# Kannagi

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Character in Tamil epic of Cilappatikāram

This article is about the character from Tamil literature. For other uses, see [Kannagi (disambiguation)](/source/Kannagi_(disambiguation)).

Fictional character

Kannagi Statue of Kannagi in Chennai First appearance Naṟṟiṇai In-universe information Gender Female Home Puhar, Early Chola Kingdom

**Kannagi**, sometimes spelled **Kannaki**, is the titual character of the Tamil in [Ilango Adigal's](/source/Ilango_Adigal) *[Cilappatikaram](/source/Cilappatikaram)*, one of the [Five Great Epics](/source/Five_Great_Epics) in [Tamil literature](/source/Tamil_literature). She is described as a chaste woman who stays with her husband [Kovalan](/source/Kovalan) despite his [adultery](/source/Adultery). The epic further describes the couple's attempt to rebuild their marriage after her unrepentant husband had lost everything, how he is framed for a crime that he did not commit, and Kannagi's quest for justice. She later curses the entire [Pandya](/source/Pandyas) city of [Madurai](/source/Madurai), which is burnt to the ground as a consequence of her curse. In Tamil folklore, Kannagi has been deified as the symbol of chastity, and she is worshipped as a goddess in certain regions in [South India](/source/South_India) and Sri Lanka.

## Literature

Kannagi appears in the [Sangam era](/source/Sangam_era) poem *[Naṟṟiṇai](/source/Na%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fi%E1%B9%87ai)*.[1] A more extended version of her character appears in the *[Cilappatikāram](/source/Cilappatik%C4%81ram)*.[2] *Cilappatikāram* ("the Tale of an Anklet"), is the one of the [Five Great Epicss](/source/Five_Great_Epics) in [Tamil literature](/source/Tamil_literature).[3] It is attributed to a [Ilango Adigal](/source/Ilango_Adigal), a [Chera](/source/Chera) prince turned monk, and was probably composed between 2nd to 6th centuries CE.[4][5] The epic consists of 5,730 lines,[6] and narrates the tragic story of Kannagi and her husband [Kovalan](/source/Kovalan).[7][8]

## Legend

Statues of Kannagi and [Kovalan](/source/Kovalan) at [Poombuhar](/source/Poombuhar)

Kannagi is the daughter of the merchant and ship captain Manayakan from [Puhar](/source/Poompuhar). She marries [Kovalan](/source/Kovalan), the son of a wealthy merchant Macattuvan.[9] While their married life initially appears happy, Kovalan later becomes attracted to the [courtesan](/source/Courtesan) and dancer [Madhavi](/source/Madhavi_(Silappatikaram)). He becomes captivated by her beauty, and enters into an extra marital relationship with her. He spends most of his wealth on her, and the relationship creates tensions with Kannagi.[10]

Kovalan has a misunderstanding with Madhavi, and after losing most of his wealth, he realises his mistake and returns to his wife Kannagi. Kannagi forgives him despite his earlier betrayal, and the couple decides to leave Puhar and travel to the [Padnya](/source/Pandyas) capital of [Madurai](/source/Madurai) to start a new life.[11]

At Madhurai, Kovalan attempts to sell one of the two [anklets](/source/Silambu) of Kannagi to raise money. The royal goldsmith, who had earlier stolen an anklet belonging to the queen [Kopperundevi](/source/Kopperundevi), finds the that anklets are similar, and falsely accuses Kovalan of stealing the queen’s anklet. Enraged by the act, the king [Neduncheziyan](/source/Neduncheziyan) orders Kovalan’s arrest and execution without a fair trial.[12][13]

After Kovalan is executed, Kannagi appears in the royal court, trying to prove her husband’s innocence and demanding justice. She breaks open her remaining anklet to reveal that her anklet contained [rubies](/source/Rubies) whereas queen Kopperundevi's missing anklet contained [pearls](/source/Pearl). When the king realised the truth and his mistake, he kills himself due to remorse. The queen, Kopperundevi, unable to bear the grief and shame caused by the unjust execution, also dies soon afterward.[14]

Kannagi later cursed the city of Madurai, and the entire city was burnt to ground. However, she was calmed by the goddess [Meenakshi](/source/Meenakshi), and later attained salvation.[15]

## Iconography and worship

Kannagi is eulogised as the epitome of chastity and is worshiped as a goddess in select regions in [South India](/source/South_India) and Sri Lanka.[16] Various sculptures and reliefs of Kannagi are found in [Hindu temples](/source/Hindu_temples), which mostly depict her holding an anklet in her hand.[17][18] She is worshipped as Kannagi [Amman](/source/Amman) by the [Tamils](/source/Tamils),[16] as [Bhagavati](/source/Attukal_Temple) in [Kerala](/source/Kerala),[19] and as [Pattini](/source/Pattini) in [Sinhalese Buddhism](/source/Buddhism_in_Sri_Lanka).[20]

### South India

[Kodungallur Bhagavathy Temple](/source/Kodungallur_Bhagavathy_Temple)

The *Cilappatikāram*, and its sequel *[Maṇimēkalai](/source/Ma%E1%B9%87im%C4%93kalai)*, offer evidence that Kannagi was praised as a goddess during the lifetime of Maṇimekalai, the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi.[21][22] *Cilappatikāram* describes that Chera king [Senguttuvan](/source/Senguttuvan) deifying Kannagi and dedicating a temple for her.[22] It also describes that the Pandya king Vetrivel Cheliyan prayed to Kanangi, for relieving his lands from the drought and curse of Kannagi.[23] These elements indicate that Kannagi was deified in the ancient [Tamilakam](/source/Tamilakam). However, her worship does not have a significant presence in the religious beliefs and insitutional practice of modern-day Tamil Nadu, whereas the cult became prominent in Sri Lanka and parts of Kerala.[24][25][26] Kannagi's worship in Tamil Nadu might have been assimilated in the more common worship of the [Dravidian](/source/Dravidian_folk_religion) goddess [Mariamman](/source/Mariamman).[27] As per *Cilappatikāram*, the city of Madurai was destroyed on a Friday in the month of [Aadi](/source/Aadi_(month)),[28][14] and Fridays in the month are often associated with the cult of Mariamman.[29][30]

The Kannaki cult initiated by the Cheras, is still preserved in the form of the Bhagavati cult in Kerala.[31] The [Bhagavati Temple](/source/Kodungallur_Bhagavathy_Temple) at [Kodungallur](/source/Kodungallur), which was the former capital of Cheras, mentions the Kannaki cult in its [Sthala purana](/source/Sthala_purana).[32] Though the deity of the temple is still observed as [Bhadrakali](/source/Bhadrakali), Kannagi is believed to be an incarnation of the goddess, and reached Kodungallur to attain salvation at the location of the temple.[33] [Attukal Temple](/source/Attukal_Temple), [Mangala Devi Kannagi Temple](/source/Mangala_Devi_Kannagi_Temple), and [Thirupuraikkal Temple](/source/Thirupuraikkal_Temple) are some of the Bhagavati temples in Kerala, that are associated with the Kannagi cult, and are believed to have been located on the places visited by Kannagi on her journey to Chera Nadu after the burning of Madurai.[34]

### Sri Lanka

Kannakai's idol in [Thambiluvil](/source/Thambiluvil)

According to Sri Lankan folklore, after the burning of Madurai, Kannagi traveled to Kerala and eventually arrived at the island of Pungudutheevu, near the ancient Manipallavam, now known as [Nainativu](/source/Nainativu).[31][32] She is said to have visited approximately 25 sites in Sri Lanka, mainly along the east coast, and before she reached [Vattappalai](/source/Vattappalai). Disguised as an old woman, she requested food from some herders, and they offered her [pongal](/source/Pongal_(dish)) made from buffalo [milk](/source/Milk). She later asked for a lamp lit with sea water. Fearing that she was a witch, the boys sought help from the villagers. When the villagers arrived, Kannagi revealed her divine form, displaying 1,000 eyes on her head, declaring herself as Kannagi of Poompuhar, and then ascended to heaven. The villagers light lamps, and offer pongal to her during the annual festival celebrated during the month of [Vaikasi](/source/Vaikasi).[32] Historical sources suggest that king [Gajabahu I](/source/Gajabahu_I) later recognised Kannagi as Pattini, establishing her as a guardian deity of Sri Lanka.[31]

Kannagi is revered as Kannakai Amman, particularly among the [Sri Lankan Tamils](/source/Sri_Lankan_Tamils) of [Eastern Sri Lankan](/source/Eastern_Province%2C_Sri_Lanka) and [Vanni](/source/Vanni_(Sri_Lanka)) regions. *[Yalpana Vaipava Malai](/source/Yalpana_Vaipava_Malai)*, which gives a historical account of the [Jaffna Kingdom](/source/Jaffna_Kingdom), attests to the widespread popularity of Kannagi worship during the rule of the [Aryacakravarti dynasty](/source/Aryacakravarti_dynasty) (1215–1624) in [Northern Sri Lanka](/source/Northern_Province%2C_Sri_Lanka). The Sri Lankan epic *Kannaki Vaḻakkurai*, recited in Kannaki Amman temples, is believed to have been authored by king [Jeyaveera Cinkaiariyan](/source/Jeyaveera_Cinkaiariyan) (1380–1410), and mirrors the narrative of the Cilappatikāram.[35][36] The Kannagi cult was particularly strong among coastal communities, who regarded Kannagi as a guardian deity due to her association with sea during her upbringing. During the [Portuguese rule](/source/Portuguese_Ceylon), many of these coastal populations converted to [Catholicism](/source/Catholicism), and numerous Kannagi shrines were converted into churches.[37] In the 19th century, some of the remaining temples of Kannagi were transformed into [Raja Rajeshwari](/source/Tripura_Sundari) and [Bhuvaneshvari](/source/Bhuvaneshvari) temples by activists from the [Jaffna](/source/Jaffna)-based [Shaivism](/source/Shaivism) movement, under the leadership of [Arumuka Navalar](/source/Arumuka_Navalar), who actively fought against veneration of Kannagi, whom he considered to be a [Jain](/source/Jainism) merchantess.[38]

Marble statue of [Pattini](/source/Pattini)

In modern practice, Kannagi is chiefly venerated once a year during the Catangu or Katavu Tirattal festival, majorly celebrated in the [Ampara](/source/Ampara_District) and [Batticaloa districts](/source/Batticaloa_district). The festival celebrated over a period of seven days, includes rituals such as *kalyana kāl naduthal* (planting wedding pillar), *valakkurai paaduthal* (reciting the verses of *Kannaki Vaḻkkurai*), kulirthi paaduthal (singing cooling verses). At the conclusion of the festival, the sanctum of the temple is closed and remains so until the next festival begins.[31][39]

The [Sinhalese](/source/Sinhalese_people) Buddhists worship Kannagi as Pattini. The story of Kannagi differs from *Cilappatikāram* and she is revered as an avatar of [Gautama Buddha](/source/Gautama_Buddha).[40] Kannagi was born in the garden of the Pandyan king, and as she was neglected by him, she grew up at the port of Chola country. She eventually slew the evil Pandyan king, and was later anointed as a guardian god by the Buddha.[41] The [Esala Perahera](/source/Esala_Perahera) festival was initially dedicated to Kannaki, [Kataragama](/source/Murugan), [Natha](/source/Aiyanar), and [Vishnu](/source/Vishnu), which later incorporated the procession of holy tooth relic of Buddha during the 18th century.[42] *Polkeliya* (coconut fight), *Gammaduwa* (village rituals), and *ankeliya* (horn play) are three main aspects of the Pattini cult.[31][32]

## In popular culture

[Tamil films](/source/Tamil_cinema) *[Kannagi](/source/Kannagi_(1942_film))* (1942), directed by R. S. Mani and *[Poompuhar](/source/Poompuhar_(film))* (1964) were based on Kannagi's story. [Malayalam](/source/Malayalam_cinema) film *[Kodungallooramma](/source/Kodungallooramma)* directed by [Kunchacko](/source/Kunchacko) was released in 1968. [Sinhala film](/source/Cinema_of_Sri_Lanka) *[Paththini](/source/Paththini_(2016_film))* was released on 5 May 2016 in which the role of Kannagi was played by [Pooja Umashankar](/source/Pooja_Umashankar).[43]

A [statue of Kannagi](/source/Kannagi_statue) holding her anklet, depicting a scene from *Cilappatikaram*, was installed on [Marina Beach](/source/Marina_Beach), [Chennai](/source/Chennai). It was removed in December 2001 citing reasons that it hindered traffic,[44][45] and was reinstalled in 2006.[46][47]

## See also

- [Lady Meng Jiang](/source/Lady_Meng_Jiang)

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197351–52_1-0)** [Kamil Zvelebil 1973](#CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1973), pp. 51–52. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1973 ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPandian197756_2-0)** [Pandian 1977](#CITEREFPandian1977), p. 56.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParthasarathy20041-3_3-0)** [Parthasarathy 2004](#CITEREFParthasarathy2004), p. 1-3.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESastri2002397_4-0)** [Sastri 2002](#CITEREFSastri2002), p. 397.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlain_Danielou1965viii_5-0)** [Alain Danielou 1965](#CITEREFAlain_Danielou1965), p. viii. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAlain_Danielou1965 ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParthasarathy20045-6_6-0)** [Parthasarathy 2004](#CITEREFParthasarathy2004), p. 5-6.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZvelebil1973174–175_7-0)** [Zvelebil 1973](#CITEREFZvelebil1973), p. 174–175.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPollock2003296–298_8-0)** [Pollock 2003](#CITEREFPollock2003), p. 296–298.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuskinMeij2013119_9-0)** [Huskin & Meij 2013](#CITEREFHuskinMeij2013), p. 119. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHuskinMeij2013 ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParthasarathy199373–86_10-0)** [Parthasarathy 1993](#CITEREFParthasarathy1993), p. 73–86.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParthasarathy199387–90_11-0)** [Parthasarathy 1993](#CITEREFParthasarathy1993), p. 87–90.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDikshitar1939217–221_12-0)** [Dikshitar 1939](#CITEREFDikshitar1939), p. 217–221.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBhanu19977-9_13-0)** [Bhanu 1997](#CITEREFBhanu1997), p. 7-9.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDikshitar1939247–251_14-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDikshitar1939247–251_14-1) [Dikshitar 1939](#CITEREFDikshitar1939), p. 247–251.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBhanu199716-19_15-0)** [Bhanu 1997](#CITEREFBhanu1997), p. 16-19.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones2019154_16-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones2019154_16-1) [Jones 2019](#CITEREFJones2019), p. 154.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPandian197756-61_17-0)** [Pandian 1977](#CITEREFPandian1977), p. 56-61.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParthasarathy1993318–327_18-0)** [Parthasarathy 1993](#CITEREFParthasarathy1993), p. 318–327.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERajarajan2016412_19-0)** [Rajarajan 2016](#CITEREFRajarajan2016), p. 412.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERajarajan2016401-414_20-0)** [Rajarajan 2016](#CITEREFRajarajan2016), p. 401-414.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanielou198941-44_21-0)** [Danielou 1989](#CITEREFDanielou1989), p. 41-44.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParthasarathy1993251–267_22-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParthasarathy1993251–267_22-1) [Parthasarathy 1993](#CITEREFParthasarathy1993), p. 251–267.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDikshitar1939289–293_23-0)** [Dikshitar 1939](#CITEREFDikshitar1939), p. 289–293.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParthasarathy199316–18_24-0)** [Parthasarathy 1993](#CITEREFParthasarathy1993), p. 16–18.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZvelebil1975176–178_25-0)** [Zvelebil 1975](#CITEREFZvelebil1975), p. 176–178.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESelbyPeterson2008148-152_26-0)** [Selby & Peterson 2008](#CITEREFSelbyPeterson2008), p. 148-152.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMenon2000229_27-0)** [Menon 2000](#CITEREFMenon2000), p. 229.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParthasarathy1993257–259_28-0)** [Parthasarathy 1993](#CITEREFParthasarathy1993), p. 257–259.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen1992102–105_29-0)** [Hansen 1992](#CITEREFHansen1992), p. 102–105.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClothey1978211–213_30-0)** [Clothey 1978](#CITEREFClothey1978), p. 211–213.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpuler1975111_31-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpuler1975111_31-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpuler1975111_31-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpuler1975111_31-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpuler1975111_31-4) [Spuler 1975](#CITEREFSpuler1975), p. 111.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChoondal198037_32-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChoondal198037_32-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChoondal198037_32-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChoondal198037_32-3) [Choondal 1980](#CITEREFChoondal1980), p. 37.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** Shankar Radhakrishnan (15 March 2004). ["Bubbling over with devotion"](http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/life/2004/03/15/stories/2004031500160300.htm). *[The Hindu](/source/The_Hindu)*. Retrieved 1 June 2010.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMathew201350-62_34-0)** [Mathew 2013](#CITEREFMathew2013), p. 50-62.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanielou1989120–125_35-0)** [Danielou 1989](#CITEREFDanielou1989), p. 120–125.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZvelebil1973176–178_36-0)** [Zvelebil 1973](#CITEREFZvelebil1973), p. 176–178.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERagupathy1987217_37-0)** [Ragupathy 1987](#CITEREFRagupathy1987), p. 217.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPfaffenberger196888_38-0)** [Pfaffenberger 1968](#CITEREFPfaffenberger1968), p. 88. sfn error: no target: CITEREFPfaffenberger1968 ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen1992102-105_39-0)** [Hansen 1992](#CITEREFHansen1992), p. 102-105.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGombrichObeyesekere198830-31_40-0)** [Gombrich & Obeyesekere 1988](#CITEREFGombrichObeyesekere1988), p. 30-31.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEObeyesekere199028,_46,_129_41-0)** [Obeyesekere 1990](#CITEREFObeyesekere1990), p. 28, 46, 129.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-42)** *Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka*. Vol. 47–48. 2004. p. 86.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-43)** ["Pathini Sinhala Film by Sunil Ariyaratne"](http://www.sandeshaya.org/pathini-sinhala-film-by-sunil-ariyaratne/). Sandeshaya. Retrieved 2 May 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-44)** ["Presidency College ground ideal for Kannagi statue: panel"](http://hindu.com/2002/06/16/stories/2002061603490400.htm). *[The Hindu](/source/The_Hindu)*. 16 June 2002. Retrieved 9 October 2011.[*[dead link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-45)** ["Kannagi statue to be reinstalled on Jun 3: Governor"](https://www.oneindia.com/2006/05/24/kannagi-statue-to-be-reinstalled-on-jun-3-governor-1148454269.html). *[One India](/source/One_India)*. OneIndiaNews.com. 24 May 2006. Retrieved 9 October 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-46)** Menon, Jaya (16 May 2006). ["On Marina Beach, Karunanidhi keeps date with Kannagi"](http://www.indianexpress.com/news/on-marina-beach-karunanidhi-keeps-date-with-kannagi/4509/0). *[The Indian Express](/source/The_Indian_Express)*. Retrieved 9 October 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-47)** Tiwari, Binita (23 August 2007). ["Kannagi's statue adorned Marina Beach"](http://www.newstrackindia.com/newsdetails/735). *Newstrack India*. Retrieved 9 October 2011.

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- Bhanu, Sharada (1997). *Myths and Legends from India – Great Women*. Chennai: [Macmillan Publishers](/source/Macmillan_Publishers). pp. 7–9. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-333-93076-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-93076-2).

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- Danielou, Alain (1965). [*Shilappadikaram (The Ankle Bracelet) by Iḷaṅkōvaṭikaḷ*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Uu3QelRpmsgC). [New Directions Publishing](/source/New_Directions_Publishing). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8112-0001-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8112-0001-1).

- Danielou, Alain (1989). *Manimekalai: The Dancer with the Magic Bowl*. [New Directions Publishing](/source/New_Directions_Publishing). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-811-21088-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-811-21088-1).

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- Parthasarathy, R. (1993). *The Cilappatikaram of Ilanko Atikal: An Epic of South India*. [Columbia University Press](/source/Columbia_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-231-07849-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-07849-8).

- Parthasarathy, R. (2004). [*The Cilappatikāram: The Tale of an Anklet (Iḷaṅkōvaṭikaḷ)*](https://books.google.com/books?id=HWPg7EvPirgC). [Penguin Books](/source/Penguin_Books). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-14-303196-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-303196-3).

- Pfaffenberger, Bryan (1990). "The Political Construction of Defensive Nationalism: The 1968 Temple-Entry Crisis in Northern Sri Lanka". *[The Journal of Asian Studies](/source/The_Journal_of_Asian_Studies)*. **49** (1).

- Pollock, Sheldon (2003). [*Literary cultures in history: reconstructions from South Asia*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ak9csfpY2WoC). [University of California Press](/source/University_of_California_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-520-22821-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-22821-9).

- Ragupathy, Ponnampalam (1987). *Early Settlements in Jaffna: An Archaeological Survey*. [University of Jaffna](/source/University_of_Jaffna).

- Rajarajan, R.K.K. (2012). ["Dance of Ardhanārī: A Historiographical Retrospection"](https://www.academia.edu/3740760/Dance_of_Ardhan%C4%81r%C4%AB._A_Historiographical_Retrospection). In Tiziana Lorenzetti; Fabio Scialpi (eds.). *Glimpses of Indian History and Art: Reflections on the Past, Perspectives for the Future*. Sapienza Università Editrice. pp. 233–270. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-8-895-81485-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8-895-81485-8).

- Rajarajan, R.K.K. (2016). [*Masterpieces of Indian Literature and Art – Tears of Kaṇṇaki: Annals and Iconology of the Silappatikāram*](https://www.academia.edu/30222114/Masterpieces_of_Indian_Literature_and_Art_-_Tears_of_Ka%E1%B9%87%E1%B9%87aki_Annals_and_Iconology_of_the_Cilappatik%C4%81ram_). Sharada Publishing House. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9-383-22114-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-383-22114-1).

- Sastri, Nilakanta (2002) [1955]. *A History of South India* (Reprinted ed.). New Delhi: [Oxford University Press](/source/Oxford_University_Press).

- Selby, Martha Ann; Peterson, Indira Viswanathan (2008). *Tamil Geographies: Cultural Constructions of Space and Place in South India*. [SUNY Press](/source/SUNY_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-791-47242-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-791-47242-2).

- Spuler, Bertold (1975). *Handbook of Oriental Studies, Part 2*. [Brill Publishers](/source/Brill_Publishers). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9-004-04190-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-004-04190-5).

- Zvelebil, Kamil (1973). [*The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=degUAAAAIAAJ). [Brill Publishers](/source/Brill_Publishers). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [90-04-03591-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-03591-5).

- Zvelebil, Kamil (1975). *Tamil Literature*. Handbuch der Orientalistik. [Brill Publishers](/source/Brill_Publishers). pp. 176–178. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9-004-04190-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-004-04190-5).

## External links

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