: Ilkorin and Doriathrin disappeared; Noldorin matured into [Sindarin](/source/Sindarin).[11]

Tolkien worked out much of the [etymological](/source/Etymological) background of his Elvish languages during the 1930s, resulting in *[The Etymologies](/source/The_Etymologies_(Tolkien))*.[T 7]

Etymology of '[Glamdring](/source/Glamdring)' in [Tolkien's Elvish languages](/source/Elvish_languages_of_Middle-earth), as described in *[The Etymologies](/source/The_Etymologies_(Tolkien))* under "Lam-", "Khoth-", "Glam-", and "Dring-"[T 8] What was Noldorin at that time later became Sindarin.[11]

#### Quenya

Main article: [Quenya](/source/Quenya)

Tolkien based Quenya pronunciation more on [Latin](/source/Latin_spelling_and_pronunciation) than on [Finnish](/source/Finnish_phonology), though it has elements derived from both languages. Thus, Quenya lacks the [vowel harmony](/source/Vowel_harmony) and [consonant gradation](/source/Consonant_gradation) present in Finnish, and [accent](/source/Stress_(linguistics)) is not always on the first syllable of a word. Typical Finnish elements like the front vowels *ö*, *ä* and *y* are lacking in Quenya, but phonological similarities include the absence of aspirated unvoiced stops or the development of the syllables *ti* > *si* in both languages.[12] The combination of a Latin basis with Finnish phonological rules resulted in a product that resembles Italian in many respects, which was Tolkien's favourite modern Romance language.[T 9]

[Quenya grammar](/source/Quenya_grammar) is [agglutinative](/source/Agglutinative) and mostly [suffixing](/source/Suffix), i.e. different word particles are joined by appending them. It has basic word classes of [verbs](/source/Verb), [nouns](/source/Noun) and [pronouns](/source/Pronoun)/determiners, [adjectives](/source/Adjective) and [prepositions](/source/Preposition). Nouns are [inflected](/source/Inflection) for case and number. Verbs are inflected for tense and aspect, and for agreement with subject and object. In early Quenya, adjectives agree with the noun they modify in case and number; in later Quenya, this agreement disappears. The basic word order is [subject–verb–object](/source/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object).[12]

#### Sindarin

Main article: [Sindarin](/source/Sindarin)

A Elbereth Gilthoniel silivren penna míriel o menel aglar elenath! Start of the Sindarin poem "A Elbereth Gilthoniel"

Tolkien wrote that he gave Sindarin "a linguistic character very like (though not identical with) [British-Welsh](/source/Welsh_language) ... because it seems to fit the rather 'Celtic' type of legends and stories told of its speakers".[T 10]

Unlike Quenya, Sindarin is mainly a [fusional language](/source/Fusional_language) with some [analytic](/source/Analytic_language) tendencies. It can be distinguished from Quenya by the rarity of vowel endings, and the use of [voiced plosives](/source/Voiced_plosive) *b d g*, which are rare in Quenya and found only after [nasals](/source/Nasal_consonant) and [liquids](/source/Liquid_consonant). Early Sindarin formed plurals by the addition of *-ī*, which vanished but [affected](/source/Affection_(linguistics)) the preceding vowels (as in Welsh and [Old English](/source/Germanic_umlaut)): S. *Adan*, pl. *[Edain](/source/Edain)*, S. *Orch*, pl. *[Yrch](/source/Yrch)*.[13] Sindarin forms plurals in multiple ways.[14]

### Mannish

#### Adûnaic and Westron

Main articles: [Adûnaic](/source/Ad%C3%BBnaic) and [Westron](/source/Westron)

Tolkien devised [Adûnaic](/source/Ad%C3%BBnaic) (or Númenórean), the language spoken in [Númenor](/source/N%C3%BAmenor), shortly after World War II, and thus at about the time he completed *[The Lord of the Rings](/source/The_Lord_of_the_Rings)*, but before he wrote the linguistic background of the Appendices. Adûnaic is intended as the language from which [Westron](/source/Westron) (also called *Adûni*) is derived; Westron became the [lingua franca](/source/Lingua_franca) for all the peoples of [Middle-earth](/source/Middle-earth):[15] This added a depth of historical development to the Mannish languages. Adûnaic was intended to have a "faintly Semitic flavour".[16] Its development began with *[The Notion Club Papers](/source/The_Notion_Club_Papers)* (written in 1945). It is there that the most extensive sample of the language is found, revealed to one of the (modern-day) protagonists, Lowdham, of that story in a visionary dream of [Atlantis](/source/Atlantis). Its grammar is sketched in the unfinished "Lowdham's Report on the Adunaic Language".[T 11]

Tolkien remained undecided whether the language of the [Men](/source/Man_(Middle-earth)) of Númenor should be derived from the original Mannish language (as in Adûnaic), or if it should be derived from "the Elvish Noldorin" (i.e. [Quenya](/source/Quenya)) instead.[T 12] In *[The Lost Road and Other Writings](/source/The_Lost_Road_and_Other_Writings)*, it is implied that the [Númenóreans](/source/N%C3%BAmen%C3%B3reans) spoke Quenya, and that [Sauron](/source/Sauron), hating all things Elvish, taught the Númenóreans the old Mannish tongue they themselves had forgotten.[T 13]

#### Rohirric

Further information: [Pseudotranslation in The Lord of the Rings](/source/Pseudotranslation_in_The_Lord_of_the_Rings)

Tolkien called the language of Rohan "Rohanese".[T 14] He only gave a few actual Rohirric words:[17]

- *Kûd-dûkan*, an old word meaning "hole-dweller", which evolved to *kuduk*, the name the [Hobbits](/source/Hobbit) had for themselves[17]

- *Lô-* / *loh-* corresponding to [Old English](/source/Old_English) *éoh*, "war-horse", and the derived names *Lôgrad* for "[Horse-Mark](/source/Rohan_(Middle-earth))", and *Lohtûr* for *[Éothéod](/source/Rohan_(Middle-earth)#History)*, "horse-people". This word is an exact homonym of the [Hungarian](/source/Hungarian_language) word for "horse", *[ló](https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/l%C3%B3)*. The Rohirric word for "horse" has been identified as a cognate for Tolkien's Elvish words for "horse": *rocco* ([Quenya](/source/Quenya)) and *roch* ([Sindarin](/source/Sindarin)). All names beginning with *Éo-* supposedly represent Rohirric names beginning with *Lô-* or *Loh-*, but the Rohirric forms of names such as *[Éomer](/source/%C3%89omer)* and *[Éowyn](/source/%C3%89owyn)* are not given.[17]

Horses for the Riders of Rohan[17] Language Word Comments Rohirric lô- e.g. Lôgrad, "Horse-mark" Hungarian ló Homonym of the Rohirric Old English éoh "war-horse", hence Éothéod, "Horse-people" Quenya rocco "horse" Sindarin roch hence, Rohirrim, "Horse-people"

Only one proper name is given, *Tûrac*, an old word for King, the Rohirric for [Théoden](/source/Th%C3%A9oden).[17] That in turn is the [Old English](/source/Old_English_language) word *[þéoden](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%C3%BEeoden)*,[18] meaning "leader of a people", "king" or "prince".[d] As with other descriptive names in his legendarium, Tolkien uses this name to [create the impression that the text is "'historical'](/source/Tolkien_and_antiquarianism), 'real' or 'archaic'".[19]

### Dwarvish

#### Khuzdul

Main article: [Khuzdul](/source/Khuzdul)

Some samples of [Khuzdul](/source/Khuzdul), the language of the [Dwarves](/source/Dwarf_(Middle-earth)), are given in *The Lord of the Rings*. The explanation here is a little different from the "Mannish" languages: as *Khuzdul* was supposedly kept secret by the Dwarves and never used in the presence of outsiders (not even Dwarvish given names), it was not "translated" by any real-life historical language, and such limited examples as there are in the text are given in the "original". Khuzdul was designed to resemble a [Semitic language](/source/Semitic_languages), with a system of [triconsonantal roots](/source/Triliteral) and other parallels especially to [Hebrew](/source/Biblical_Hebrew), just as some resemblances between the Dwarves and the [Jews](/source/Jews) are intentional.[T 15][20]

### Entish

The language of the [Ents](/source/Ent) is briefly described in *The Lord of the Rings*. As the Ents were first taught to speak by Elves, Entish appears related to the Elvish languages. However, the Ents continued to develop their language. It is described as long and sonorous, a [tonal language](/source/Tonal_language) somewhat like a woodwind instrument. Only the Ents spoke Entish as no others could master it. Even the Elves, master [linguists](/source/Linguistics), could not learn Entish, nor did they attempt to record it because of its complex sound structure:[T 16]

... slow, sonorous, agglomerated, repetitive, indeed long-winded; formed of a multiplicity of vowel-shades and distinctions of tone and quantity which even the loremasters of the [Eldar](/source/Eldar_(Middle-earth)) had not attempted to represent in writing[T 16]

To illustrate these properties, Tolkien provides the word *a-lalla-lalla-rumba-kamanda-lindor-burúme*, meaning *hill*. He described it as a "probably very inaccurate" sampling of the language.[T 16]

### Black Speech

Main article: [Black Speech](/source/Black_Speech)

Tolkien devised little of the Black Speech beyond the [Rhyme of the Rings](/source/Rhyme_of_the_Rings). He intentionally made it sound harsh but with a proper grammar. He stated that it was an [agglutinative language](/source/Agglutinative_language);[T 17] it has been likened to the extinct [Hurrian language](/source/Hurrian_language) of northern [Mesopotamia](/source/Mesopotamia).[21]

In the fiction, the Black Speech was created by the Dark Lord [Sauron](/source/Sauron) to be the official language of all the lands and peoples under his control: it was thus both in reality and in the fiction a constructed language.[22] The Orcs are said never to have accepted it willingly; the language mutated into many mutually unintelligible Orkish dialects, so that Orcs communicated with each other mainly in a debased Westron.[11]

## Analysis

### Origins

Further information: [Finnish influences on Tolkien](/source/Finnish_influences_on_Tolkien)

Tolkien developed a particular love for the [Finnish language](/source/Finnish_language). He described the finding of a Finnish grammar book as "like discovering a complete wine-cellar filled with bottles of an amazing wine of a kind and flavour never tasted before".[T 18] Finnish morphology, particularly its rich system of [inflection](/source/Inflection), in part gave rise to Quenya.[T 18] Another of Tolkien's favourites was [Welsh](/source/Welsh_language), and features of Welsh phonology found their way into Sindarin.[23]

### Linguistic mapping

Further information: [Pseudotranslation in The Lord of the Rings](/source/Pseudotranslation_in_The_Lord_of_the_Rings)

According to [Tom Shippey](/source/Tom_Shippey), Tolkien invented parts of [Middle-earth](/source/Middle-earth) to resolve the linguistic puzzle he had accidentally created by using three different [pseudo-translated](/source/Pseudotranslation_in_The_Lord_of_the_Rings) European languages for those of peoples in his legendarium.[24]

When writing *[The Lord of the Rings](/source/The_Lord_of_the_Rings)* (1954–55), a sequel to *[The Hobbit](/source/The_Hobbit)* (1937), Tolkien came up with the literary device of using real languages to "translate" fictional languages. He pretended to have translated the original language Westron (named *Adûni* in Westron) or Common Speech (*Sôval Phârë*, in Westron) into English. This device of rendering an *imaginary* language with a *real* one was carried further by rendering:[24]

- Rohirric, the language of [Rohan](/source/Rohan_(Middle-earth)) (related to Westron) by the [Mercian dialect](/source/Mercian_dialect) of [Old English](/source/Old_English)[24]

- names in the tongue of [Dale](/source/Dale_(Middle-earth)) by [Old Norse](/source/Old_Norse_language) forms[24]

- names of the [Kingdom of Rhovanion](/source/Kingdom_of_Rhovanion) by [Gothic](/source/Gothic_language) forms, thus mapping the genetic relation of his fictional languages on to the existing historical relations of the [Germanic languages](/source/Germanic_languages).[24]

Furthermore, to parallel the [Celtic](/source/Celtic_languages) [substratum](/source/Substrata_(linguistics)) in England, he used [Old Welsh](/source/Old_Welsh) names to render the [Dunlendish](/source/Dunlending) names of [Buckland](/source/Buckland_(Middle-earth)) Hobbits (e.g., *[Meriadoc](/source/Meriadoc_Brandybuck)* for *Kalimac*).[T 16] The whole device of linguistic mapping was essentially a fix for the problems Tolkien had created for himself by using real Norse names for the Dwarves in *[The Hobbit](/source/The_Hobbit)*, rather than inventing new names in Khuzdul. This seemed a clever solution, as it allowed him to explain the book's use of Modern English as representing Westron.[25] Because of this, Tolkien did not need to work out the details of Westron grammar or vocabulary in any detail. He does give some examples of Westron words in Appendix F to *The Lord of the Rings*, where he summarizes Westron's origin and role as *[lingua franca](/source/Lingua_franca)* in Middle-earth:[T 16][26]

The language represented in this history by English was the Westron or 'Common Speech' of the West-lands of Middle-earth in the Third Age. In the course of that age it had become the native language of nearly all the speaking-peoples (save the Elves) who dwelt within the bounds of the old kingdoms of Arnor and Gondor ... At the time of the War of the Ring at the end of the age these were still its bounds as a native tongue. (Appendix F)[T 16]

Rohirric is represented in *The Lord of the Rings* by Old English because Tolkien chose to make the relationship between Rohirric and the Common Speech similar to that of Old English and [Modern English](/source/Modern_English).[T 14]

The mapping of [Old English](/source/Old_English) to Modern English is like the mapping of Rohirric to Westron, and Tolkien uses the two Germanic languages to represent the two Middle-earth languages.[T 14] Further, Tolkien uses [Gothic](/source/Gothic_language) names for the early leaders of the Northmen of Rhovanion, ancestors of Rohan.[T 19][27]

Tolkien stated in *[The Two Towers](/source/The_Two_Towers)* that the name [Orthanc](/source/Orthanc) had "by design or chance" two meanings. In Sindarin it meant "Mount Fang", while in the language of Rohan he said it meant "Cunning Mind". The author [Robert Foster](/source/Robert_Foster_(author)) notes that *orþanc* genuinely does mean "cunning" in Old English, so that the [homonym](/source/Homonym) Tolkien had in mind was between Sindarin and Old English, that is, translated or represented Rohirric. Foster comments that since it would be unlikely for a homonym also to exist between these two languages and actual Rohirric, and for the Old English and the Rohirric to be synonyms as well, Tolkien had made an error.[28]

## Study

Further information: [Tolkien studies](/source/Tolkien_studies)

The first published monograph dedicated to the Elvish languages was *An Introduction to Elvish* (1978) edited by Jim Allan (published by Bran's Head Books). It is composed of articles written before the publication of *[The Silmarillion](/source/The_Silmarillion)*. Ruth Noel wrote a book on Middle-earth's languages in 1980.[29]

With the publication of much linguistic material during the 1990s, especially in the *[History of Middle-earth](/source/History_of_Middle-earth)* series, and the *[Vinyar Tengwar](/source/Vinyar_Tengwar)* and *[Parma Eldalamberon](/source/Parma_Eldalamberon)* material published during the early 2000s from among the 3000 pages of linguistic material held by the [team of editors](/source/Elvish_Linguistic_Fellowship) including [Carl F. Hostetter](/source/Carl_F._Hostetter),[30][31] Tolkien's constructed languages have become much more accessible.[32]

[David Salo](/source/David_Salo)'s 2007 *A Gateway to Sindarin* presents Sindarin's grammar concisely.[33] [Elizabeth Solopova](/source/Elizabeth_Solopova)'s 2009 *Languages, Myth and History* gives an overview of the linguistic traits of the various languages invented by Tolkien and the history of their creation.[34]

A few fanzines were dedicated to the subject, like *Tyalië Tyelelliéva* published by Lisa Star,[35] and *Quettar*, the Bulletin of the Linguistic Fellowship of [The Tolkien Society](/source/The_Tolkien_Society), published by Julian C. Bradfield.[36] *Tengwestië* is an online publication of the [Elvish Linguistic Fellowship](/source/Elvish_Linguistic_Fellowship).[37] Internet mailing lists and forums that have been dedicated to Tolkien's constructed languages include Tolklang, Elfling and Lambengolmor.[38][39][40] Since 2005, there has been an International Conference on J.R.R. Tolkien's Invented Languages.[41]

## See also

- [Translating *The Lord of the Rings*](/source/Translating_The_Lord_of_the_Rings)

## Notes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** All the same, Fonwegian contained words like *agroul* for "field", cf. Greek ᾰ̓γρός (*agrós*), and *nausi* for "sailor", cf. Greek ναύτης (*naútēs*), which do "suggest derivative origin".[5]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** Fimi notes that this process was analysed by [John Garth](/source/John_Garth_(author)) in his 2003 biography *[Tolkien and the Great War](/source/Tolkien_and_the_Great_War)*.[8]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** These are published, as edited by [Christopher Tolkien](/source/Christopher_Tolkien), in *[The Lost Road and Other Writings](/source/The_Lost_Road_and_Other_Writings)*.[10]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Bosworth_Theoden_36-0)** Bosworth, [*þéoden*](http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/031679); (also spelt *ðeoden*), cognate to the [Old Norse](/source/Old_Norse) word *þjóðann*.

## References

### Primary

1. **[^](#cite_ref-M&C_200_4-0)** [Tolkien 1983](#CITEREFTolkien1983), p. 200

1. **[^](#cite_ref-M&C_203_5-0)** [Tolkien 1983](#CITEREFTolkien1983), p. 203

1. **[^](#cite_ref-M&C_209_6-0)** [Tolkien 1983](#CITEREFTolkien1983), p. 209

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** [Tolkien 1983](#CITEREFTolkien1983), "A Secret Vice"

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** [Carpenter 2023](#CITEREFCarpenter2023), #165 to the [Houghton Mifflin Co.](/source/Houghton_Mifflin_Co.), 30 June 1955

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** [Carpenter 2023](#CITEREFCarpenter2023), #144 to [Naomi Mitchison](/source/Naomi_Mitchison), 25 April 1954

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Etymologies_21-0)** [Tolkien 1987](#CITEREFTolkien1987), pp. 378–379

1. **[^](#cite_ref-The_Etymologies_22-0)** [Tolkien 1987](#CITEREFTolkien1987), pp. 385–448 "The Etymologies"

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** [Carpenter 2023](#CITEREFCarpenter2023), #223: "I remain in love with Italian, and feel quite lorn without a chance of trying to speak it."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Letters_#144_25-0)** [Carpenter 2023](#CITEREFCarpenter2023), #144 to [Naomi Mitchison](/source/Naomi_Mitchison), April 1954

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** [Tolkien 1992](#CITEREFTolkien1992), Part Two: "The Notion Club Papers"

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** [Tolkien 1996](#CITEREFTolkien1996), p. 63.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** [Tolkien 1987](#CITEREFTolkien1987), p. 68 and note p. 75.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Tolkien_Rohanese_33-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Tolkien_Rohanese_33-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Tolkien_Rohanese_33-2) [Tolkien, J. R. R.](/source/J._R._R._Tolkien) (July 2001). Hostetter, Carl F. Hostetter (ed.). "The Rivers and Beacon-hills of Gondor". *[Vinyar Tengwar](/source/Vinyar_Tengwar)* (42): 8.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-38)** [Carpenter 2023](#CITEREFCarpenter2023), #176 to [Naomi Mitchison](/source/Naomi_Mitchison), 8 December 1955

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Appendix_F_40-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Appendix_F_40-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Appendix_F_40-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Appendix_F_40-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Appendix_F_40-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Appendix_F_40-5) [Tolkien 1955](#CITEREFTolkien1955), Appendix F

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Words,_Phrases_and_Passages_41-0)** [Tolkien, J. R. R.](/source/J._R._R._Tolkien) (2007). "Words, Phrases and Passages in Various Tongues in 'The Lord of the Rings'". *[Parma Eldalamberon](/source/Parma_Eldalamberon)* (17): 11–12.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Letter_163_44-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Letter_163_44-1) [Carpenter 2023](#CITEREFCarpenter2023), #163 to [W. H. Auden](/source/W._H._Auden), 7 June 1953.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Tolkien_Gothic_49-0)** [Tolkien 1980](#CITEREFTolkien1980), p. 311

### Secondary

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Fauskanger_Vice_1-0)** [Fauskanger, Helge Kåre](/source/Helge_Fauskanger). ["Tolkien's Not-So-Secret Vice"](https://ardalambion.net/vice.htm). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20121122010424/http://folk.uib.no/hnohf/vice.htm) from the original on 22 November 2012. Retrieved 28 October 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** ["Tolkien's Languages: The Tongues of Middle-Earth"](https://web.archive.org/web/20131224110153/http://lordfingulfin.webs.com/earlierlanguages.htm). 2013. Archived from [the original](http://lordfingulfin.webs.com/earlierlanguages.htm) on 24 December 2013.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-smith2000_3-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-smith2000_3-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-smith2000_3-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-smith2000_3-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-smith2000_3-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-smith2000_3-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-smith2000_3-6) Smith, Arden R. (2000). ["Tolkien and Esperanto"](http://www.jstor.org/stable/45296768). *VII: Journal of the Marion E. Wade Center*. **17**: 27–46 – via JSTOR.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** Tolkien's name for himself in *Gautistk* was *Undarhruiménitupp*. [John Garth](/source/John_Garth_(author)), *[Tolkien and the Great War](/source/Tolkien_and_the_Great_War)*. p. 17. Andrew Higgins, [In Dembith Pengoldh A column on Tolkien's invented languages](http://www.signumuniversity.org/eagle/2015-01/in-dembith-pengoldh/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160304140355/http://signumuniversity.org/eagle/2015-01/in-dembith-pengoldh/) 2016-03-04 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Higgins_2016_9-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Higgins_2016_9-1) Higgins, Andrew (15 May 2016). ["Tolkien's A Secret Vice and 'the language that is spoken in the Island of Fonway'"](https://scholar.valpo.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1037&context=journaloftolkienresearch). *[Journal of Tolkien Research](/source/Journal_of_Tolkien_Research)*. **3** (1) 3.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** [Hammond, Wayne G.](/source/Wayne_G._Hammond), [Scull, Christina](/source/Christina_Scull), *[J. R. R. Tolkien: Artist and Illustrator](/source/J._R._R._Tolkien%3A_Artist_and_Illustrator)*, p. 190.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Tolkien_Estate_2015_12-0)** [Smith, Arden R.](/source/Arden_R._Smith) (2015). ["Writing Systems"](https://web.archive.org/web/20210414115427/https://www.tolkienestate.com/en/learning/languages-and-writing-systems/writing-systems.html). The Tolkien Estate. Archived from [the original](https://www.tolkienestate.com/en/learning/languages-and-writing-systems/writing-systems.html) on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 26 January 2021.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFimi201063–67_"Ideal_Beings,_Ideal_Languages"_14-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFimi201063–67_"Ideal_Beings,_Ideal_Languages"_14-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFimi201063–67_"Ideal_Beings,_Ideal_Languages"_14-2) [Fimi 2010](#CITEREFFimi2010), pp. 63–67 "Ideal Beings, Ideal Languages".

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Lhammas_17-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Lhammas_17-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Lhammas_17-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Lhammas_17-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Lhammas_17-4) [Tolkien 1987](#CITEREFTolkien1987), Part 2, Chapter 5, "The Lhammas"

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFimi201073,_102_18-0)** [Fimi 2010](#CITEREFFimi2010), pp. 73, 102.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHostetter2013_20-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHostetter2013_20-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHostetter2013_20-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHostetter2013_20-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHostetter2013_20-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHostetter2013_20-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHostetter2013_20-6) [Hostetter 2013](#CITEREFHostetter2013).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Tikka_23-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Tikka_23-1) Tikka, Petri (2007). ["The Finnicization of Quenya"](https://books.google.com/books?id=SOF7m2m3AXcC&pg=PA1). *Arda Philology: Proceedings of the First International Conference on J. R. R. Tolkien's Invented Languages, Omientielva Minya, Stockholm 2005*. *Arda Philology*. Vol. 1. Arda Society. pp. 1–20. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9197350013](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9197350013).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalo200494,_section_6.2_(see_also_sections_4.33,_4.37)_26-0)** [Salo 2004](#CITEREFSalo2004), p. 94, section 6.2 (see also sections 4.33, 4.37).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalo200495–100_27-0)** [Salo 2004](#CITEREFSalo2004), pp. 95–100.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESolopova200970,_84_28-0)** [Solopova 2009](#CITEREFSolopova2009), pp. 70, 84.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** *[Sauron Defeated](/source/Sauron_Defeated)*, p. 240

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Fauskanger_Mannish_34-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Fauskanger_Mannish_34-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Fauskanger_Mannish_34-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Fauskanger_Mannish_34-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Fauskanger_Mannish_34-4) [Fauskanger, Helge K.](/source/Helge_Fauskanger) ["Various Mannish Tongues - the sadness of Mortal Men?"](https://ardalambion.net/mannish.htm). *Ardalambion*. [University of Bergen](/source/University_of_Bergen). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20140219073510/http://folk.uib.no/hnohf/mannish.htm) from the original on 19 February 2014. Retrieved 24 October 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-35)** Wynne, H. (2013) [2007]. ["Theoden"](https://books.google.com/books?id=B0loOBA3ejIC&q=Th%C3%A9oden&pg=PA643). In [Drout, M. D. C.](/source/Michael_D._C._Drout) (ed.). *[The J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia](/source/The_J._R._R._Tolkien_Encyclopedia)*. [Routledge](/source/Routledge). p. 643. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-415-96942-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-96942-0). 'the [chief](/source/Tribal_chief) of a :þeod (a nation, people)'.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** [Solopova 2009](#CITEREFSolopova2009), p. 22

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** Tolkien commented of the Dwarves that "their words are Semitic obviously, constructed to be Semitic."["An Interview with J.R.R. Tolkien"](http://www.reocities.com/Area51/Shire/5014/interview.html). *[BBC Four](/source/BBC_Four)*. January 1971. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20211114153158/https://geocities.restorativland.org/Area51/Shire/5014/interview.html) from the original on 14 November 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Fauskanger_Orkish_42-0)** [Fauskanger, Helge K.](/source/Helge_Fauskanger) ["Orkish and the Black Speech"](https://ardalambion.net/orkish.htm). *Ardalambion*. [University of Bergen](/source/University_of_Bergen). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180106123511/http://folk.uib.no/hnohf/orkish.htm) from the original on 6 January 2018. Retrieved 2 September 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-43)** Meile, M. G. (2020) [1996]. "Sauron's Newspeak: Black Speech, Quenya, and the nature of mind". *Semiotics around the World: Synthesis in Diversity*. De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 219–222. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1515/9783110820065-030](https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110820065-030). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-11-082006-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-082006-5).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Burns_45-0)** [Burns, Marjorie](/source/Marjorie_Burns) (2005). [*Perilous Realms: Celtic and Norse in Tolkien's Middle-earth*](/source/Perilous_Realms). University of Toronto Press. p. 21. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-8020-3806-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8020-3806-9).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShippey2005131–133_46-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShippey2005131–133_46-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShippey2005131–133_46-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShippey2005131–133_46-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShippey2005131–133_46-4) [Shippey 2005](#CITEREFShippey2005), pp. 131–133.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFimi2010189–191_47-0)** [Fimi 2010](#CITEREFFimi2010), pp. 189–191.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-48)** Hemmi, Yoko (2010). ["Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings and His Concept of Native Language: Sindarin and British-Welsh"](https://doi.org/10.1353/tks.0.0063). *[Tolkien Studies](/source/Tolkien_Studies)*. **7**: 147–174. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1353/tks.0.0063](https://doi.org/10.1353%2Ftks.0.0063). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [170366632](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170366632) – via Project MUSE.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2020202–214_50-0)** [Smith 2020](#CITEREFSmith2020), pp. 202–214.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFimi2010191–192_51-0)** [Fimi 2010](#CITEREFFimi2010), pp. 191–192.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENoel1980_52-0)** [Noel 1980](#CITEREFNoel1980).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-53)** [Solopova 2009](#CITEREFSolopova2009), p. 90

1. **[^](#cite_ref-54)** [Fisher, Jason](/source/Jason_Fisher) (2006). ["Manuscripts by Tolkien"](https://books.google.com/books?id=by0dzzQ6m8sC&pg=PA403). In [Drout, Michael D. C.](/source/Michael_D._C._Drout) (ed.). *J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia*. [Routledge](/source/Routledge). p. 403. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-13588-034-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-13588-034-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHostetter20071–46_55-0)** [Hostetter 2007](#CITEREFHostetter2007), pp. 1–46.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-56)** [Salo, David](/source/David_Salo) (2007) *A Gateway to Sindarin: A Grammar of an Elvish Language from J. R. R. Tolkien's Lord of the Rings*, [University of Utah Press](/source/University_of_Utah_Press).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-57)** [Solopova 2009](#CITEREFSolopova2009)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-58)** ["Tyalië Tyelelliéva"](https://www.oocities.org/tyalie/). Lisa Star. Retrieved 28 October 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-59)** ["Quettar"](http://www.quettar.org/). *Quettar*. Retrieved 28 October 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-60)** ["Tengwestie"](https://www.elvish.org/Tengwestie/). Elvish Linguistic Fellowship. Retrieved 28 October 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-61)** ["The Tolkien Language List"](http://tolklang.quettar.org/). Retrieved 8 April 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-62)** ["Elfling"](https://web.archive.org/web/20150409052152/http://elfling.midgardsmal.com/). Archived from [the original](http://elfling.midgardsmal.com/) on 9 April 2015. Retrieved 8 April 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-63)** ["The Lambengolmor List"](http://www.elvish.org/LambengolmorList/). [Elvish Linguistic Fellowship](/source/Elvish_Linguistic_Fellowship). Retrieved 8 April 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-64)** ["Omentielva"](http://omentielva.com/index.htm). *omentielva.com*. Retrieved 9 May 2017.

### Sources

- [Carpenter, Humphrey](/source/Humphrey_Carpenter), ed. (2023) [1981]. *[The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien](/source/The_Letters_of_J._R._R._Tolkien): Revised and Expanded Edition*. New York: [HarperCollins](/source/HarperCollins). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-35-865298-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-35-865298-4).

- [Fimi, Dimitra](/source/Dimitra_Fimi) (2010) [2008]. *Tolkien, Race, and Cultural History: From Fairies to Hobbits*. [Palgrave Macmillan](/source/Palgrave_Macmillan). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-230-21951-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-21951-9). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [222251097](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/222251097).

- [Hostetter, Carl F.](/source/Carl_F._Hostetter) (2007). "Tolkienian Linguistics: The First Fifty Years". *[Tolkien Studies](/source/Tolkien_Studies)*. **4**: 1–46. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1353/tks.2007.0022](https://doi.org/10.1353%2Ftks.2007.0022). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [170601512](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170601512).

- [Hostetter, Carl F.](/source/Carl_F._Hostetter) (2013) [2007]. "Languages Invented by Tolkien". In [Drout, Michael D. C.](/source/Michael_D._C._Drout) (ed.). *[J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia](/source/J._R._R._Tolkien_Encyclopedia)*. [Routledge](/source/Routledge). pp. 332–344. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-415-86511-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-86511-1).

- Noel, Ruth (1980). *The languages of Tolkien's Middle-earth*. Boston: [Houghton Mifflin](/source/Houghton_Mifflin_Harcourt). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-395-29130-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-29130-6). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [6043062](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/6043062).

- [Salo, David](/source/David_Salo) (2004). *Gateway to Sindarin: a grammar of an Elvish language from J. R. R. Tolkien's Lord of the Rings*. [University of Utah Press](/source/University_of_Utah_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0874809121](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0874809121).

- [Smith, Arden R.](/source/Arden_R._Smith) (2020) [2014]. "Invented Languages and Writing Systems". In [Lee, Stuart D.](/source/Stuart_D._Lee) (ed.). *[A Companion to J. R. R. Tolkien](/source/A_Companion_to_J._R._R._Tolkien)*. [Wiley Blackwell](/source/Wiley_Blackwell). pp. 202–214. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1119656029](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1119656029). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [1183854105](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1183854105).

- [Shippey, Tom](/source/Tom_Shippey) (2005) [1982]. [*The Road to Middle-Earth: How J. R. R. Tolkien Created a New Mythology*](/source/The_Road_to_Middle-Earth) (Third ed.). [HarperCollins](/source/HarperCollins). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-261-10275-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-261-10275-0).

- [Solopova, Elizabeth](/source/Elizabeth_Solopova) (2009). *Languages, Myths and History: An Introduction to the Linguistic and Literary Background of J. R. R. Tolkien's Fiction*. New York City: [North Landing Books](/source/North_Landing_Books). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-9816607-1-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9816607-1-4).

- [Tolkien, J. R. R.](/source/J._R._R._Tolkien) (1955). *[The Return of the King](/source/The_Return_of_the_King)*. *[The Lord of the Rings](/source/The_Lord_of_the_Rings)*. Boston: [Houghton Mifflin](/source/Houghton_Mifflin). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [519647821](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/519647821).

- [Tolkien, J. R. R.](/source/J._R._R._Tolkien) (1983). *[The Monsters and the Critics, and Other Essays](/source/The_Monsters_and_the_Critics%2C_and_Other_Essays)*. London: [Allen & Unwin](/source/Allen_%26_Unwin). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [417591085](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/417591085).

- [Tolkien, J. R. R.](/source/J._R._R._Tolkien) (1987). [Christopher Tolkien](/source/Christopher_Tolkien) (ed.). *[The Lost Road and Other Writings](/source/The_Lost_Road_and_Other_Writings)*. Boston: [Houghton Mifflin](/source/Houghton_Mifflin). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-395-45519-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-395-45519-7).

- [Tolkien, J. R. R.](/source/J._R._R._Tolkien) (1992). [Christopher Tolkien](/source/Christopher_Tolkien) (ed.). *[Sauron Defeated](/source/Sauron_Defeated)*. Boston, New York, & London: [Houghton Mifflin](/source/Houghton_Mifflin). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-395-60649-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-395-60649-7).

- [Tolkien, J. R. R.](/source/J._R._R._Tolkien) (1996). [Christopher Tolkien](/source/Christopher_Tolkien) (ed.). *[The Peoples of Middle-earth](/source/The_Peoples_of_Middle-earth)*. Boston: [Houghton Mifflin](/source/Houghton_Mifflin). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-395-82760-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-82760-4).

## External links

- [The Elvish Linguistic Fellowship: publishes the journals *Parma Eldalamberon*, *Tengwestië*, and *Vinyar Tengwar*](http://www.elvish.org)

- [The Elvish Linguistic Fellowship's Tolkienian Linguistics FAQ](http://www.elvish.org/FAQ.html)

- [The Elvish Linguistic Fellowship's Resources for Tolkienian Linguistics](http://www.elvish.org/resources.html)

- [The Tolkien language mailing list](http://www.dcs.ed.ac.uk/misc/local/TolkLang/)

v t e Languages of Middle-earth Elvish languages Quenya Namárië Quenya grammar Respective case Sindarin A Elbereth Gilthoniel Other languages Adûnaic Black Speech Khuzdul Valarin Westron Scripts Cirth Sarati Tengwar Linguists Elvish Linguistic Fellowship (Vinyar Tengwar, Parma Eldalamberon) Anthony Appleyard Helge Fauskanger Carl F. Hostetter Tom Loback David Salo Arden R. Smith Allan Turner Related "A Secret Vice" The Etymologies Lhammas Middle-earth Pseudotranslation in The Lord of the Rings Sound and language in Middle-earth Sundering of the Elves

v t e The Lord of the Rings J. R. R. Tolkien Constructing The Lord of the Rings About Volumes The Fellowship of the Ring The Two Towers The Return of the King Stories "The Shadow of the Past" "The Council of Elrond" "The Scouring of the Shire" "The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen" Translating list Swedish Reception Impact Literary Fandom Fan fiction Oxonmoot Tolkienmoot Works inspired Tolkien's impact on fantasy Annotation A Reader's Companion Elements Languages Black Speech Elvish Quenya Sindarin Khuzdul Westron Poetry A Elbereth Gilthoniel Namárië Song of Eärendil The Man in the Moon Stayed Up Too Late The Road Goes Ever On A Walking Song Other Artwork Family trees Heraldry Maps Proverbs Scripts Cirth Tengwar Analysis Themes Addiction to power Ancestry as guide to character Architecture Company of the Ring Death and immortality Decline and fall Divination Dreams and visions Economy England Environmentalism Evil Feudal allegiance Forests Geology Hell Heroism Luck and fate Magic Mental illness Moral dilemma Music Naming of weapons Northern courage Paganism Plants Prophecy Psychological journeys Quests Race Sexuality Sound and language Time Trees Women Influences Antiquarianism Beowulf Celtic Christianity Classical world Edwardian adventure stories First World War Norse Medieval Modern sources Modernism William Morris A mythology for England Philology Shakespeare Techniques Anachronism Character pairing Editorial framing Frame stories Pseudotranslation Impression of depth Narrative structure Interlacing Storytelling Prose style Ambiguity Epic Pooh Peoples Maiar Balrogs Sauron Wizards Gandalf Radagast Saruman Free peoples Dwarves Balin Gimli Elves Galadriel Glorfindel Half-elven Arwen Elrond Legolas Thranduil Ents Treebeard Hobbits Bilbo Frodo Merry Pippin Sam Men Beornings Drúedain Dúnedain Aragorn of Gondor Boromir Denethor Faramir of Rohan Éomer Éowyn Théoden Wormtongue Monsters Barrow-wight Gollum Nazgûl Witch-king of Angmar Old Man Willow Orcs Shelob Trolls Wargs Watcher in the Water Other Eagles Goldberry Tom Bombadil World Geography Middle-earth Eriador Bree Old Forest Rivendell The Shire Bag End Gondor Minas Tirith Harad Lothlórien Mirkwood Moria Mordor Rohan Isengard Undying Lands Battles Helm's Deep Pelennor Fields Morannon Things Mithril Oliphaunts Palantírs Phial of Galadriel Rings of Power One Ring List of weapons and armour Related works The Hobbit The Adventures of Tom Bombadil Errantry Fastitocalon The Sea-Bell Donald Swann The Road Goes Ever On Bilbo's Last Song The Silmarillion Unfinished Tales The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien The History of Middle-earth The Children of Húrin The History of The Hobbit Beren and Lúthien The Fall of Gondolin The Nature of Middle-earth Adaptations and derivative works Books Bored of the Rings (1969) The Last Ringbearer (1999) Muddle Earth (2003) Illustrations A Map of Middle-earth Pauline Baynes Barbara Remington John Howe Alan Lee Margrethe II of Denmark Ted Nasmith Theatre Fellowship! (2005) The Lord of the Rings (2006) Music Bo Hansson Music Inspired by Lord of the Rings (1972) Johan de Meij Symphony No. 1 The Lord of the Rings (1988) Led Zeppelin "Ramble On" (1969) "Misty Mountain Hop" (1971) "The Battle of Evermore" (1971) Radio The Lord of the Rings (BBC, 1955) The Lord of the Rings (NPR, 1979) Hordes of the Things (1980) The Lord of the Rings (BBC, 1981) Der Herr der Ringe (1992) Film Animated The Lord of the Rings (Bakshi, 1978) The Return of the King (Rankin/Bass, 1980) The War of the Rohirrim (Kamiyama, 2024) Peter Jackson series The Fellowship of the Ring (2001) The Two Towers (2002) The Return of the King (2003) Music "Concerning Hobbits" "Into the West" "May It Be" The Music of the Lord of the Rings Films (2010 book) Approach Production Hobbiton Movie Set Peter Jackson's interpretation Picturing Tolkien Tolkien on Film Other Sagan om ringen (1971) Khraniteli (1991) Hobitit (1993) The Rings of Power (2022) music Fan-made The Hunt for Gollum (2009) Born of Hope (2009) Video games Journey to Rivendell Game One Game Two: Shadows of Mordor War in Middle Earth Vol. I (1990) Vol. I (SNES) Riders of Rohan Elendor Vol. II: The Two Towers The Fellowship of the Ring The Two Towers The Return of the King War of the Ring The Third Age Game Boy Advance The Battle for Middle-earth Tactics The Battle for Middle-earth II The Rise of the Witch-king Conquest Aragorn's Quest War in the North Lego The Lord of the Rings Guardians of Middle-earth Shadow of Mordor Shadow of War Gollum Return to Moria The Lord of the Rings Online Mines of Moria Siege of Mirkwood Rise of Isengard Riders of Rohan Helm's Deep Mordor Minas Morgul War of Three Peaks Fate of Gundabad Before the Shadow Tabletop role- playing games Middle-earth Role Playing The Lord of the Rings Roleplaying Game The One Ring Roleplaying Game Adventures in Middle-earth Board games Middle Earth War of the Ring Gondor: The Siege of Minas Tirith Sauron Lord of the Rings War of the Ring Card games Middle-earth Collectible Card Game The Lord of the Rings Trading Card Game The Lord of the Rings: The Card Game Other games Middle-earth Strategy Battle Game Lego The Lord of the Rings

v t e Middle-earth J. R. R. Tolkien Bibliography Canon Legendarium Outline Works In Tolkien's lifetime The Hobbit (1937) The Lord of the Rings (1954–55) The Fellowship of the Ring "The Shadow of the Past" "The Council of Elrond" The Two Towers The Return of the King "The Scouring of the Shire" "The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen" The Adventures of Tom Bombadil (1962) Posthumous The Silmarillion (1977) "Ainulindalë" Unfinished Tales (1980) The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien (1981) Bilbo's Last Song (1990) The three "Great Tales" The Children of Húrin (2007) Beren and Lúthien (2017) The Fall of Gondolin (2018) The Fall of Númenor (2022) History of composition History of Middle-earth [1–2] The Book of Lost Tales (1983–84) Ælfwine [3] The Lays of Beleriand (1985) [4] The Shaping of Middle-earth (1986) [5] The Lost Road and Other Writings (1987) The Etymologies Lhammas [6–9] The History of The Lord of the Rings (1988–1992) The Notion Club Papers [10] Morgoth's Ring (1993) [11] The War of the Jewels (1994) [12] The Peoples of Middle-earth (1996) Others John D. Rateliff The History of The Hobbit (2007) Carl F. Hostetter The Nature of Middle-earth (2021) Fictional universe Peoples, monsters Ainur Maiar Balrogs Wizards Valar Dragons Ancalagon Smaug Dwarves Eagles Elves Half-elven Noldor Sundering Ents Hobbits Men Beornings Drúedain Dúnedain Orcs Trolls Characters First and Second Ages Celebrimbor Eärendil and Elwing Elendil Fëanor Fingolfin Finwë and Míriel Gil-galad Húrin Isildur Lúthien and Beren Melian Morgoth Thingol Tuor and Idril Túrin Turambar Ungoliant Third Age Elrond Galadriel Gandalf Glorfindel Goldberry Gollum Saruman Sauron Tom Bombadil Places First and Second Ages Beleriand Númenor Valinor Third Age Bree Esgaroth Gondor Harad Isengard Lonely Mountain Lothlórien Mirkwood Mordor Moria Rivendell Rohan The Shire Bag End Objects Mithril Palantír Red Book of Westmarch Rings of Power One Ring Silmarils Two Trees of Valinor List of weapons and armour Analysis Elements Artwork Family trees Heraldry Languages Adûnaic Black Speech Elvish Quenya Sindarin Khuzdul Valarin Westron Maps Tolkien's poetry Scripts Cirth Sarati Tengwar Themes Anachronism Ancestry as guide to character Architecture Christianity Cosmology Round World dilemma Death and immortality Decline and fall Dreams and visions Economy England Environmentalism Evil First World War Forests Frame stories Hell Heroism Light Luck and fate Magic Mental illness Modernism Moral dilemma Music Naming of weapons Northern courage Old Straight Road Paganism Plants Psychological journeys Quests Sound and language Time Trees Literary Tolkien's impact on fantasy Influences Beowulf Celtic Classical world Finnish language and literature Medieval Modern William Morris Norse Philology Shakespeare Prose style Ambiguity A mythology for England Geographic Geology The Atlas of Middle-earth Journeys of Frodo A Map of Middle-earth Adaptations, legacy Illustrators Pauline Baynes Cor Blok Anke Eißmann Brothers Hildebrandt Jenny Dolfen Mary Fairburn Donato Giancola John Howe Tove Jansson Alexander Korotich Alan Lee Tom Loback Margrethe II of Denmark Ted Nasmith Composers Bo Hansson Music Inspired by Lord of the Rings Leonard Rosenman Music of The Lord of the Rings, 1978 Johan de Meij Symphony No. 1 The Lord of the Rings Howard Shore Music of The Lord of the Rings film series Music of The Hobbit film series Music of The Rings of Power TV series Bear McCreary Music of The Rings of Power TV series Stephen Gallagher Music of The Lord of the Rings: The War of the Rohirrim Blind Guardian Nightfall in Middle-Earth Settings Donald Swann The Road Goes Ever On Poems and Songs of Middle Earth The Tolkien Ensemble An Evening in Rivendell A Night in Rivendell At Dawn in Rivendell Leaving Rivendell Other media Impact Middle-earth Enterprises Works inspired by Tolkien Fan fiction Film Calendars Video games Things named after Tolkien and his works Literary criticism The Complete Guide to Middle-earth A Companion to J. R. R. Tolkien Interrupted Music Master of Middle-Earth Picturing Tolkien A Question of Time J. R. R. Tolkien: Author of the Century The J. R. R. Tolkien Companion and Guide J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia The Lord of the Rings: A Reader's Companion Perilous Realms The Road to Middle-Earth Splintered Light Tolkien and the Invention of Myth Tolkien's Art: 'A Mythology for England' Tolkien: A Look Behind The Lord of the Rings A Tolkien Compass Tolkien: Maker of Middle-earth Tolkien, Race and Cultural History Tolkien's Legendarium Tolkien and the Great War The Worlds of J. R. R. Tolkien The Ring of Words: Tolkien and the Oxford English Dictionary

v t e J. R. R. Tolkien Bibliography Letters Poetry and songs Songs for the Philologists (1936) "Bagme Bloma" The Homecoming of Beorhtnoth Beorhthelm's Son (1953) "A Walking Song" (1954) The Adventures of Tom Bombadil (1962) "Errantry" "Fastitocalon" "The Sea-Bell" "The Man in the Moon Stayed Up Too Late" The Road Goes Ever On (1967) Bilbo's Last Song (1974) The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún (2009) The Fall of Arthur (2013) The Collected Poems of J.R.R. Tolkien (2024) List of Tolkien's alliterative verse Fiction The Hobbit (1937) "Leaf by Niggle" (1947) The Lay of Aotrou and Itroun (1945) Farmer Giles of Ham (1949) The Lord of the Rings The Fellowship of the Ring (1954) The Two Towers (1954) The Return of the King (1955) Tree and Leaf (1964) The Tolkien Reader (1966) Smith of Wootton Major (1967) Posthumous fiction The Father Christmas Letters (1976) The Silmarillion (1977) Unfinished Tales (1980) Mr. Bliss (1982) The History of Middle-earth (1983–1996) The Book of Lost Tales The Lays of Beleriand The Shaping of Middle-earth The Lost Road and Other Writings The History of The Lord of the Rings Morgoth's Ring The War of the Jewels The Peoples of Middle-earth Roverandom (1998) The Children of Húrin (2007) The History of The Hobbit (2007) The Story of Kullervo (2015) Beren and Lúthien (2017) The Fall of Gondolin (2018) The Nature of Middle-earth (2021) The Fall of Númenor (2022) Academic works Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (Middle English text, 1925) "The Devil's Coach Horses" (1925) "Ancrene Wisse and Hali Meiðhad" (1929) "Sigelwara Land" (1932–34) "Chaucer as a Philologist: The Reeve's Tale" (1934) "Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics" (1936) "On Fairy-Stories" (1939) Eucatastrophe "On Translating Beowulf" (1940) Sir Orfeo (1944) Ancrene Wisse (1962) "English and Welsh" (1963) Jerusalem Bible (as translator and lexicographer, 1966) Posthumous academic Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Pearl, and Sir Orfeo (translations, 1975) Exodus (1981) Finn and Hengest (1982) The Monsters and the Critics, and Other Essays (1983) Beowulf and the Critics (2002) Beowulf: A Translation and Commentary with "Sellic Spell" (2014) A Secret Vice (2016) Scholars (works) Biographers Humphrey Carpenter J. R. R. Tolkien: A Biography (1977, authorized biography) John Garth Tolkien and the Great War The Worlds of J. R. R. Tolkien Catherine McIlwaine Tolkien: Maker of Middle-earth Charles Moseley Christian Stratford Caldecott Matthew T. Dickerson Colin Duriez Peter Kreeft Holly Ordway Joseph Pearce Fleming Rutledge Ralph C. Wood Literary critics Douglas A. Anderson The Annotated Hobbit Nicholas Birns Bradley J. Birzer Janice Bogstad & Philip Kaveny Picturing Tolkien David Bratman Janet Brennan Croft Tolkien on Film Patrick Curry Bradford Lee Eden Dimitra Fimi Tolkien, Race and Cultural History Jason Fisher Verlyn Flieger Interrupted Music A Question of Time Splintered Light Michael Foster Nick Groom Wayne G. Hammond & Christina Scull J. R. R. Tolkien: A Descriptive Bibliography The Lord of the Rings: A Reader's Companion J. R. R. Tolkien: Artist and Illustrator The J. R. R. Tolkien Companion and Guide Randel Helms Thomas Honegger Charles A. Huttar Paul H. Kocher Master of Middle-Earth Stuart D. Lee The Keys of Middle-earth Jared Lobdell A Tolkien Compass John D. Rateliff Robin Anne Reid Brian Rosebury Tolkien: A Cultural Phenomenon Amy H. Sturgis Anna Vaninskaya Richard C. West Elizabeth Whittingham Rose Zimbardo Understanding The Lord of the Rings Linguists Anthony Appleyard Helge Fauskanger Carl F. Hostetter Tom Loback David Salo Arden R. Smith Allan Turner Medievalists, Classicists Marjorie Burns Perilous Realms Jane Chance Tolkien and the Invention of Myth Tolkien's Art: 'A Mythology for England' Michael D. C. Drout J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia Jonathan Evans Vincent Ferré Gergely Nagy Tom Shippey J. R. R. Tolkien: Author of the Century The Road to Middle-Earth Anna Smol Elizabeth Solopova Sandra Ballif Straubhaar Hamish Williams Tolkien and the Classical World Popular Lin Carter Robert Foster Glen GoodKnight Michael Martinez Charles Noad J. E. A. Tyler Related Family Francis Xavier Morgan Influences Artwork Languages constructed by Tolkien Impact of Tolkien's Middle-earth writings Inklings Coalbiters Milton Waldman Mythopoeic Society Elvish Linguistic Fellowship Tolkien's impact on fantasy Tolkien and the modernists Tolkien Estate Tolkien fandom Tolkien fan fiction Tolkien Gateway The Tolkien Society Awards Memorials Reception Tolkien research Mythlore Tolkien Studies Works inspired by Tolkien Tolkien (biographical film) Poems and Songs of Middle Earth (album) Language and Human Nature The Ring of Words: Tolkien and the Oxford English Dictionary

v t e Constructed languages Classification Artistic Fictional Language game International auxiliary Zonal Engineered Experimental Musical Philosophical Specific languages by group International auxiliary Babm Blissymbols Bolak Communicationssprache Esperanto Adjuvilo Arcaicam Esperanto II Ido Mundolinco Reformed Romániço Universal other esperantidos Glosa Interglossa Idiom Neutral Intal Interlingua Interlingue International Sign Kotava Langue nouvelle Latino sine flexione Lingua Franca Nova Lingua sistemfrater Lingwa de planeta Mondial Neo Nal Bino Novial Pasilingua Sambahsa Solresol Sona Unish Universalglot Uropi Volapük Zonal Afrihili Budinos Efatese Eurolengo Guosa Ortatürk Pan-Germanic language Tutonish Pan-Romance language Neolatino Romance Romanid Pan-Slavic language Interslavic Iazychie Runyakitara Wede Weltdeutsch Engineered aUI Basic English Dutton Speedwords Ithkuil Kalaba-X Astrolinguistics Lincos Lingua generalis Loglan Logopandecteision Lojban Real Character Ro Toki Pona Fictional and other artistic Atlantean Belter Creole Brithenig Chakobsa Dritok Dothraki Elvish languages Enchanta Kēlen Kiliki Klingon Kobaïan Láadan Lapine Loxian Lydnevi Mänti Middle-earth languages Adûnaic Quenya Sindarin Black Speech Khuzdul Valarin Westron Naʼvi Nadsat Newspeak Simlish Spocanian Star Wars languages Syldavian Talossan Teonaht Tsolyáni Utopian Valyrian Venedic Verdurian Wenja Ritual and other Balaibalan Damin Enochian Eskayan Kukurá Lingua ignota Medefaidrin Myska palawa kani Wayteka Yerkish Zaum Neography Constructed script Esperanto orthography Sitelen Pona Tolkien's scripts Cirth Sarati Tengwar Study Esperantology A Secret Vice Bridge of Words Conlanging: The Art of Crafting Tongues In the Land of Invented Languages La Ricerca della Lingua Perfetta nella Cultura Europea Comparisons Esperanto/Ido Esperanto/Novial Ido/Interlingua Ido/Novial Interlingue/Interlingua Lojban/Loglan List of constructed languages List of language creators Portal

---
Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Languages constructed by Tolkien](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_constructed_by_Tolkien) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_constructed_by_Tolkien?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.