# Italian fascism

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Fascist ideology as developed in Italy

"Fascist era" redirects here. For the fascist calendar, see [Era Fascista](/source/Era_Fascista). For the Italian fascist regimes, see [Fascist Italy](/source/Fascist_Italy) and [Italian Social Republic](/source/Italian_Social_Republic).

The fascist dictator [Benito Mussolini](/source/Benito_Mussolini) titled himself *[Duce](/source/Duce)* and ruled the [Kingdom of Italy](/source/Kingdom_of_Italy) from 1922 to 1943.

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**Italian fascism** ([Italian](/source/Italian_language): *fascismo italiano*), also called **classical fascism** or simply **fascism**, is the original [fascist](/source/Fascist) ideology, which [Giovanni Gentile](/source/Giovanni_Gentile) and [Benito Mussolini](/source/Benito_Mussolini) developed in Italy. The [ideology](/source/Ideology) of Italian fascism is associated with a series of political parties led by Mussolini: the [National Fascist Party](/source/National_Fascist_Party) (PNF), which governed the [Kingdom of Italy](/source/Kingdom_of_Italy) from 1922 until 1943,[7] and the [Republican Fascist Party](/source/Republican_Fascist_Party) (PFR), which governed the [Italian Social Republic](/source/Italian_Social_Republic) (RSI) from 1943 to 1945.[8] Italian fascism is also associated with the post-war [Italian Social Movement](/source/Italian_Social_Movement) (MSI) and later Italian [neo-fascist political organizations](/source/Neo-fascism).[9]

Italian fascism was initially a [left-wing nationalist](/source/Left-wing_nationalism) and [anti-clerical](/source/Anti-clericalism) movement,[10] and originated from ideological combinations of [ultra-nationalism](/source/Ultra-nationalism) and [Italian nationalism](/source/Italian_nationalism), [national syndicalism](/source/National_syndicalism), [revolutionary nationalism](/source/Revolutionary_nationalism), and from the militarism of [Italian irredentism](/source/Italian_irredentism) to regain "lost overseas territories of Italy" deemed necessary to restore Italian nationalist pride.[11] Italian fascists also claimed that [modern Italy was an heiress to the imperial legacy](/source/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire) of [Ancient Rome](/source/Ancient_Rome),[12] and that there existed historical proof which supported the creation of an [Imperial Fascist Italy](/source/Imperial_Italy_(fascist)) to provide *[spazio vitale](/source/Spazio_vitale)* ("vital space") for the [Second Italo-Senussi War](/source/Second_Italo-Senussi_War) of Italian settler colonization *en route* to establishing [hegemonic control](/source/Hegemony) of the terrestrial basin of the [Mediterranean Sea](/source/Mediterranean_Sea).[13]

Italian fascism promoted a [corporatist](/source/Corporatism) [economic system](/source/Economic_system), whereby employer and employee [syndicates](/source/Syndicate) were [linked together](/source/Tripartism) in associations to collectively represent the nation's economic producers and work alongside the state to set national economic policy.[14] This economic system intended to resolve [class conflict](/source/Class_conflict) through [collaboration between the classes](/source/Class_collaboration).[15] Italian fascism opposed [liberalism](/source/Liberalism), especially [classical liberalism](/source/Classical_liberalism), which fascist leaders denounced as "the debacle of individualism".[16][17] Fascism was opposed to [socialism](/source/Socialism) because of the latter's frequent opposition to nationalism,[18] but it was also opposed to the reactionary conservatism developed by [Joseph de Maistre](/source/Joseph_de_Maistre).[19] It believed the success of Italian nationalism required respect for [tradition](/source/Tradition) and a clear sense of a shared past among the [Italian people](/source/Italian_people), alongside a commitment to a modernized Italy.[20]

Originally, many Italian fascists were opposed to [Nazism](/source/Nazism), as the fascist movement in Italy did not espouse [Nordicism](/source/Nordicism) nor, initially, the [antisemitism](/source/Antisemitism) inherent in [Nazi ideology](/source/Nazi_ideology); however, many fascists, in particular Mussolini himself, held openly [racialist](/source/Scientific_racism) and [racist ideas](/source/Italian_fascism_and_racism) (specifically against [black Africans](/source/Black_Africans), [Italian Jews](/source/Italian_Jews), [Roma](/source/Romani_people), [Sinti](/source/Sinti), and [Slavic peoples](/source/Anti-Slavism))[31] that were enshrined into law as official policy over the course of fascist rule.[32] As [Fascist Italy](/source/Fascist_Italy_(1922-1943)) and [Nazi Germany](/source/Nazi_Germany) grew politically closer in the latter half of the 1930s, Italian laws and policies became explicitly antisemitic due to pressure from Nazi Germany[35] (although antisemitic laws were rarely enforced in Italy),[38] including the promulgation of the *[Manifesto of Race](/source/Manifesto_of_Race)* and [Italian racial laws](/source/Italian_racial_laws) in the [Kingdom of Italy](/source/Kingdom_of_Italy) and all colonies of the [Italian Empire](/source/Italian_colonial_empire).[39] In addition, the [Greek population](/source/Greeks) of the [Dodecanese](/source/Dodecanese) and [Northern Epirus](/source/Northern_Epirus), which were then [under Italian occupation](/source/Italian_invasion_of_Greece), were persecuted by the Italian fascists as well.[40] When the Italian fascists were in power, they also persecuted some [linguistic minorities](/source/Languages_of_Italy#Historical_linguistic_minorities) and [Protestant](/source/Protestantism) [denominations](/source/Christian_denomination) in Italy.[45]

## Etymology

The [fasces](/source/Fasces), a symbol of [Ancient Rome](/source/Ancient_Rome), was employed in the modern era by various political movements to denote strength through unity.[46]

The Italian term *fascismo* is derived from *fascio*, meaning "bundle of sticks", ultimately from the [Latin](/source/Latin_language) word *[fasces](/source/Fasces)*.[47] This was the name given to political organizations in Italy known as [fasci](/source/Fasci), groups similar to [guilds](/source/Guild) or [syndicates](/source/Syndicate). According to Italian fascist dictator [Benito Mussolini](/source/Benito_Mussolini)'s own account, the [Fasces of Revolutionary Action](/source/Fasci_d'Azione_Rivoluzionaria) were founded in Italy in 1915.[48] In 1919, Mussolini founded the [Italian Fasces of Combat](/source/Fasci_Italiani_di_Combattimento) in Milan, which became the [National Fascist Party](/source/National_Fascist_Party) two years later. The fascists came to associate the term with the ancient Roman fasces or *[fascio littorio](/source/Fascio_littorio)*,[49] a bundle of rods tied around an axe,[50] an [ancient Roman](/source/Ancient_Rome) symbol of the authority of the [civic magistrate](/source/Roman_Magistrates),[51] carried by his [lictors](/source/Lictor).[52] The symbolism of the fasces suggested strength through unity: a single rod is easily broken, while the bundle is difficult to break.[53]

Prior to 1914, the fasces symbol was widely employed by various political movements, often of a left-wing or liberal persuasion. For instance, according to the American political scientist and historian [Robert Paxton](/source/Robert_Paxton): "[Marianne](/source/Marianne), symbol of the [French Republic](/source/French_First_Republic), was often portrayed in the nineteenth century carrying the fasces to represent the force of Republican solidarity against her aristocratic and clerical enemies."[46] The symbol often appeared as an architectural motif, for instance on the [Sheldonian Theater](/source/Sheldonian_Theatre) at the [University of Oxford](/source/University_of_Oxford) and on the [Lincoln Memorial](/source/Lincoln_Memorial) in [Washington, D.C.](/source/Washington%2C_D.C.)[46]

## Principal beliefs

### Nationalism

Main articles: [Italian nationalism](/source/Italian_nationalism), [Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states](/source/Revolutions_of_1848_in_the_Italian_states), and [Risorgimento](/source/Risorgimento)

Further information: [First Italian War of Independence](/source/First_Italian_War_of_Independence), [Second Italian War of Independence](/source/Second_Italian_War_of_Independence), and [Third Italian War of Independence](/source/Third_Italian_War_of_Independence)

[Benito Mussolini](/source/Benito_Mussolini) and fascist [Blackshirt youth](/source/Blackshirts) in 1935

Italian fascism is based upon [Italian nationalism](/source/Italian_nationalism) and in particular, it seeks to complete what it considers the incomplete Italian nationalist project of *[Risorgimento](/source/Risorgimento)* ("Resurgence", 1815–1871) by incorporating the ["unredeemed"](/source/Italian_irredentism) [Italian-inhabited territories](/source/Italian_diaspora) scattered across the [Balkans](/source/Balkans) and [Southern Europe](/source/Southern_Europe) that both Italian nationalists and fascists regarded as *[Italia irredenta](/source/Italia_irredenta)* ("unredeemed Italy") into the [Kingdom of Italy](/source/Kingdom_of_Italy) after [its unification](/source/Unification_of_Italy) under the [House of Savoy](/source/House_of_Savoy) (1861).[57] The [National Fascist Party](/source/National_Fascist_Party) (PNF: *Partito Nazionale Fascista*), founded in [Milan](/source/Milan) by [Benito Mussolini](/source/Benito_Mussolini) in 1921, declared that the party was to serve as "a revolutionary militia placed at the service of the nation. It follows a policy based on three principles: order, discipline, hierarchy".[56]

It identifies [modern Italy](/source/Modern_history_of_Italy) as the heir to the [Roman Empire](/source/Roman_Empire) and Italy during the [Renaissance](/source/Renaissance) and it promotes the cultural identity of *[Romanitas](/source/Romanitas)* ("Romanness").[58] Italian fascism historically sought to forge a strong [Italian Empire](/source/Italian_colonial_empire) as a [Third Rome](/source/Third_Rome), identifying [ancient Rome](/source/Ancient_Rome) as the First Rome and [Renaissance-era Italy](/source/Italian_Renaissance) as the "Second Rome".[59] Italian fascism has attempted to emulate [ancient Rome](/source/Ancient_Rome) in many ways, and in particular Mussolini had emulated a few [Roman emperors](/source/Roman_emperors), such as [Julius Caesar](/source/Julius_Caesar) as a model for [Mussolini's rise to power](/source/March_on_Rome) and [Augustus](/source/Augustus) as a model for building the [Italian Empire](/source/Italian_Empire).[61] Italian fascism has directly promoted [colonialism](/source/Colonialism) and [imperialism](/source/Imperialism), expounded through the politico-philosophical essay and ideological manifesto *[The Doctrine of Fascism](/source/The_Doctrine_of_Fascism)* (*La dottrina del fascismo*, 1932), authored by the [actualist](/source/Actual_idealism) Italian philosopher [Giovanni Gentile](/source/Giovanni_Gentile),[62] [ghostwritten](/source/Ghostwriter) by Gentile himself on behalf of [Benito Mussolini](/source/Benito_Mussolini) and published in 1932:[63]

The Fascist state is a will to power and empire. The Roman tradition is here a powerful force. According to the Doctrine of Fascism, an empire is not only a territorial or military or mercantile concept, but a spiritual and moral one. One can think of an empire, that is, a nation, which directly or indirectly guides other nations, without the need to conquer a single square kilometre of territory.

— Benito Mussolini and Giovanni Gentile, *[The Doctrine of Fascism](/source/The_Doctrine_of_Fascism)* (1932)

#### Irredentism and expansionism

Main articles: [History of Italy](/source/History_of_Italy), [Italian irredentism](/source/Italian_irredentism), and [Italianization](/source/Italianization)

Further information: [Spazio vitale](/source/Spazio_vitale), [Italia irredenta](/source/Italia_irredenta), [Italian Empire](/source/Italian_Empire), [Mare Nostrum](/source/Mare_Nostrum), and [Mediterraneanism](/source/Mediterraneanism)

Italian ethnic regions claimed in the 1930s. [Savoy](/source/Italian_irredentism_in_Savoy) and [Corfu](/source/Italian_irredentism_in_Corfu) were later claimed.
  [Nice](/source/Italian_irredentism_in_Nice), [Ticino](/source/Italian_irredentism_in_Switzerland), and [Dalmatia](/source/Italian_irredentism_in_Dalmatia)

  [Malta](/source/Italian_irredentism_in_Malta)

  [Corsica](/source/Italian_irredentism_in_Corsica)

Italian fascism emphasized the need for the restoration and continuity of the Italian nationalist *[Risorgimento](/source/Risorgimento)* ("Resurgence", 1815–1871) tradition developed by [Giuseppe Mazzini](/source/Giuseppe_Mazzini) and [Giuseppe Garibaldi](/source/Giuseppe_Garibaldi) that followed the [unification of Italy](/source/Unification_of_Italy) under the [House of Savoy](/source/House_of_Savoy) (1861),[55] that the fascists claimed had been left incomplete and abandoned in [modern Italy](/source/Modern_history_of_Italy) due to the [liberal-led](/source/Liberals_(Italy)) [governments](/source/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Italy#Prime_ministers_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861–1946)) of the [Giolittian Era](/source/Giovanni_Giolitti).[64] In 1914, [Italian nationalists](/source/Italian_nationalism) began to campaign actively against the [Austro-Hungarian Empire](/source/Austro-Hungarian_Empire), which still controlled some [Italian-speaking "irredent lands"](/source/Italian_irredentism) in the aftermath of the [Third Italian War of Independence](/source/Third_Italian_War_of_Independence) (1866), and [Italian neutrality between the major European Powers](/source/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_I) after the [outbreak of the Great War](/source/Causes_of_World_War_I).[54] After the end of [World War I](/source/World_War_I) and during the [Interwar period](/source/Interwar_period) (1918–1939), the [Fascist regime](/source/Fascist_Italy) sought the incorporation of claimed "unredeemed" territories into the [Kingdom of Italy](/source/Kingdom_of_Italy) and the [Italian Empire](/source/Italian_colonial_empire).[67]

To the east of Italy, the Italian fascists claimed that [Dalmatia](/source/Dalmatia) was a land of [Italian culture](/source/Italian_culture), whose Italian population ([Dalmatian Italians](/source/Dalmatian_Italians)), including those of Italianized [South Slavic](/source/South_Slavs) descent, had been driven out of Dalmatia and into exile in Italy, and supported the return of Italians of Dalmatian heritage.[65] Mussolini identified Dalmatia as having strong Italian cultural roots for centuries due to their heritage being linked to the [Roman Empire](/source/Roman_Empire) and the [Republic of Venice](/source/Republic_of_Venice).[66] The fascists especially focused their claims based on the Venetian cultural heritage of Dalmatia, claiming that Venetian rule had been beneficial for all Dalmatians and had been accepted by the Dalmatian population.[66] In the [aftermath of World War I](/source/Aftermath_of_World_War_I), Italian fascists were outraged when the agreement between Italy and the [Entente Allies](/source/Triple_Entente) to have Dalmatia join Italy made in the 1915 [Treaty of London](/source/Treaty_of_London_(1915)) was revoked in 1919.[66] The Fascist regime supported the annexation of [Yugoslavia's region](/source/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia) of [Slovenia](/source/Slovene_Lands) into Italy that already held a portion of the [Slovene population](/source/Slovenes), whereby Slovenia would become an Italian province,[68] resulting in a quarter of Slovene ethnic territory and approximately 327,000 out of a total population of 1.3 million Slovenes[69] being subjected to forced [Italianization](/source/Italianization).[70][71] The fascist regime imposed mandatory Italianization upon the German and South Slavic populations living within Italy's borders.[72] The fascist regime abolished the teaching of minority German and Slavic languages in schools, German and Slavic language newspapers were shut down, and geographical and family names in areas of German or Slavic languages were to be Italianized forcibly.[72] This resulted in significant violence against South Slavs deemed to be resisting the fascist policy of Italianization.[72]

In addition, the fascist regime supported the [Italian annexation of Albania](/source/Italian_annexation_of_Albania), claiming that [Albanians](/source/Albanians) were ethnically related to Italians through links with the prehistoric [Italiote](/source/Italiotes), [Illyrian](/source/Illyrians), and [Roman](/source/Ancient_Rome) populations, and that the major influence exerted by the [Roman Empire](/source/Roman_Empire) and the [Republic of Venice](/source/Republic_of_Venice) over Albania in the previous centuries justified Italy's right to possess it.[74] The fascist regime also justified the annexation of Albania on the basis that*—*because several hundred thousand people of Albanian descent had been absorbed into society in southern Italy already*—*the incorporation of Albania was a reasonable measure that would unite people of Albanian descent into one state.[75] The fascist regime endorsed Albanian irredentism, directed against the predominantly [Albanian-populated](/source/Albanian_diaspora) [Kosovo](/source/Kosovo) and [Epirus](/source/Epirus_(region)), particularly in [Chameria](/source/Chameria), inhabited by a substantial number of Albanians.[76] After Italy annexed Albania in 1939, the fascist regime endorsed assimilating Albanians into Italians and colonizing Albania with Italian settlers from the [Italian Peninsula](/source/Italian_Peninsula) to gradually transform it into an Italian land.[77] The Fascist regime claimed the [Ionian Islands](/source/Ionian_Islands) as Italian territory on the basis that the islands had [belonged to the Venetian Republic](/source/Ionian_Islands_under_Venetian_rule) from the mid-14th until the late 18th century.[78]

To the west of Italy, the fascists claimed the territories of [Corsica](/source/Corsica), [Nice](/source/Nice), and [Savoy](/source/Savoy) and to the south claimed the territories of [Malta](/source/Malta) and [Corfu](/source/Corfu) due to the presence of [Corsican Italians](/source/Corsican_Italians), [Niçard Italians](/source/Ni%C3%A7ard_Italians), [Maltese Italians](/source/Maltese_Italians), [Corfiot Italians](/source/Corfiot_Italians), and [Savoyard Italians](/source/Savoyard_Italians).[79][80] During the period of Italian unification in 1860 to 1861, Prime Minister of [Piedmont-Sardinia](/source/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)), [Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour](/source/Camillo_Benso%2C_Count_of_Cavour), who was leading the unification effort, faced opposition from [French Emperor](/source/French_Emperor) [Napoleon III](/source/Napoleon_III) who indicated that France would oppose Italian unification unless France was given the [County of Nice](/source/County_of_Nice) and Savoy that were held by Piedmont-Sardinia, as France did not want a powerful state having control of all the passages of the Alps.[81] As a result, [Piedmont-Sardinia](/source/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)) was pressured to concede Nice and Savoy to France in exchange for France accepting the unification of Italy.[82] The fascist regime produced literature on Corsica that presented evidence of the *italianità* (Italianness) of the island.[83] The fascist regime produced literature on Nice that justified that Nice was an Italian land based on historic, ethnic and linguistic grounds.[83] The fascists quoted medieval Italian scholar [Petrarch](/source/Petrarch), who said: "The border of Italy is the Var; consequently Nice is a part of Italy".[83] The fascists quoted Italian national hero [Giuseppe Garibaldi](/source/Giuseppe_Garibaldi), who said: "Corsica and Nice must not belong to France; there will come the day when an Italy mindful of its true worth will reclaim its provinces now so shamefully languishing under foreign domination".[83] Mussolini initially pursued promoting annexation of Corsica through political and diplomatic means, believing that Corsica could be annexed to Italy through first encouraging the existing autonomist tendencies in Corsica and then the independence of Corsica from France, that would be followed by the annexation of Corsica into Italy.[84]

To the north of Italy, the fascist regime in the 1930s had designs on the largely Italian-populated region ([Swiss Italians](/source/Swiss_Italians)) of [Ticino](/source/Ticino) and the [Romansch-populated region](/source/Romansh_people) of [Graubünden](/source/Graub%C3%BCnden) in [Switzerland](/source/Switzerland) (the Romansch are a [Latin-speaking people](/source/Romance_languages) of the [Western Alps](/source/Western_Alps)).[85] In November 1938, Mussolini declared to the Grand Fascist Council: "We shall bring our border to the [Gotthard Pass](/source/Gotthard_Pass)".[86] The fascist regime accused the Swiss government of oppressing the Romansch people in Graubünden.[85] Mussolini argued that Romansch was an Italian dialect and thus Graubünden should be incorporated into Italy.[87] Ticino was also claimed because the region had belonged to the [Duchy of Milan](/source/Duchy_of_Milan) from the mid-fourteenth century until 1515, as well as being inhabited by Italian speakers of Italian ethnicity.[88] Claim was also raised on the basis that areas now part of Graubünden in the [Mesolcina valley](/source/Mesolcina_valley) and [Hinterrhein](/source/Hinterrhein_District) were held by the Milanese [Trivulzio](/source/Trivulzio) family, who ruled from the [Mesocco Castle](/source/Mesocco_Castle) in the late 15th century.[89] Also during the summer of 1940, [Galeazzo Ciano](/source/Galeazzo_Ciano) met with Hitler and Ribbentrop and proposed to them the dissection of Switzerland along the central chain of the [Western Alps](/source/Western_Alps), which would have left Italy also with the canton of [Valais](/source/Valais) in addition to the claims raised earlier.[90]

The session of the [Grand Council](/source/Grand_Council_of_Fascism) of 9 May 1936, where the [Italian Empire](/source/Italian_Empire) was proclaimed

To the south, the regime claimed the [archipelago of Malta](/source/Geography_of_Malta), which had been [ruled by the British Empire](/source/History_of_Malta#Malta_in_the_British_Empire_(1800–1964)) since 1800.[91] Mussolini claimed that the [Maltese language](/source/Maltese_language) was a dialect of Italian and theories about Malta being the cradle of the Latin civilization were promoted.[91][92] Italian had been widely used in Malta in the literary, scientific and legal fields and it was one of Malta's official languages until 1937 when its status was abolished by the British as a response to Italy's invasion of Ethiopia.[93] Italian irredentists had claimed that territories on the coast of [North Africa](/source/North_Africa) were Italy's [Fourth Shore](/source/Fourth_Shore) and used the historical Roman rule in North Africa as a precedent to justify the incorporation of such territories to Italian jurisdiction as being a "return" of Italy to North Africa.[94] In January 1939, [Italy annexed territories in Libya](/source/Italian_Libya#Foundation_of_Italian_Libya:_Unification_and_Fourth_Shore_(1934–1943)) that it considered within Italy's Fourth Shore, with Libya's four coastal provinces of Tripoli, Misurata, Benghazi and Derna becoming an integral part of metropolitan Italy.[95] At the same time, indigenous Libyans were given the ability to apply for "Special Italian Citizenship", which required such people to be literate in the [Italian language](/source/Italian_language) and confined this type of citizenship to be valid in Libya only.[95] [Tunisia](/source/French_protectorate_of_Tunisia), ruled by the [French Empire](/source/French_colonial_empire) as a protectorate since 1881, had the highest concentration of Italians in [North Africa](/source/North_Africa); its seizure by France had been viewed as an injury to national honour in Italy at what they perceived as a "loss" of Tunisia from Italian plans to incorporate it.[96] Upon entering [World War II](/source/World_War_II), Italy declared its intention to seize Tunisia as well as the province of [Constantine](/source/Constantine_(departement)) of [Algeria](/source/French_Algeria) from France.[97]

To the south, the fascist regime held an interest in expanding Italy's African colonial possessions. In the 1920s, Italy regarded [Portugal](/source/First_Portuguese_Republic) as a weak country that was unbecoming of a colonial power due to its weak hold on [its colonies](/source/Portuguese_Empire) and mismanagement of them, and as such Italy desired to annexe Portugal's colonies as well.[98] Italy's relations with Portugal were influenced by the rise to power of the [authoritarian conservative](/source/Authoritarian_conservatism) [nationalist dictatorship](/source/Ditadura_Nacional) of [António de Oliveira Salazar](/source/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Oliveira_Salazar),[101] which borrowed fascist methods,[102] though Salazar upheld Portugal's traditional alliance with the [United Kingdom](/source/United_Kingdom).[98]

#### Racism

Main article: [Italian fascism and racism](/source/Italian_fascism_and_racism)

Further information: [Italian racial laws](/source/Italian_racial_laws) and [Manifesto of Race](/source/Manifesto_of_Race)

Front page of the Italian newspaper *[Corriere della Sera](/source/Corriere_della_Sera)* on 11 November 1938: "*Le leggi per la difesa della razza approvate dal Consiglio dei ministri*" (English: "The laws for the defence of race approved by the [Council of Ministers](/source/Italian_Parliament_(1928%E2%80%931939))"). On the same day, the [Racial Laws](/source/Italian_racial_laws) entered into force under the [Italian Fascist regime](/source/Fascist_Italy_(1922%E2%80%931943)), enacting the racial discrimination and persecution of [Italian Jews](/source/Italian_Jews).[103]

Until [Benito Mussolini](/source/Benito_Mussolini)'s personal friendship with [Adolf Hitler](/source/Adolf_Hitler) and the [military-political alliance](/source/Pact_of_Steel) between Fascist Italy and [Nazi Germany](/source/Nazi_Germany), he had always denied any antisemitism within the [National Fascist Party](/source/National_Fascist_Party) (PNF). In the early 1920s, Mussolini wrote an article which stated that Fascism would never elevate a "[Jewish Question](/source/Jewish_Question)" and that "Italy knows no antisemitism and we believe that it will never know it" and then elaborated "let us hope that Italian Jews will continue to be sensible enough so as not to give rise to antisemitism in the only country where it has never existed".[104] In 1932 during a conversation with [Emil Ludwig](/source/Emil_Ludwig), Mussolini described antisemitism as a "German vice" and stated: "There was 'no Jewish Question' in Italy and could not be one in a country with a healthy system of government".[105] On several occasions, Mussolini spoke positively about Jews and the [Zionist movement](/source/Zionism).[106] Mussolini had initially rejected Nazi racism, especially the idea of a [master race](/source/Master_race), as "arrant nonsense, stupid and idiotic".[107]

In 1929, Mussolini acknowledged the contributions of Italian Jews to Italian society, despite their minority status, and believed that Jewish culture was Mediterranean, aligning with his early [Mediterraneanist perspective](/source/Mediterraneanism).[108] He also argued that [Italian Jews](/source/Italian_Jews) were natives to Italy, as [they had been living in the Italian Peninsula](/source/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy) since [Roman times](/source/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Roman_Empire).[111] Initially, [Fascist Italy](/source/Fascist_Italy_(1922%E2%80%931943)) did not enact comprehensive racist policies like those policies which were enacted by its [World War II Axis](/source/Axis_powers) partner [Nazi Germany](/source/Nazi_Germany).[112] Italy's [National Fascist Party](/source/National_Fascist_Party) leader, [Benito Mussolini](/source/Benito_Mussolini), expressed different views on the subject of [race](/source/Race_(human_categorization)) throughout his career. In an interview conducted in 1932 at the [Palazzo Venezia](/source/Palazzo_Venezia) in Rome, he said "Race? It is a feeling, not a reality: ninety-five percent, at least, is a feeling. Nothing will ever make me believe that biologically pure races can be shown to exist today".[113] After the [repression of anti-colonial resistance in Italian Libya](/source/Italian_Libya#History) (1911–1932) and the [Second Italo-Ethiopian War](/source/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War) (1935–1936), the Italian Fascist government implemented strict [racial segregation](/source/Racial_segregation) between Italians and Africans in all colonies of the [Italian Empire](/source/Italian_Empire).[114]

By 1938, Mussolini began to actively support racist policies in the Italian Fascist regime, as evidenced by his endorsement of the *[Manifesto of Race](/source/Manifesto_of_Race)*, the seventh point of which stated that "it is time that Italians proclaim themselves to be openly racist",[115] although Mussolini said that the Manifesto was endorsed "entirely for political reasons", in deference to [Nazi German](/source/Nazi_Germany) wishes.[116] The *[Manifesto of Race](/source/Manifesto_of_Race)* was published on 14 July 1938, paving the way for the enactment of the [Racial Laws](/source/Italian_racial_laws).[117] Leading members of the [National Fascist Party](/source/National_Fascist_Party), such as [Dino Grandi](/source/Dino_Grandi) and [Italo Balbo](/source/Italo_Balbo), reportedly opposed the Racial Laws.[118] Balbo, in particular, regarded antisemitism as having nothing to do with fascism and staunchly opposed the antisemitic laws.[119] After 1938, racial discrimination and persecution of ethnic minorities in Fascist Italy intensified and became an increasingly important hallmark of [Italian Fascist ideology and policies](/source/Fascism_and_ideology).[120] Nevertheless, Mussolini and the Italian military did not consistently apply the laws adopted in the *Manifesto of Race*.[121] In 1943, shortly after the [downfall of the Italian Fascist regime](/source/Fall_of_the_Fascist_regime_in_Italy), Mussolini expressed regret for the endorsement, saying that it could have been avoided.[122]

### Totalitarianism

Main article: [Totalitarianism](/source/Totalitarianism)

Further information: [Authoritarianism](/source/Authoritarianism) and [Caesarism](/source/Caesarism)

In 1925, the [National Fascist Party](/source/National_Fascist_Party) (PNF) declared that [Italy's fascist state](/source/Fascist_Italy) would be [totalitarian](/source/Totalitarianism).[56] The term "totalitarian" had initially been used as a pejorative accusation by Italy's liberal opposition that denounced the fascist movement for seeking to create a [total](/source/Totalitarianism) [dictatorship](/source/Dictatorship).[56] However, the fascists responded by accepting that they were totalitarian, but presented totalitarianism from a positive viewpoint.[56] Mussolini described totalitarianism as seeking to forge an authoritarian national state that would be capable of completing *Risorgimento* of the *Italia Irredenta*, forge a powerful modern Italy and create a new kind of citizen – politically active fascist Italians.[56] *[The Doctrine of Fascism](/source/The_Doctrine_of_Fascism)* (*La dottrina del fascismo*, 1932) by the [actualist](/source/Actual_idealism) Italian philosopher [Giovanni Gentile](/source/Giovanni_Gentile) is the official formulation of Italian fascism, [ghostwritten](/source/Ghostwriter) by Gentile and published under [Benito Mussolini](/source/Benito_Mussolini)'s name in 1932.[63] It described the totalitarian nature of Italian fascism, stating the following:

Fascism is for the only liberty which can be a serious thing, the liberty of the state and of the individual in the state. Therefore for the fascist, everything is in the state, and no human or spiritual thing exists, or has any sort of value, outside the state. In this sense fascism is totalitarian, and the fascist state which is the synthesis and unity of every value, interprets, develops and strengthens the entire life of the people.

— Benito Mussolini and Giovanni Gentile, *[The Doctrine of Fascism](/source/The_Doctrine_of_Fascism)* (1932)

American journalist [H. R. Knickerbocker](/source/H._R._Knickerbocker) wrote in 1941: "Mussolini's Fascist state is the least terroristic of the three totalitarian states. The terror is so mild in comparison with the Soviet or Nazi varieties, that it almost fails to qualify as terroristic at all." As example he described an Italian journalist friend who refused to become a fascist. He was fired from his newspaper and put under 24-hour surveillance, but otherwise not harassed; his employment contract was settled for a lump sum and he was allowed to work for the foreign press. Knickerbocker contrasted his treatment with the inevitable torture and execution under Stalin or Hitler, and stated "you have a fair idea of the comparative mildness of the Italian kind of totalitarianism".[123]

However, since [World War II historians](/source/Historiography_of_World_War_II) have noted that in Italy's colonies Italian fascism displayed extreme levels of violence. The [deaths of one-tenth of the population of the Italian colony of Libya](/source/Libyan_genocide_(1929%E2%80%931934)) occurred during the fascist era, including from the use of gassings, [concentration camps](/source/Concentration_camp), starvation and disease; and in Ethiopia during the [Second Italo-Ethiopian War](/source/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War) and afterwards by 1938 a quarter of a million Ethiopians had died.[124]

### Corporatist economics

Italian fascism promoted a [corporatist](/source/Corporatism) [economic system](/source/Economic_system). The economy involved employer and employee [syndicates](/source/Syndicate) being linked together in corporative associations to collectively represent the nation's economic producers and work alongside the state to set national economic policy.[14] Mussolini declared such economics as a "[Third Position](/source/Third_Position)" to capitalism and [Marxism](/source/Marxism). For instance, he said in 1935 that [orthodox capitalism](/source/Laissez-faire) no longer existed in the country. Preliminary plans as of 1939 intended to divide the country into 22 corporations which would send representatives to Parliament from each industry.[125]

State permission was required for almost any business activity, such as expanding a factory, merging a business, or to fire or lay off an employee. All wages were set by the government, and a [minimum wage](/source/Minimum_wage) was imposed in Italy. Restrictions on labor increased. While corporations still could earn profits,[125] Italian fascism supported criminalization of strikes by employees and [lockouts](/source/Lockout_(industry)) by employers as illegal acts it deemed as prejudicial to the national community as a whole.[126]

### Age and gender roles

The Italian fascists' political anthem was called *[Giovinezza](/source/Giovinezza)* ("Youth").[127] Fascism identifies the physical age period of youth as a critical time for the moral development of people that will affect society.[128]

Italian fascism pursued what it called "moral hygiene" of youth, particularly regarding [sexuality](/source/Human_sexuality).[129] Fascist Italy promoted what it considered normal sexual behaviour in youth while denouncing what it considered deviant sexual behaviour.[129] It condemned pornography, most forms of [birth control](/source/Birth_control) and contraceptive devices (with the exception of the [condom](/source/Condom)), homosexuality and prostitution as deviant sexual behaviour.[129] Fascist Italy regarded the promotion of male sexual excitation before [puberty](/source/Puberty) as the cause of criminality amongst male youth.[129] Fascist Italy reflected the belief of most Italians that homosexuality was wrong. Instead of the traditional Catholic teaching that it was a sin, a new approach was taken, based on the contemporary psychoanalysis, that it was a social disease.[129] Fascist Italy pursued an aggressive campaign to reduce prostitution of young women.[129]

Mussolini perceived [women](/source/Women_in_Italy)'s primary role to be childbearers while men were warriors,[130] once saying that "war is to man what maternity is to the woman".[131][132] In an effort to increase [birth rates](/source/Birth_rate), the Italian fascist government initiated policies designed to reduce a need for families to be [dependent on a dual-income](/source/Affluence_in_Italy). The most evident policy to lessen female participation in the workplace was a [program to encourage large families](/source/Pro-natalism), where parents were given subsidies for a second child, and proportionally increased subsidies for a third, fourth, fifth, and sixth child.[133] Italian fascism called for women to be honoured as "reproducers of the nation" and the Italian fascist government held ritual ceremonies to honour women's role within the Italian nation.[134] In 1934, Mussolini declared that employment of women was a "major aspect of the thorny problem of unemployment" and that for women working was "incompatible with childbearing". Mussolini went on to say that the solution to unemployment for men was the "exodus of women from the work force".[135] Although the initial *[Fascist Manifesto](/source/Fascist_Manifesto)* contained a reference to [universal suffrage](/source/Universal_suffrage), this [broad opposition to feminism](/source/Anti-feminism) meant that when it granted women the right to vote in 1925 it was limited purely to voting in local elections, and only applied to a small section of the female population. Furthermore, this reform was quickly made redundant as local elections were abolished in 1926 as a part of the [Exceptional Fascist Laws](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exceptional_Fascist_Laws&action=edit&redlink=1) [[it](https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leggi_fascistissime)].[136][137]

### Tradition

[Roman](/source/Ancient_Rome) [she-wolf](/source/She-wolf_(Roman_mythology)), symbol of the [founding legend of Rome](/source/Founding_of_Rome)

Italian fascism believed that the success of [Italian nationalism](/source/Italian_nationalism) required a clear sense of a shared past amongst the Italian people along with a commitment to a modernized Italy.[20] In a famous speech in 1926, Mussolini called for fascist art that was "traditionalist and at the same time modern, that looks to the past and at the same time to the future".[20]

Ancient symbols of [Roman civilization](/source/Ancient_Rome) were utilized by the Italian fascists, particularly the [fasces](/source/Fasces) that symbolized unity, authority and the exercise of power.[138] Other traditional symbols of ancient Rome used by the fascists included the [she-wolf](/source/She-wolf_(Roman_mythology)).[138] The fasces and the she-wolf symbolized the shared Roman heritage of all the regions that constituted the Italian nation.[138] In 1926, the fasces was adopted by the fascist government of Italy as a symbol of the state.[139] In that year, the fascist government attempted to have the Italian national flag redesigned to incorporate the fasces on it.[139] This attempt to incorporate the fasces on the flag was stopped by strong opposition to the proposal by Italian monarchists.[139] Afterwards, the fascist government in public ceremonies rose the national tricolour flag along with a fascist black flag.[140] Years later, and after Mussolini was forced from power by the King in 1943 only to be rescued by German forces, the [Italian Social Republic](/source/Italian_Social_Republic) founded by Mussolini and the fascists did incorporate the fasces on the state's war flag, which was a variant of the Italian tricolour national flag.

The issue of the rule of monarchy or republic in Italy was an issue that changed several times through the development of Italian fascism, as initially the fascist movement was [republican](/source/Republicanism) and denounced the [Savoy monarchy](/source/House_of_Savoy).[141] However, Mussolini tactically abandoned republicanism in 1922 and recognized that the acceptance of the monarchy was a necessary compromise to gain the support of the establishment to challenge the liberal constitutional order that also supported the monarchy.[141] King Victor Emmanuel III had become a popular ruler in the aftermath of Italy's gains after World War I and the army held close loyalty to the King, thus any idea of overthrowing the monarchy was discarded as foolhardy by the fascists at this point.[141] Importantly, fascism's recognition of monarchy provided fascism with a sense of historical continuity and legitimacy.[141] The fascists publicly identified King [Victor Emmanuel II](/source/Victor_Emmanuel_II), the first King of a reunited Italy who had initiated the *Risorgimento*, along with other historic Italian figures such as [Gaius Marius](/source/Gaius_Marius), Julius Caesar, Giuseppe Mazzini, [Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour](/source/Camillo_Benso%2C_Count_of_Cavour), Giuseppe Garibaldi and others, for being within a tradition of dictatorship in Italy that the fascists declared that they emulated.[142] However, this compromise with the monarchy did not yield a cordial relationship between the King and Mussolini.[141] Although Mussolini had formally accepted the monarchy, he pursued and largely achieved reducing the power of the King to that of a [figurehead](/source/Figurehead).[143][*[self-published source](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources)*] The King initially held complete nominal legal authority over the military through the *[Statuto Albertino](/source/Statuto_Albertino)*, but this was ended during the fascist regime when Mussolini created the position of [First Marshal of the Empire](/source/First_Marshal_of_the_Empire) in 1938, a two-person position of control over the military held by both the King and the head of government that had the effect of eliminating the King's previously exclusive legal authority over the military by giving Mussolini equal legal authority to the King over the military.[144] In the 1930s, Mussolini became aggravated by the monarchy's continued existence due to envy of the fact that his counterpart in Germany [Adolf Hitler](/source/Adolf_Hitler) was both head of state and head of government of a republic; and Mussolini in private denounced the monarchy and indicated that he had plans to dismantle the monarchy and create a republic with himself as head of state of Italy upon an Italian success in the then-anticipated major war about to erupt in Europe.[141]

After being removed from office and placed under arrest by the King in 1943, with the Kingdom of Italy's new non-fascist government switching sides from the [Axis Powers](/source/Axis_Powers) to [the Allies](/source/Allies_of_World_War_II), Italian fascism returned to republicanism and condemnation of the monarchy.[145] On 18 September 1943, Mussolini made his first public address to the Italian people since his rescue from arrest by allied German forces, in which he commended the loyalty of Hitler as an ally while condemning King Victor Emmanuel III of the Kingdom of Italy for betraying Italian fascism.[145] On the topic of the monarchy removing him from power and dismantling the fascist regime, Mussolini stated: "It is not the regime that has betrayed the monarchy, it is the monarchy that has betrayed the regime" and that "When a monarchy fails in its duties, it loses every reason for being. ... The state we want to establish will be national and social in the highest sense of the word; that is, it will be fascist, thus returning to our origins".[145] The fascists at this point did not denounce the [House of Savoy](/source/House_of_Savoy) in the entirety of its history and credited Victor Emmanuel II for his rejection of "scornfully dishonourable pacts" and denounced Victor Emmanuel III for betraying Victor Emmanuel II by entering a dishonourable pact with the Allies.[146]

The relationship between Italian fascism and the [Roman Catholic Church](/source/Roman_Catholic_Church) was mixed, as originally the fascists were highly [anti-clerical](/source/Anti-clericalism) and [hostile to Roman Catholicism](/source/Anti-Catholicism), though from the mid to late 1920s anti-clericalism lost ground in the movement as Mussolini in power sought to seek accord with the Church, as it held major influence on [Italian society](/source/History_of_Italy), with [most Italians being Roman Catholic](/source/Catholic_Church_in_Italy).[147] In 1929, the Fascist regime signed the [Lateran Treaty](/source/Lateran_Treaty) with the [Holy See](/source/Holy_See), a [concordat](/source/Concordat) between the Kingdom of Italy and the Roman Catholic Church that allowed for the creation of a small enclave known as [Vatican City](/source/Vatican_City) as a sovereign state representing the [papacy](/source/Papacy). This ended years of perceived alienation between the Church and the Italian government after Italy annexed the [Papal States](/source/Papal_States) in 1870. Italian fascism justified its adoption of [antisemitic laws](/source/Italian_racial_laws) in 1938 by claiming that Italy was fulfilling the Christian religious mandate of the Roman Catholic Church that had been initiated by [Pope Innocent III](/source/Pope_Innocent_III) in the [Fourth Lateran Council](/source/Fourth_Lateran_Council) of 1215, whereby the Pope issued [strict regulation on the life of Jews in Christian lands](/source/History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe). Jews were prohibited from holding any public office that would give them power over Christians and Jews were required to wear distinctive clothing to distinguish them from Christians.[148]

## Doctrine

Main articles: [Fascism and ideology](/source/Fascism_and_ideology) and [History of fascism](/source/History_of_fascism)

"Ceka" redirects here. For the Soviet secret police alternatively transliterated *Čeka*, see [Cheka](/source/Cheka).

[Giovanni Gentile](/source/Giovanni_Gentile), ideologue and [philosophical father](/source/Actual_idealism) of Italian fascism.[62] He was the [ghostwriter](/source/Ghostwriter) of *[The Doctrine of Fascism](/source/The_Doctrine_of_Fascism)* and author of the *[Manifesto of the Fascist Intellectuals](/source/Manifesto_of_the_Fascist_Intellectuals)*.

*[The Doctrine of Fascism](/source/The_Doctrine_of_Fascism)* (*La dottrina del fascismo*, 1932), authored by the [actualist](/source/Actual_idealism) Italian philosopher [Giovanni Gentile](/source/Giovanni_Gentile),[62] is the official formulation of Italian fascism, [ghostwritten](/source/Ghostwriter) by Gentile himself and published under [Benito Mussolini](/source/Benito_Mussolini)'s name in 1932.[63] Gentile was [intellectually](/source/Intellectualism) influenced by [Plato](/source/Plato), [G. W. F. Hegel](/source/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel), [Benedetto Croce](/source/Benedetto_Croce), and [Giambattista Vico](/source/Giambattista_Vico); thus, his actualist idealism was the basis for the fascist ideology.[63] Hence, the *Doctrine*'s *[Weltanschauung](/source/Weltanschauung)* proposes the world as action in the realm of humanity—beyond the quotidian constrictions of contemporary political trend, by rejecting "[perpetual peace](/source/World_peace)" as fantastical, and accepting [mankind](/source/Humans) as a species continually at [war](/source/War); those who meet the challenge, achieve [nobility](/source/Nobility).[63] To wit, actual idealism generally accepted that conquerors were the men of historical consequence, e.g. the Macedonian [Alexander the Great](/source/Alexander_the_Great), the Roman [Julius Caesar](/source/Julius_Caesar), the Frank [Charlemagne](/source/Charlemagne), and the French [Napoleon](/source/Napoleon_I_of_France). The philosopher–intellectual Gentile was especially inspired by the [civilization](/source/Greco-Roman_world), [cultural heritage](/source/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire), [military conquests](/source/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome), and [political hegemony](/source/Pax_Romana) of the [Roman Empire](/source/Roman_Empire) (27 BCE – 476 CE),[12] and the [way of life of ancient Romans](/source/Culture_of_ancient_Rome),[12] from whence Italian fascism derives its philosophical ideals and political aspiration:[63]

The Fascist accepts and loves life; he rejects and despises suicide as cowardly. Life as he understands it means duty, elevation, conquest; life must be lofty and full, it must be lived for oneself but above all for others, both near by and far off, present and future.

— Giovanni Gentile and Benito Mussolini, *[The Doctrine of Fascism](/source/The_Doctrine_of_Fascism)*, 1932[62]

Gentile defined fascism as an [anti-positivist](/source/Positivism#Criticism) and anti-intellectual doctrine, [epistemologically](/source/Epistemology) based on faith rather than reason.[150] [Fascist mysticism](/source/Fascist_mysticism) emphasized the importance of [political myths](/source/Political_myth), which were true not as [empirical facts](/source/Empiricism), but as "meta-reality".[151] Fascist visual arts, [architecture](/source/Fascist_architecture), [cinema](/source/Cinema_of_Italy#1930s), [radio and press](/source/Propaganda_in_Fascist_Italy), and [symbolism](/source/Fascist_symbolism) constituted a process which converted Fascism into a sort of a [civil religion](/source/Civil_religion) or [political religion](/source/Political_religion) in Italy.[152] *La dottrina del fascismo* states that fascism is a "religious conception of life" and forms a "spiritual community" in contrast to [bourgeois](/source/Bourgeois_nation) [materialism](/source/Economic_materialism).[149] Fascist slogans such as *Credere, Obbedire, Combattere* ("Believe, Obey, Fight") reflect the importance of political faith in Italian fascism.[149]

Emblem of the [National Fascist Party](/source/National_Fascist_Party) (PNF)

The earliest Italian fascist political organization, [Fasces of Revolutionary Action](/source/Fasci_d'Azione_Rivoluzionaria) (*Fasci d'Azione Rivoluzionaria*),[153] inspired by the programmatic manifesto of the [Revolutionary Fasces of Internationalist Action](/source/Fascio_Rivoluzionario_d'Azione_Internazionalista) (*Fascio Rivoluzionario d'Azione Internazionalista*) written by the Italian [national syndicalist](/source/National_syndicalism) [Alceste De Ambris](/source/Alceste_De_Ambris) and [left-wing interventionist](/source/Left-interventionism) [Filippo Corridoni](/source/Filippo_Corridoni) (5 October 1914), was founded by the then-journalist [Benito Mussolini](/source/Benito_Mussolini) in 1915.[48] Its successor, the [Italian Fasces of Combat](/source/Fasci_Italiani_di_Combattimento) (*Fasci Italiani di Combattimento*), was co-founded in [Milan](/source/Milan) by Mussolini,[154] [Futurist poet](/source/Futurism) and art theorist [Filippo Tommaso Marinetti](/source/Filippo_Tommaso_Marinetti),[154] and [WWI veteran](/source/Italy_in_World_War_I) and poet [Giuseppe Ungaretti](/source/Giuseppe_Ungaretti),[154] and its politico-philosophical tenets were presented through *[The Manifesto of the Fascist Struggle](/source/The_Manifesto_of_the_Fascist_Struggle)* (*Il manifesto dei fasci italiani di combattimento*, June 1919), written by Marinetti and De Ambris.[155] It was divided into four sections, describing the movement's objectives in political, social, military, and financial fields.[156] According to Israeli historian [Zeev Sternhell](/source/Zeev_Sternhell), "most syndicalist leaders were among the founders of the fascist movement", who in later years gained key posts in Mussolini's regime.[157] Mussolini expressed great admiration for the ideas of French philosopher and social theorist [Georges Sorel](/source/Georges_Sorel),[158] who he claimed was instrumental in birthing the core principles of Italian fascism.[159] Israeli historian [J. L. Talmon](/source/J._L._Talmon) argued that fascism billed itself "not only as an alternative, but also as the heir to socialism".[160]

*La dottrina del fascismo* proposed an Italy of greater living standards under a [one-party](/source/One-party_state) fascist system than under the [multi-party](/source/Multi-party_system) [liberal democratic](/source/Liberal_democracy) [Giolitti government](/source/Fifth_Giolitti_government) of 1920.[161] As the leader of the [National Fascist Party](/source/National_Fascist_Party) (PNF: *Partito Nazionale Fascista*), Mussolini said that democracy is "beautiful in theory; in practice, it is a fallacy" and spoke of celebrating the burial of the "putrid corpse of liberty".[163] In 1923, to give Deputy Mussolini control of the [pluralist](/source/Pluralism_(political_theory)) [parliamentary government](/source/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Italy#Prime_ministers_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861–1946)) of the [Kingdom of Italy](/source/Kingdom_of_Italy) (1861–1946), an Italian economist, the Baron [Giacomo Acerbo](/source/Giacomo_Acerbo), proposed—and the [Italian Parliament](/source/Parliament_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy) approved—the [Acerbo Law](/source/Acerbo_Law), changing the electoral system from [proportional representation](/source/Proportional_representation) to [majority representation](/source/Majority_representation_system). The party who received the most votes (provided they possessed at least 25 percent of cast votes) won two-thirds of the Parliament; the remaining third was proportionately shared among the other parties; thus, the fascist manipulation of liberal democratic law rendered Italy a [one-party state](/source/One-party_state).

In 1924, the PNF won the election with 65 percent of the votes,[164] yet the [United Socialist Party](/source/United_Socialist_Party_(Italy%2C_1922%E2%80%931930)) (PSU) refused to accept such a defeat—especially Deputy [Giacomo Matteotti](/source/Giacomo_Matteotti), who on 30 May 1924 in Parliament formally accused the PNF of [electoral fraud](/source/Electoral_fraud) and reiterated his denunciation of *[squadrismo](/source/Squadrismo)* to the Parliament, a form of [political repression](/source/Political_repression) and [politically-motivated violence](/source/Political_violence) perpetrated by the [Blackshirts](/source/Blackshirts) against Italian citizens and non-fascist politicians;[168] at that time, he was publishing a book substantiating his accusations, *The Fascists Exposed: A Year of Fascist Domination*.[170] Consequently, on 10 June 1924, the *Ceka*[171] (ostensibly a party [secret police](/source/Secret_police), modelled on the Soviet [Cheka](/source/Cheka)) assassinated Matteotti and of the five men arrested, [Amerigo Dumini](/source/Amerigo_Dumini), also known as *Sicario del Duce* ("The Leader's Assassin"), was sentenced to five years' imprisonment for [murder](/source/Murder) but served only eleven months, and was freed under amnesty from [King](/source/King_of_Italy) [Victor Emmanuel III](/source/Victor_Emmanuel_III).[167]

Moreover, when the King [endorsed](/source/Political_endorsement) Mussolini as [Prime Minister](/source/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Italy#Prime_ministers_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861–1946)) in the [aftermath of Matteotti's murder](/source/Matteotti_Crisis),[167] all members of the [Italian Socialist Party](/source/Italian_Socialist_Party), [Italian Liberal Party](/source/Italian_Liberal_Party), [Italian People's Party](/source/Italian_People's_Party_(1919)), and [Communist Party of Italy](/source/Communist_Party_of_Italy) from the [Chamber of Deputies](/source/Chamber_of_Deputies_(Kingdom_of_Italy)) quit the Parliament in protest through the [Aventine Secession](/source/Aventine_Secession_(20th_century)), leaving the fascists to govern unopposed.[173] At that time, assassination was not yet the *modus operandi* norm and the Italian fascist *Duce* usually disposed of opponents in the Imperial Roman way: political arrest punished with [island banishment](/source/Exile) (*confino*).[176] In 1925, after [Mussolini's rise to power](/source/1924_Italian_general_election), he assumed the title *[Duce](/source/Duce)* ("Leader"), derived from the Latin *[dux](/source/Dux)* ("leader"), a [Roman Republic](/source/Roman_Republic) military-command title. Although [Fascist Italy](/source/Fascist_Italy) (1922–1943) is considered to be an [authoritarian](/source/Authoritarianism)–[totalitarian](/source/Totalitarianism) [dictatorship](/source/Dictatorship) by contemporary historians, its government retained the original "[liberal democratic](/source/Liberal_democracy)" façade: the [Grand Council of Fascism](/source/Grand_Council_of_Fascism) remained active as administrators; and [King](/source/King_of_Italy) [Victor Emmanuel III](/source/Victor_Emmanuel_III) still held legal authority over Mussolini and all other subjects of [his kingdom](/source/Kingdom_of_Italy); hence, he could—at the risk of [his crown](/source/House_of_Savoy)—dismiss Mussolini as [Prime Minister](/source/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Italy#Prime_ministers_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861–1946)) anytime he wanted, as he eventually did on 25 July 1943.[6]

## Conditions which precipitated the rise of fascism

### Nationalist discontent

Main articles: [Aftermath of World War I](/source/Aftermath_of_World_War_I), [Balkan Front (World War I)](/source/Balkan_Front_(World_War_I)), and [Italian front (World War I)](/source/Italian_front_(World_War_I))

Further information: [Creation of Yugoslavia](/source/Creation_of_Yugoslavia), [Dissolution of Austria-Hungary](/source/Dissolution_of_Austria-Hungary), [Italia irredenta](/source/Italia_irredenta), and [Italian Empire](/source/Italian_Empire)

Map indicating [Italian-inhabited territories](/source/Italian_diaspora) (bright green) within the [Austro-Hungarian Empire](/source/Austria-Hungary) in 1911

Territories promised to Italy by the  [Treaty of London](/source/Treaty_of_London_(1915)) (1915): [South Tyrol](/source/South_Tyrol)/[Trentino-Alto Adige](/source/Trentino-Alto_Adige) (tan), the [Julian March](/source/Julian_March) and [Dalmatia](/source/Dalmatia) (tan), and the [Snežnik Plateau](/source/Sne%C5%BEnik_(plateau)) area (green). After the end of [World War I](/source/World_War_I) (1914–1918), Dalmatia was not assigned to Italy but to [Yugoslavia](/source/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia).

After the end of [World War I](/source/World_War_I) (1914–1918), despite the [Kingdom of Italy](/source/Kingdom_of_Italy) (1861–1946) being a full-partner [Allied Power](/source/Allies_of_World_War_I) against the [Central Powers](/source/Central_Powers), both [Italian nationalists](/source/Italian_nationalism) and fascists claimed that Italy had been cheated in the [Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye](/source/Treaty_of_Saint-Germain-en-Laye_(1919)) (1919); thus, the Allies had impeded Italy's progress to becoming a "Great Power".[172] Thenceforth, the [National Fascist Party](/source/National_Fascist_Party) (PNF) successfully exploited that "slight" to Italian nationalism in presenting fascism as best-suited for governing the country by successfully claiming that [democracy](/source/Democracy), [socialism](/source/Socialism), and [liberalism](/source/Liberalism) were failed political systems. The PNF arose to power in Italy after the [March on Rome](/source/March_on_Rome) in October 1922, consequent to the fascist leader [Benito Mussolini](/source/Benito_Mussolini)'s oratory and [Blackshirts](/source/Blackshirts)' [paramilitary political violence](/source/Squadrismo).[177]

At the [Paris Peace Conference](/source/Paris_Peace_Conference%2C_1919) in 1919, the Allies compelled the Kingdom of Italy to yield the Croatian seaport of Fiume ([Rijeka](/source/Rijeka)) to the [Kingdom of Yugoslavia](/source/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia). Moreover, elsewhere Italy was then excluded from the wartime secret [Treaty of London](/source/Treaty_of_London_(1915)) (1915) it had concorded with the [Triple Entente](/source/Triple_Entente);[178] wherein Italy was to leave the [Triple Alliance](/source/Triple_Alliance_(1882)) and join the enemy by [declaring war](/source/Declaration_of_war) against the [German Empire](/source/German_Empire) and [Austria-Hungary](/source/Austria-Hungary) in exchange for territories at war's end, upon which the Kingdom of Italy held claims ([South Tyrol](/source/South_Tyrol)/[Trentino-Alto Adige](/source/Trentino-Alto_Adige), the [Austrian Littoral](/source/Austrian_Littoral), [Istria](/source/Istria), [Dalmatia](/source/Dalmatia), the [Julian March](/source/Julian_March), and the [Snežnik Plateau](/source/Sne%C5%BEnik_(plateau))) based on terms set by the [Treaty of London](/source/Treaty_of_London_(1915)#Terms) in 1915 (see *[Mutilated victory](/source/Mutilated_victory)*).

In September 1919, the nationalist response of outraged Italian novelist, poet, and war hero [Gabriele D'Annunzio](/source/Gabriele_D'Annunzio) was declaring the establishment of the [Italian Regency of Carnaro](/source/Italian_Regency_of_Carnaro).[179] To his independent Italian state, he installed himself as the Regent *Duce* and promulgated the *Carta del Carnaro* (*[Charter of Carnaro](/source/Charter_of_Carnaro)*, 8 September 1920), a [politically syncretic](/source/Syncretic_politics) constitutional amalgamation of right-wing and left-wing [anarchist](/source/Anarchism), [proto-fascist](/source/History_of_fascism), and [democratic republican](/source/Republican_democracy) politics, which much influenced the politico-philosophic development of early Italian fascism. Consequent to the [Treaty of Rapallo](/source/Treaty_of_Rapallo%2C_1920) (1920), the metropolitan Italian military deposed the Regency of *Duce* D'Annunzio on Christmas 1920. In the development of the fascist model of government, D'Annunzio was a nationalist and not a fascist, whose legacy of political–[praxis](/source/Praxis_(process)) ("Politics as Theatre") was stylistic (ceremony, uniform, harangue and chanting) and not substantive, which Italian Fascism artfully developed as a government model.[179][180]

At the same time, Mussolini and many of his revolutionary syndicalist adherents gravitated towards a form of [revolutionary nationalism](/source/Revolutionary_nationalism) in an effort to "identify the 'communality' of man not with class, but with the nation".[181] According to [A. James Gregor](/source/A._James_Gregor), Mussolini came to believe that "Fascism was the only form of 'socialism' appropriate to the [proletarian nations](/source/Proletarian_nation) of the twentieth century" while he was in the process of shifting his views from socialism to nationalism.[182] [Enrico Corradini](/source/Enrico_Corradini), one of the early influences on Mussolini's thought and later a member of his administration, championed the concept of proletarian nationalism, writing about Italy in 1910: "We are the proletarian people in respect to the rest of the world. Nationalism is our socialism".[183] Mussolini would come to use similar wording, for instance referring to fascist Italy during World War II as the "proletarian nations that rise up against the plutocrats".[184]

### Labor unrest

A sociological study of violence in Italy (1919–1922) by [text mining](/source/Text_mining) (arrow width proportional to number of violent acts between social groups; click on large animated GIF image to see evolution)

Given Italian fascism's pragmatic [political amalgamations](/source/Syncretic_politics) of [left-wing](/source/Left-wing_politics) and [right-wing](/source/Right-wing_politics) socio-economic policies, discontented workers and peasants proved an abundant source of popular political power, especially because of peasant opposition to socialist agricultural collectivism. Thus armed, the former socialist Benito Mussolini oratorically inspired and mobilized country and working-class people: "We declare war on socialism, not because it is socialist, but because it has opposed nationalism". Moreover, for campaign financing in the 1920–1921 period, the [National Fascist Party](/source/National_Fascist_Party) (PNF) also courted the industrialists and historically feudal landowners by appealing to their fears of left-wing socialist and [Bolshevik](/source/Bolsheviks) labor politics and urban and rural strikes. The fascists promised a good business climate of cost-effective labor, wage and political stability; and the fascist Party was *en route* to power.

Historian Charles F. Delzell reports: "At first, the Fascist Revolutionary Party was concentrated in Milan and a few other cities. They gained ground quite slowly, between 1919 and 1920; not until after the scare, brought about by the workers "occupation of the factories" in the late summer of 1920 did fascism become really widespread. The industrialists began to throw their financial support behind Mussolini after he renamed his party and retracted his former support for Lenin and the Russian Revolution. Moreover, toward the end of 1920, fascism began to spread into the countryside, bidding for the support of large landowners, particularly in the area between Bologna and Ferrara, a traditional stronghold of the Left, and scene of frequent violence. Socialist and Catholic organizers of farm hands in that region, Venezia Giulia, Tuscany, and even distant Apulia, were soon attacked by [Blackshirt fascist squads](/source/Blackshirts), armed with castor oil, blackjacks, and more lethal weapons. The era of *[squadrismo](/source/Squadrismo)* and nightly expeditions to burn Socialist and Catholic labor headquarters had begun. During this time period, Mussolini's fascist squads also engaged in violent attacks against the Church where "several priests were assassinated and churches burned by the fascists".[185]

## Empowerment of fascism

Main articles: [Aftermath of World War I](/source/Aftermath_of_World_War_I), [Biennio Rosso](/source/Biennio_Rosso), and [Revolutions of 1917–1923](/source/Revolutions_of_1917%E2%80%931923)

Further information: [Mutilated victory](/source/Mutilated_victory), [Treaty of Sèvres § Italy](/source/Treaty_of_S%C3%A8vres#Italy), [Treaty of Versailles § Italy](/source/Treaty_of_Versailles#Italy), and [World War I reparations](/source/World_War_I_reparations)

[World War I](/source/World_War_I) inflated Italy's economy with [great debts](/source/World_War_I_reparations), [unemployment](/source/Unemployment) (aggravated by thousands of demobilised soldiers), social discontent featuring general strikes, [organized crime](/source/Organized_crime_in_Italy),[172] and [anarchist](/source/Anarchism), [socialist](/source/Socialism), and [communist](/source/Communism) insurrections in the country and [across Europe](/source/Revolutions_of_1917%E2%80%931923) (1917–1923).[186] The [liberal-led](/source/Liberal_Union_(Italy)) [Giolitti governments](/source/Giovanni_Giolitti) preferred fascist [class collaboration](/source/Class_collaboration) to the [Communist Party of Italy](/source/Communist_Party_of_Italy)'s [class conflict](/source/Class_conflict) should they assume government as had [Vladimir Lenin](/source/Vladimir_Lenin)'s [Bolsheviks](/source/Bolshevism) in the recent [Russian Revolution](/source/Russian_Revolution_(1917)) of 1917,[187] although Mussolini had originally praised Lenin's October Revolution[188] and publicly referred to himself in 1919 as "Lenin of Italy".[189]

When the elected [Italian Liberal Party](/source/Italian_Liberal_Party) (PLI) could not rule the country anymore due to social unrests, the fascist leader [Benito Mussolini](/source/Benito_Mussolini) took matters in hand, combating those issues with the [Blackshirts](/source/Blackshirts), paramilitary squads of WWI veterans and former socialists, when [Prime Ministers](/source/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Italy#Prime_ministers_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861–1946)) such as [Giovanni Giolitti](/source/Giovanni_Giolitti) allowed the fascists taking the law in hand.[187] The [political violence](/source/Political_violence) between socialist militants and the mostly self-organized [Blackshirt fascist squads](/source/Blackshirts), especially in the countryside, had increased so dramatically that Mussolini was pressured to call a truce to bring about "reconciliation with the Socialists".[190] Signed in early August 1921, Mussolini and the major representatives of the [Italian Socialist Party](/source/Italian_Socialist_Party) (PSI) agreed to the [Pact of Pacification](/source/Pact_of_Pacification), which was immediately condemned by most ras leaders in the *[squadrismo](/source/Squadrismo)*. The peace pact was officially denounced during the Third Fascist Congress on 7–10 November 1921.

Mussolini and the fascist paramilitary Blackshirts' [March on Rome](/source/March_on_Rome) in October 1922

Italy's use of daredevil elite [shock troops](/source/Shock_troops), known as the *[Arditi](/source/Arditi)*, beginning in 1917, was an important influence on Italian fascism.[191] The *Arditi* were soldiers who were specifically trained for a life of violence and wore unique blackshirt uniforms and [fezzes](/source/Fez_(hat)).[191] The *Arditi* formed a national organization in November 1918, the *Associazione fra gli Arditi d'Italia*, which by mid-1919 had about twenty thousand young men within it.[191] Mussolini appealed to the *Arditi* and the Fascists' *[squadristi](/source/Milizia_Volontaria_per_la_Sicurezza_Nazionale)*, developed after the war, were based upon the *Arditi*.[191] By the early 1920s, popular support for the fascist movement's fight against Bolshevism numbered some 250,000 people. In 1921, the fascists metamorphosed into the PNF and achieved political legitimacy when Mussolini was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1922.[172] Although the Liberal Party retained power, the governing [prime ministries](/source/Prime_Minister) proved ephemeral, especially that of the fifth Prime Minister [Luigi Facta](/source/Luigi_Facta), whose government proved vacillating.[172]

To [depose](/source/Deposition_(politics)) the weakened [parliamentary democracy](/source/Parliamentary_system), Deputy Mussolini (with military, business, and liberal right-wing support) launched the [March on Rome](/source/March_on_Rome) (27–31 October 1922) [coup d'état](/source/Coup_d'%C3%A9tat) to oust [Prime Minister](/source/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Italy#Prime_ministers_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861–1946)) [Luigi Facta](/source/Luigi_Facta) and assume the government of Italy to restore nationalist pride, restart the economy, increase productivity with labor controls, remove economic business controls, and impose [law and order](/source/Law_and_order_(politics)).[172] On 28 October, whilst the March occurred, [King](/source/King_of_Italy) [Victor Emmanuel III](/source/Victor_Emmanuel_III) withdrew his support to the [liberal-led](/source/Italian_Liberal_Party) [Facta government](/source/Second_Facta_government) and appointed Mussolini as the sixth Prime Minister of Italy.[2] The March on Rome became a victory parade: the fascists believed their success was revolutionary and [traditionalist](/source/Traditional_values).[2][192][193]

### Economy

Main article: [Economy of Italy under fascism](/source/Economy_of_Italy_under_fascism)

1939 Dutch [Fiat](/source/Fiat) advertisement

Until 1925, when the liberal economist [Alberto de' Stefani](/source/Alberto_de'_Stefani), although a former member of the *squadristi*, was removed from his post as Minister of Economics (1922–1925), Italy's coalition government was able to restart the economy and balanced the national budget. Stefani developed economic policies that were aligned with classical liberalism principles as [inheritance](/source/Inheritance_tax), [luxury](/source/Luxury_tax) and [foreign capital taxes](/source/International_taxation) were abolished;[194] and [life insurance](/source/Life_insurance) (1923)[195] and the state communications monopolies were [privatised](/source/Privatisation) and so on. During Italy's coalition government era, pro-business policies apparently did not contradict the State's financing of banks and industry. Political scientist Franklin Hugh Adler referred to this coalition period between Mussolini's appointment as prime minister on 31 October 1922 and his 1925 dictatorship as "Liberal-Fascism, a hybrid, unstable, and transitory regime type under which the formal juridical-institutional framework of the liberal regime was conserved", which still allowed pluralism, competitive elections, freedom of the press and the right of trade unions to strike.[196] Liberal Party leaders and industrialists thought that they could neutralize Mussolini by making him the head of a coalition government, where as [Luigi Albertini](/source/Luigi_Albertini) remarked that "he will be much more subject to influence".[197]

One of Prime Minister Mussolini's first acts was the 400-million-lira financing of [Gio. Ansaldo & C.](/source/Gio._Ansaldo_%26_C.), one of the country's most important engineering companies. Subsequent to the 1926 [deflation](/source/Deflation) crisis, banks such as the *Banco di Roma* (Bank of Rome), the *Banco di Napoli* (Bank of Naples) and the *[Banco di Sicilia](/source/Banco_di_Sicilia)* (Bank of Sicily) also were state-financed.[198] In 1924, a private business enterprise established *[Unione Radiofonica Italiana](/source/Unione_Radiofonica_Italiana)* (URI) as part of the [Marconi](/source/Guglielmo_Marconi) company, to which the Italian fascist Government granted official radio-broadcast monopoly. After the defeat of fascism in 1944, URI became *[Radio Audizioni Italiane](/source/Radio_Audizioni_Italiane)* (RAI) and was renamed RAI *— Radiotelevisione Italiana* with the advent of television in 1954.

The inauguration of [Littoria](/source/Littoria) in 1932

Given the overwhelmingly rural nature of Italian economy in the period, agriculture was vital to fascist economic policies and propaganda. To strengthen the domestic Italian production of grain, the fascist Government established in 1925 [protectionist](/source/Protectionist) policies that ultimately failed (see the [Battle for Grain](/source/Battle_for_Grain)).

From 1926 following the [Pact of the Vidoni Palace](/source/Pact_of_the_Vidoni_Palace) and the [Syndical Laws](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Syndical_Laws&action=edit&redlink=1), business and labour were organized into 12 separate associations, outlawing or integrating all others. These organizations negotiated labour contracts on behalf of all its members with the state acting as the arbitrator. The state tended to favour big industry over small industry, commerce, banking, agriculture, labour and transport even though each sector officially had equal representation.[199] Pricing, production and distribution practices were controlled by employer associations rather than individual firms and labour syndicates negotiated collective labour contracts binding all firms in the particular sector. Enforcement of contracts was difficult and the large bureaucracy delayed resolutions of labour disputes.[200]

After 1929, the fascist regime countered the [Great Depression](/source/Great_Depression) with massive [public works](/source/Public_works) programs, such as the draining of the [Pontine Marshes](/source/Pontine_Marshes), [hydroelectricity](/source/Hydroelectricity) development, railway improvement and rearmament.[201] In 1933, the [Istituto per la Ricostruzione Industriale](/source/Istituto_per_la_Ricostruzione_Industriale) (IRI – Institute for Industrial Reconstruction) was established to subsidize failing companies and soon controlled important portions of the national economy via [government-linked companies](/source/Government-linked_companies), among them [Alfa Romeo](/source/Alfa_Romeo). The Italian economy's [Gross National Product](/source/Gross_National_Product) increased 2 percent; automobile production was increased, especially that of the [Fiat](/source/Fiat) motor company;[202] and the [aeronautical](/source/Aeronautical) industry was developing.[172] Especially after the 1936 League of Nations sanctions against Italian invasion of Ethiopia, Mussolini strongly advocated [agrarianism](/source/Agrarianism) and [autarchy](/source/Autarky) as part of his economic "battles" for [Land](/source/Battle_for_Land), the [Lira](/source/Battle_for_the_Lira) and [Grain](/source/Battle_for_Grain). As Prime Minister, Mussolini physically participated with the workers in doing the work; the "politics as theatre" legacy of Gabriele D' Annunzio yielded great propaganda images of *Il Duce* as "Man of the People".[203][204]

A year after the creation of the IRI, Mussolini boasted to his Chamber of Deputies: "Three-fourths of the Italian economy, industrial and agricultural, is in the hands of the state".[205][206] As Italy continued to nationalize its economy, the IRI "became the owner not only of the three most important Italian banks, which were clearly too big to fail, but also of the lion's share of the Italian industries".[207] During this period, Mussolini identified his economic policies with "state capitalism" and "state socialism", which later was described as "economic dirigisme", an economic system where the state has the power to direct economic production and allocation of resources.[208] By 1939, fascist Italy attained the highest rate of state–ownership of an economy in the world other than the Soviet Union,[209] where the Italian state "controlled over four-fifths of Italy's shipping and shipbuilding, three-quarters of its pig iron production and almost half that of steel".[210]

### Relationship with the Catholic Church

Main article: [Lateran Treaty](/source/Lateran_Treaty)

The "[Roman Question](/source/Roman_Question)" was resolved with the mutual recognition of the [Kingdom of Italy](/source/Kingdom_of_Italy) and the [Vatican City-State](/source/Vatican_City-State) in 1929

In the 19th century, the Italian liberal, nationalist, and republican forces of *[Risorgimento](/source/Risorgimento)* (1815–1871) [had conquered Rome](/source/Capture_of_Rome) and taken control of it away from the [Papacy](/source/Papacy), which saw itself henceforth as a "[prisoner in the Vatican](/source/Prisoner_in_the_Vatican)". In February 1929, as Italian Head of Government, Mussolini concluded the unresolved Church–State conflict of the "[Roman Question](/source/Roman_Question)" (*Questione Romana*) with the [Lateran Treaty](/source/Lateran_Treaty) between [Fascist Italy](/source/Fascist_Italy) and the [Holy See](/source/Holy_See), establishing the [Vatican](/source/Vatican_City) [microstate](/source/Microstate) in Rome. Upon ratification of the Lateran Treaty, the papacy recognized the state of Italy in exchange for diplomatic recognition of the Vatican City,[211] territorial compensations, introduction of religious education into all state funded schools in Italy[161][212] and 50 million [pounds sterling](/source/Pounds_sterling) that were shifted from Italian bank shares into a Swiss company Profima SA. British wartime records from the *National Archives in Kew* also confirmed Profima SA as the Vatican's company which was accused during World War II of engaging in "activities contrary to Allied interests". Cambridge historian [John F. Pollard](/source/John_F._Pollard) wrote in his book that this financial settlement ensured the "papacy [...] would never be poor again".[213]

Not long after the Lateran Treaty was signed, Mussolini was almost "excommunicated" over his "intractable" determination to prevent the Vatican from having control over education.[214] In reply, the Pope protested Mussolini's "pagan worship of the state" and the imposition of an "exclusive oath of obedience" that obligated everyone to uphold fascism.[214] Once declaring in his youth that "religion is a species of mental disease",[215] Mussolini "wanted the appearance of being greatly favoured by the Pope" while simultaneously "subordinate to no one".[214] Mussolini's widow attested in her 1974 book that her husband was "basically irreligious until the later years of his life".[216]

### Influence outside Italy

Main articles: [Fascism in Europe](/source/Fascism_in_Europe) and [History of fascism](/source/History_of_fascism)

Further information: [Extreme right](/source/Extreme_right), [List of fascist movements](/source/List_of_fascist_movements), and [Neo-fascism](/source/Neo-fascism)

After the [March on Rome](/source/March_on_Rome) in October 1922, Italian fascism [spread throughout Europe](/source/History_of_fascism), becoming an influential model for [other fascist organizations across the continent](/source/Fascism_in_Europe).[219] In the twenty-one-year [interbellum](/source/Interbellum) period, many artists, political scientists, and philosophers sought ideological inspiration from [Fascist Italy](/source/Fascist_Italy).[220] Mussolini's establishment of law and order to Italy and its society was praised by [Winston Churchill](/source/Winston_Churchill),[221] [Sigmund Freud](/source/Sigmund_Freud),[222] [George Bernard Shaw](/source/George_Bernard_Shaw),[223] and [Thomas Edison](/source/Thomas_Edison),[224] as the Italian fascist government combated [organized crime](/source/Organized_crime_in_Italy) and the [Sicilian Mafia](/source/Sicilian_Mafia).[225]

Italian fascism was copied by [Adolf Hitler](/source/Adolf_Hitler)'s [Nazi Party](/source/Nazi_Party) (NSDAP), the Romanian [National Fascist Movement](/source/National_Fascist_Movement) (comprising the [National Romanian Fascia](/source/National_Romanian_Fascia) and [National Italo-Romanian Cultural and Economic Movement](/source/National_Italo-Romanian_Cultural_and_Economic_Movement)), the [Russian Fascist Organization](/source/Russian_Fascist_Organization) (RFO), and the Dutch fascist movement based upon the *[Verbond van Actualisten](/source/Verbond_van_Actualisten)* journal of [H. A. Sinclair de Rochemont](/source/H._A._Sinclair_de_Rochemont) and [Alfred Haighton](/source/Alfred_Haighton). The [Sammarinese Fascist Party](/source/Sammarinese_Fascist_Party) (PFS) established an early fascist government in [San Marino](/source/San_Marino), and their politico-philosophic basis essentially was Italian fascism.

In the [Kingdom of Yugoslavia](/source/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia), Serbian politician and economist [Milan Stojadinović](/source/Milan_Stojadinovi%C4%87) established the [Yugoslav Radical Union](/source/Yugoslav_Radical_Union) (JRZ); they wore green shirts and [Šajkača](/source/%C5%A0ajka%C4%8Da) caps, and used the [Roman salute](/source/Roman_salute). Stojadinović also adopted the title of *Vodja* (a [Slavic term](/source/Slavic_languages) with the same meaning as *Duce* or *Führer*). In [Switzerland](/source/Switzerland), pro-Nazi Colonel [Arthur Fonjallaz](/source/Arthur_Fonjallaz) of the [National Front](/source/National_Front_(Switzerland)) became an ardent Mussolini admirer after visiting Fascist Italy in 1932, and advocated the Italian annexation of Switzerland whilst receiving fascist foreign aid.[226] The country was host for two Italian politico-cultural activities: the International Centre for Fascist Studies (CINEF: *Centre International d' Études Fascistes*) and the 1934 congress of the Action Committee for the Universality of Rome (CAUR: *Comitato d'Azione della Università di Roma*).[227]

In [Portugal](/source/First_Portuguese_Republic) and [Brazil](/source/First_Brazilian_Republic), fascist and para-fascist mass movements that took inspiration from Italian fascism contributed to the establishment of quasi-fascist authoritarian dictatorships in both countries: the *[Ditadura Nacional](/source/Ditadura_Nacional)* ("National Dictatorship") under [António de Oliveira Salazar](/source/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Oliveira_Salazar) and the *[Estado Novo](/source/Estado_Novo_(Brazil))* ("New State") under [Getúlio Vargas](/source/Get%C3%BAlio_Vargas), respectively.[228] In [Spain](/source/Second_Spanish_Republic), the writer [Ernesto Giménez Caballero](/source/Ernesto_Gim%C3%A9nez_Caballero) in *Genio de España* (*The Genius of Spain*, 1932) called for the Italian annexation of Spain, led by Mussolini presiding over an international [Latin](/source/Latin_Church) [Catholic](/source/Catholic_Church) empire. He then progressed to become more closely associated with [Falangism](/source/Falangism), which led him to discard his former idea of a Spanish annexation to Fascist Italy.[229]

## Italian fascist intellectuals

- [Benito Mussolini](/source/Benito_Mussolini)

- [Massimo Bontempelli](/source/Massimo_Bontempelli)

- [Giuseppe Bottai](/source/Giuseppe_Bottai)

- [Enrico Corradini](/source/Enrico_Corradini)

- [Carlo Costamagna](/source/Carlo_Costamagna)

- [Julius Evola](/source/Julius_Evola)

- [Enrico Ferri](/source/Enrico_Ferri_(criminologist))

- [Giovanni Gentile](/source/Giovanni_Gentile)

- [Corrado Gini](/source/Corrado_Gini)

- [Agostino Lanzillo](/source/Agostino_Lanzillo)

- [Curzio Malaparte](/source/Curzio_Malaparte)

- [Filippo Tommaso Marinetti](/source/Filippo_Tommaso_Marinetti)

- [Robert Michels](/source/Robert_Michels)

- [Angelo Oliviero Olivetti](/source/Angelo_Oliviero_Olivetti)

- [Sergio Panunzio](/source/Sergio_Panunzio)

- [Giovanni Papini](/source/Giovanni_Papini)

- [Giuseppe Prezzolini](/source/Giuseppe_Prezzolini)

- [Alfredo Rocco](/source/Alfredo_Rocco)

- [Edmondo Rossoni](/source/Edmondo_Rossoni)

- [Margherita Sarfatti](/source/Margherita_Sarfatti)

- [Ardengo Soffici](/source/Ardengo_Soffici)

- [Ugo Spirito](/source/Ugo_Spirito)

- [Giuseppe Ungaretti](/source/Giuseppe_Ungaretti)

- [Gioacchino Volpe](/source/Gioacchino_Volpe)

## Italian fascist slogans

"We dream of a Roman Italy" was one of the many fascist slogans.

- *Me ne frego* ("I don't give a damn!"), the Italian fascist [motto](/source/Motto).[230]

- *Libro e moschetto, fascista perfetto* ("Book and musket, perfect fascist").

- *Tutto nello Stato, niente al di fuori dello Stato, nulla contro lo Stato* ("Everything in the State, nothing outside the State, nothing against the State").[231]

- *Credere, obbedire, combattere* ("Believe, Obey, Fight").[232]

- *Chi si ferma è perduto* ("He who hesitates is lost").

- *Se avanzo, seguitemi; se indietreggio, uccidetemi; se muoio, vendicatemi* ("If I advance, follow me. If I retreat, kill me. If I die, avenge me"). Borrowed from French Royalist General [Henri de la Rochejaquelein](/source/Henri_de_la_Rochejaquelein).[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

- *Viva il Duce* ("Long live the Leader").

- *La guerra è per l'uomo come la maternità è per la donna* ("War is to man as motherhood is to woman").[233]

- *Boia chi molla* ("Who gives up is a rogue"); the first meaning of "boia" is "executioner, hangman", but in this context it means "scoundrel, rogue, villain, blackguard, knave, lowlife" and it can also be used as an exclamation of strong irritation or disappointment or as a pejoratively superlative adjective (e.g. *tempo boia*, "awful weather").[234]

- *Molti nemici, molto onore* ("Many enemies, much Honor").[235]

- *È l'aratro che traccia il solco, ma è la spada che lo difende* ("The plough cuts the furrow, but the sword defends it").

- *Dux mea lux* ("The Leader is my light"), Latin phrase.

- *Duce, a noi* ("Duce, to us").[236]

- *Mussolini ha sempre ragione* ("Mussolini is always right").[237]

- *Vincere, e vinceremo* ("To win, and we shall win!").

- *O con noi, o contro di noi* ("You're either with us or against us").[238]

## Italian anti-fascism

Main article: [Anti-fascism](/source/Anti-fascism)

### During Benito Mussolini's dictatorship

See also: [Italian resistance movement](/source/Italian_resistance_movement) and [Italian Civil War](/source/Italian_Civil_War)

Flag of *[Arditi del Popolo](/source/Arditi_del_Popolo)*, an axe cutting a *[fasces](/source/Fasces)*. *Arditi del Popolo* was a militant anti-fascist group founded in 1921 in Italy.

In Italy, Mussolini's fascist regime used the term *anti-fascist* to describe its opponents. Mussolini's [secret police](/source/Secret_police) was officially known as the [Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism](/source/Organization_for_Vigilance_and_Repression_of_Anti-Fascism). During the 1920s in the [Kingdom of Italy](/source/Kingdom_of_Italy), anti-fascists, many of them from the [labor movement](/source/Labor_movement), fought against the violent [Blackshirts](/source/Blackshirts) and against the rise of the fascist leader Benito Mussolini. After the [Italian Socialist Party](/source/Italian_Socialist_Party) (PSI) signed a [pacification pact](/source/Pact_of_Pacification) with Mussolini and his [Fasces of Combat](/source/Fasci_Italiani_di_Combattimento) on 3 August 1921,[239] and trade unions adopted a legalist and pacified strategy, members of the workers' movement who disagreed with this strategy formed *[Arditi del Popolo](/source/Arditi_del_Popolo)*.[240]

The [Italian General Confederation of Labour](/source/Italian_General_Confederation_of_Labour) (CGL) and the PSI refused to officially recognize the anti-fascist militia and maintained a non-violent, legalist strategy, while the [Communist Party of Italy](/source/Communist_Party_of_Italy) (PCd'I) ordered its members to quit the organization. The PCd'I organized some militant groups, but their actions were relatively minor.[241] The Italian anarchist [Severino Di Giovanni](/source/Severino_Di_Giovanni), who exiled himself to Argentina following the 1922 [March on Rome](/source/March_on_Rome), organized several bombings against the Italian fascist community.[242] The Italian liberal anti-fascist [Benedetto Croce](/source/Benedetto_Croce) wrote his *[Manifesto of the Anti-Fascist Intellectuals](/source/Manifesto_of_the_Anti-Fascist_Intellectuals)*, which was published in 1925.[243] Other notable Italian liberal anti-fascists around that time were [Piero Gobetti](/source/Piero_Gobetti) and [Carlo Rosselli](/source/Carlo_Rosselli).[244]

1931 badge of a member of [Concentrazione Antifascista Italiana](/source/Concentrazione_Antifascista_Italiana)

[Concentrazione Antifascista Italiana](/source/Concentrazione_Antifascista_Italiana) (English: Italian Anti-Fascist Concentration), officially known as Concentrazione d'Azione Antifascista (Anti-Fascist Action Concentration), was an Italian coalition of Anti-Fascist groups which existed from 1927 to 1934. Founded in [Nérac](/source/N%C3%A9rac), France, by expatriate Italians, the CAI was an alliance of non-communist anti-fascist forces (republican, socialist, nationalist) trying to promote and to coordinate expatriate actions to fight fascism in Italy; they published a propaganda paper entitled *La Libertà*.[245][246][247]

Flag of [Giustizia e Libertà](/source/Giustizia_e_Libert%C3%A0), anti-fascist movement active from 1929 to 1945

[Giustizia e Libertà](/source/Giustizia_e_Libert%C3%A0) (English: Justice and Freedom) was an early underground organization formed by [anti-fascist](/source/Anti-fascism) members of the [Italian resistance movement](/source/Italian_resistance_movement), active from 1929 to 1945.[248] The movement was cofounded by [Carlo Rosselli](/source/Carlo_Rosselli),[248] [Ferruccio Parri](/source/Ferruccio_Parri), who later became [Prime Minister of Italy](/source/Prime_Minister_of_Italy), and [Sandro Pertini](/source/Sandro_Pertini), who became [President of Italy](/source/President_of_Italy), were among the movement's leaders.[249] The movement's members held various political beliefs but shared a belief in active, effective opposition to fascism, compared to the older Italian anti-fascist parties. *Giustizia e Libertà* also made the international community aware of the realities of fascism in Italy, thanks to the work of [Gaetano Salvemini](/source/Gaetano_Salvemini).

Many Italian anti-fascists participated in the [Spanish Civil War](/source/Spanish_Civil_War) with the hope of setting an example of armed resistance to [Francisco Franco](/source/Francisco_Franco)'s [dictatorship in Spain](/source/Francoist_Spain) against Mussolini's regime in Italy; hence their motto: "Today in Spain, tomorrow in Italy".[250]

Between 1920 and 1943, several anti-fascist movements were active among the [Slovenes](/source/Slovenes) and [Croats](/source/Croats) in the territories annexed to Italy after [World War I](/source/World_War_I), known as the [Julian March](/source/Julian_March).[251][252] The most influential was the militant insurgent organization [TIGR](/source/TIGR), which carried out numerous sabotages, as well as attacks on representatives of the Fascist Party and the military.[253][254] Most of the underground structure of the organization was discovered and dismantled by the [Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism](/source/Organization_for_Vigilance_and_Repression_of_Anti-Fascism) (OVRA) in 1940 and 1941,[255] and after June 1941 most of its former activists joined the [Slovene Partisans](/source/Slovene_Partisans).

During [World War II](/source/World_War_II), many members of the [Italian resistance](/source/Italian_resistance) left their homes and went to live in the mountains, fighting against Italian fascists and [German Nazi](/source/Nazi_Germany) soldiers during the [Italian Civil War](/source/Italian_Civil_War). Many cities in Italy, including [Turin](/source/Turin), [Naples](/source/Naples), and [Milan](/source/Milan), were freed by anti-fascist uprisings.[256]

### Aftermath of World War II

Main articles: [Aftermath of World War II § Italy](/source/Aftermath_of_World_War_II#Italy), [Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy](/source/Fall_of_the_Fascist_regime_in_Italy), and [Italian resistance movement](/source/Italian_resistance_movement)

Further information: [End of World War II in Europe](/source/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe), [National Liberation Committee](/source/National_Liberation_Committee), [Post–World War II anti-fascism](/source/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_anti-fascism), and [Spring 1945 offensive in Italy](/source/Spring_1945_offensive_in_Italy)

Anti-fascist demonstration at [Porta San Paolo](/source/Porta_San_Paolo) in [Rome](/source/Rome), [Italy](/source/Italy), on the occasion of the [Liberation Day](/source/Liberation_Day_(Italy)) on 25 April 2013

The current [Constitution of the Italian Republic](/source/Constitution_of_Italy) was officially ratified and promulgated on 27 December 1947.[257] Following the [referendum on the institutional form of the State](/source/1946_Italian_institutional_referendum) held by [universal suffrage](/source/Universal_suffrage) in the [Kingdom of Italy](/source/Kingdom_of_Italy) on 2 June 1946,[258] which overthrew [the monarchy](/source/House_of_Savoy) and replaced it with [republicanism](/source/Republicanism),[258] the [Constituent Assembly of Italy](/source/Constituent_Assembly_of_Italy) was formed in the same year by the major political representatives and jurists of all the [anti-fascist partisan forces](/source/Anti-fascism) that comprised the [Western Allied](/source/Allies_of_World_War_II) [Italian resistance movement](/source/Italian_resistance_movement), which contributed to the defeat of the Nazi–Fascist regime during the [Liberation of Italy](/source/Liberation_of_Italy) (1943–1945).[259] Originally including 139 articles, the Constitution defined the foundational structure of the republican government of Italy, and had been revised by the Constituent Assembly 170 times before its approval.[258] The Constitution came into force in the newly founded [Italian Republic](/source/Italian_Republic) on 1st January 1948.[258]

[Liberation Day](/source/Liberation_Day_(Italy)) is a national holiday in [Italy](/source/Italy) that commemorates the victory of the [Italian resistance movement](/source/Italian_resistance_movement) against [Nazi Germany](/source/Nazi_Germany) and the [Italian Social Republic](/source/Italian_Social_Republic) (RSI), a [puppet state](/source/Puppet_state) of the Nazi Germans and [rump state](/source/Rump_state) of the Italian fascists that existed during the [Italian Civil War](/source/Italian_Civil_War), fought during [World War II](/source/World_War_II), which takes place on 25 April 1945. The date was chosen by convention, as it was the day of the year 1945 when the [National Liberation Committee for Northern Italy](/source/National_Liberation_Committee_for_Northern_Italy) (CLNAI) officially proclaimed the anti-fascist insurgency in a radio announcement, propounding the seizure of power by the CLNAI and proclaiming the [death sentence](/source/Capital_punishment) for all Italian fascist leaders and [collaborators of the Nazi–Fascist regime](/source/Collaboration_with_Nazi_Germany_and_Fascist_Italy) (including [Mussolini](/source/Benito_Mussolini) himself, who was shot three days later by a group of Italian partisans).[260]

Emblem of the [Associazione Nazionale Partigiani d'Italia](/source/ANPI) (ANPI)

The *[Associazione Nazionale Partigiani d'Italia](/source/ANPI)* (ANPI: "National Association of Italian [Partisans](/source/Partisan_(military))") is an association founded in [Rome](/source/Rome) in 1944[261] by participants of the [Italian resistance against the Nazi–Fascist regime](/source/Italian_resistance_movement) and the subsequent [Nazi occupation of Northern Italy](/source/Operation_Achse) during [World War II](/source/World_War_II).[261] ANPI's objectives are the maintenance of the historical role of the Italian partisan groups that fought in the [Italian Civil War](/source/Italian_Civil_War) by means of research and the collection of archives, historical documents, and personal stories.[261] Its goals are a continued defense of [anti-fascist](/source/Anti-fascism) [republicanism](/source/Republicanism) against the [historical revisionism](/source/Historical_revisionism) of [neo-fascists](/source/Neo-fascism) in the [Italian Republic](/source/Italian_Republic),[5] along with the ideal and ethical support of [human rights](/source/Human_rights), [political freedom](/source/Civil_and_political_rights), [pro-Europeanism](/source/Pro-Europeanism), and [parliamentarian](/source/Parliamentary_system) [democracy](/source/Democracy) expressed in the [Constitution of the Italian Republic](/source/Constitution_of_Italy) (1948),[258] in which the ideals of the [Italian resistance](/source/Italian_resistance_movement) were collected.[262] Since 2008, every two years ANPI organizes its national festival. During the event, meetings, debates, and musical concerts that focus on anti-fascism, peace, and democracy are organized throughout the country.[263]

*[Bella ciao](/source/Bella_ciao)* (instrumental only version performed by the [Band of the Guard of the Serbian Armed Forces](/source/Band_of_the_Guard_of_the_Serbian_Armed_Forces))

*[Bella ciao](/source/Bella_ciao)* (Italian pronunciation: [\[ˈbɛlla ˈtʃaːo\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Italian); "Goodbye beautiful") is an [Italian folk song](/source/Italian_folk_music) modified and adopted as an anthem of the [Italian resistance movement](/source/Italian_resistance_movement) by the partisans who opposed [Nazism](/source/Nazism) and [fascism](/source/Fascism), and fought against the occupying forces of [Nazi Germany](/source/Nazi_Germany), who were allied with the fascist and collaborationist [Italian Social Republic](/source/Italian_Social_Republic) (RSI) between 1943 and 1945 during the [Italian Civil War](/source/Italian_Civil_War). Versions of this Italian anti-fascist song continue to be sung worldwide as a hymn of freedom and resistance.[264] As an internationally known hymn of freedom, it was intoned at many historic and revolutionary events. The song originally aligned itself with Italian partisans fighting against Nazi German occupation troops, but has since become to merely stand for the inherent rights of all people to be liberated from tyranny.[265][266]

## See also

- [Anti-fascism](/source/Anti-fascism) - [Post–World War II anti-fascism](/source/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_anti-fascism)

- [Authoritarian conservatism](/source/Authoritarian_conservatism)

- [Fascism](/source/Fascism) - [Clerical fascism](/source/Clerical_fascism) - [Definitions of fascism](/source/Definitions_of_fascism) - [Economy of Italy under fascism](/source/Economy_of_Italy_under_fascism) - [Fascism and ideology](/source/Fascism_and_ideology) - [Fascist architecture](/source/Fascist_architecture) - [Fascist syndicalism](/source/Fascist_syndicalism) - [National Fascist Party](/source/National_Fascist_Party) (PNF) - [Neo-fascism](/source/Neo-fascism) - [Republican Fascist Party](/source/Republican_Fascist_Party) (PFR) - *[Squadrismo](/source/Squadrismo)* (fascist violence in Italy)

- [Far-right terrorism](/source/Far-right_terrorism)

- [History of the far-right in France](/source/History_of_the_far-right_in_France)

- [History of the far-right in Spain](/source/History_of_the_far-right_in_Spain)

- [National conservatism](/source/National_conservatism)

- [Propaganda in Fascist Italy](/source/Propaganda_in_Fascist_Italy) - [Italian fascism and racism](/source/Italian_fascism_and_racism) - [Italian racial laws](/source/Italian_racial_laws) - [Model of masculinity under fascist Italy](/source/Model_of_masculinity_under_fascist_Italy)

- [Racism in Italy](/source/Racism_in_Italy) - [Antisemitism in 21st-century Italy](/source/Antisemitism_in_21st-century_Italy)

- [Totalitarianism](/source/Totalitarianism)

### Italian fascist states

- [Kingdom of Italy](/source/Kingdom_of_Italy#Fascist_regime_(1922–1943)) (1922–1943; as a [fascist regime](/source/Fascist_Italy_(1922%E2%80%931943)))

- [Italian Social Republic](/source/Italian_Social_Republic) (1943–1945)

### Related ideologies

- [Austrofascism](/source/Austrofascism) (ultra-nationalist Austrian fascism in the [Federal State of Austria](/source/Federal_State_of_Austria))

- [Falangism](/source/Falangism) (ultra-nationalist Spanish fascism in [Francoist Spain](/source/Francoist_Spain) and [Latin America](/source/Falangism_in_Latin_America))

- [Hindutva](/source/Hindutva) (ultra-nationalist Hindu fascism in [India](/source/India))

- *[Integralismo](/source/Brazilian_integralism)* (para-fascist Brazilian nationalism during the [Vargas Era](/source/Vargas_Era))

- [Legionarism](/source/Iron_Guard#Ideology) (ultra-nationalist Romanian fascism in the [Kingdom of Romania](/source/Kingdom_of_Romania))

- *[Kokkashugi](/source/Kokkashugi)* (State-sponsored fascism in the [Japanese Empire](/source/Japanese_Empire))

- [Nazism](/source/Nazism) (ultra-nationalist German fascism in [Nazi Germany](/source/Nazi_Germany))

- *[Révolution nationale](/source/R%C3%A9volution_nationale)* (State-sponsored fascism in [Vichy France](/source/Vichy_France))

- [Ustaše](/source/Usta%C5%A1e) (ultra-nationalist Croatian fascism in the [Kingdom of Yugoslavia](/source/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia))

## References

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-CPS_2025_1-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-CPS_2025_1-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-CPS_2025_1-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-CPS_2025_1-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-CPS_2025_1-4) Costalli, Stefano; Guariso, Daniele; Ruggeri, Andrea (December 2025). "The Violent Legacy of Fascism: Evidence From Italy". *[Comparative Political Studies](/source/Comparative_Political_Studies)*. **58** (4: *Legacies of Repression and Resistance in the Early 20th Century*). [Thousand Oaks, California](/source/Thousand_Oaks%2C_California): [SAGE Publications](/source/SAGE_Publications): 3250–3284. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/0010414024125](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0010414024125). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1552-3829](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1552-3829). [LCCN](/source/LCCN_(identifier)) [68007517](https://lccn.loc.gov/68007517).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Priorelli_2024_2-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Priorelli_2024_2-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Priorelli_2024_2-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Priorelli_2024_2-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Priorelli_2024_2-4) Priorelli, Giorgia (2024). Kushner, Tony; Rosenbaum, Barbara; Stone, Dan (eds.). "Celebrating the March on Rome over time (1920s–1960s): two generations of Italian Fascists in comparison". *[Patterns of Prejudice](/source/Patterns_of_Prejudice)*. **58** (2–3: *The Legacies of Fascism in 20th Century Europe: An Intergenerational Approach*). [Abingdon-on-Thames](/source/Abingdon-on-Thames), [Oxfordshire](/source/Oxfordshire): [Taylor & Francis](/source/Taylor_%26_Francis) on behalf of the Parkes Institute for the Study of Jewish/non-Jewish Relations at the [University of Southampton](/source/University_of_Southampton): 157–172. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/0031322X.2024.2412911](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0031322X.2024.2412911). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1461-7331](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1461-7331).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Albanese-del_Hierro_3-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Albanese-del_Hierro_3-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Albanese-del_Hierro_3-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Albanese-del_Hierro_3-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Albanese-del_Hierro_3-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Albanese-del_Hierro_3-5) Albanese, Matteo; del Hierro, Pablo (2016). ["The Origins of the Fascist Network, 1922–1936"](https://books.google.com/books?id=LygCDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA11). *Transnational Fascism in the Twentieth Century: Spain, Italy, and the Global Neo-Fascist Network*. [London](/source/London) and [New York](/source/New_York_City): [Bloomsbury Academic](/source/Bloomsbury_Academic). pp. 11–36. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.5040/9781474219273.ch-001](https://doi.org/10.5040%2F9781474219273.ch-001). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4725-2859-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4725-2859-9). [LCCN](/source/LCCN_(identifier)) [2016006595](https://lccn.loc.gov/2016006595).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Ignazi_2016_4-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Ignazi_2016_4-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Ignazi_2016_4-2) Ignazi, Piero (2016). ["Fascists and Post-Fascists"](https://books.google.com/books?id=ku0_CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT211). In Jones, Erik; Pasquino, Gianfranco (eds.). *The Oxford Handbook of Italian Politics*. [Oxford](/source/Oxford) and [New York](/source/New_York_City): [Oxford Academic](/source/Oxford_Academic). pp. 211–223. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199669745.013.17](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199669745.013.17). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780191755736](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780191755736).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Ferraresi_1996_5-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Ferraresi_1996_5-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Ferraresi_1996_5-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Ferraresi_1996_5-3) Ferraresi, Franco (1996). ["Fascist Resurgence and Reorganization, ca. 1945–1955"](https://books.google.com/books?id=r0DG3uk9o8oC&pg=PA15). *Threats to Democracy: The Radical Right in Italy after the War*. [Princeton, New Jersey](/source/Princeton%2C_New_Jersey) and [Woodstock, Oxfordshire](/source/Woodstock%2C_Oxfordshire): [Princeton University Press](/source/Princeton_University_Press). pp. 15–29. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/j.ctt7sspj.6](https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctt7sspj.6). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4008-2211-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-2211-9).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Delzell_1971_6-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Delzell_1971_6-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Delzell_1971_6-2) Delzell, Charles F. (1971). ["Monarchist Coup d'État and Republican Fascism"](https://books.google.com/books?id=e7qwCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA221). *Mediterranean Fascism 1919–1945*. The Documentary History of Western Civilization (1st ed.). [Basingstoke](/source/Basingstoke) and [New York](/source/New_York_City): [Palgrave Macmillan](/source/Palgrave_Macmillan). pp. 221–256. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-1-349-00240-5_7](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-349-00240-5_7). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-349-00240-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-00240-5).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** [1][2][3][4][5][6]

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** [Payne, Stanley G.](/source/Stanley_G._Payne) (2008). "On the Heuristic Value of the Concept of Political Religion and Its Application". In [Griffin, Roger](/source/Roger_Griffin); Mallett, Robert; Tortorice, John (eds.). *The Sacred in Twentieth Century Politics: Essays in Honour of Professor Stanley G. Payne* (1st ed.). [London](/source/London) and [New York](/source/New_York_City): [Palgrave Macmillan](/source/Palgrave_Macmillan). p. 27. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1057/9780230241633](https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230241633). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-230-24163-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-24163-3). Though Italian Fascism began as a left nationalist, strongly anticlerical movement, Mussolini eventually grasped that it would be desirable and possible to come to terms with the Catholic Church.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-autogenerated1922_11-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-autogenerated1922_11-1) Aristotle A. Kallis. *Fascist ideology: territory and expansionism in Italy and Germany, 1922–1945*. London; New York: Routledge, 2000, p. 41. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780415216128](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415216128)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Nelis_2018_12-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Nelis_2018_12-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Nelis_2018_12-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Nelis_2018_12-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Nelis_2018_12-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Nelis_2018_12-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-Nelis_2018_12-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-Nelis_2018_12-7) [***i***](#cite_ref-Nelis_2018_12-8) Nelis, Jan (2018). "Fascist Modernity, Religion, and the Myth of Rome". In Roche, Helen; Demetriou, Kyriakos N. (eds.). *Brill's Companion to the Classics, Fascist Italy, and Nazi Germany*. Brill's Companions to Classical Reception. Vol. 12. [Leiden](/source/Leiden) and [Boston](/source/Boston): [Brill Publishers](/source/Brill_Publishers). pp. 133–156. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1163/9789004299061_007](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004299061_007). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-29906-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-29906-1). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2213-1426](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2213-1426).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** Aristotle A. Kallis. *Fascist ideology: territory and expansionism in Italy and Germany, 1922–1945*. London; New York: Routledge, 2000. p. 50. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780415216128](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415216128)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-massaschussetts1_14-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-massaschussetts1_14-1) Andrew Vincent. *Modern Political Ideologies*. Third edition. Malden, Massachusetts; Oxford, England: Blackwell Publishers Ltd., 2009. p. 160. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1405154956](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1405154956)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** John Whittam. *Fascist Italy*. Manchester; New York: Manchester University Press, 1995. p. 160. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0719040047](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0719040047)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** Jim Powell, "The Economic Leadership Secrets of Benito Mussolini", *Forbes*, 22 February 2012

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Eugen_Weber_1972._p._791_17-0)** Eugen Weber. *The Western Tradition: From the Renaissance to the present*. Heath, 1972. p. 791. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0669811414](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0669811414)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** Stanislao G. Pugliese. *Fascism, anti-fascism, and the resistance in Italy: 1919 to the present*. Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2004. pp. 43–44. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0742531222](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0742531222)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** Stanley G.Payne. *A History of Fascism, 1914–45*. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1995. p. 214. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0299148742](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0299148742)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-lazzaro2005_20-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-lazzaro2005_20-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-lazzaro2005_20-2) Claudia Lazzaro, Roger J. Crum. "Forging a Visible Fascist Nation: Strategies for Fusing the Past and Present" by Claudia Lazzaro, *Donatello Among The Blackshirts: History And Modernity in the Visual Culture of Fascist Italy*. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005. p. 13. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0801489211](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801489211)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Trevisan_2023_21-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Trevisan_2023_21-1) Trevisan, Paola (2023). "Internment Camps for *Zingari* in Fascist Italy (1940–43): The Story and Memory of a Persecution". *Revue d'Histoire de la Shoah*. **1** (217: *Persecution of Roma and Sinti and genocidal violence in Western Europe, 1939–1946*). [Paris](/source/Paris): [Mémorial de la Shoah](/source/M%C3%A9morial_de_la_Shoah): 81–107. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3917/rhsho.217.0081](https://doi.org/10.3917%2Frhsho.217.0081). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9782916966267](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782916966267). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2553-6141](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2553-6141) – via [Cairn.info](/source/Cairn.info).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Tarchi_2021_22-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Tarchi_2021_22-1) Tarchi, Andrea (November 2021). Fantoni, Gianluca; Sabato, Milena (eds.). ["*Mabruchismo*: concubinage and colonial power in Italian Libya (1911–1932)"](https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fmit.2021.32). *[Modern Italy](/source/Modern_Italy)*. **26** (4). [Cambridge](/source/Cambridge) and [New York](/source/New_York_City): [Cambridge University Press](/source/Cambridge_University_Press) on behalf of the Association for the Study of Modern Italy: 409–424. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/mit.2021.32](https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fmit.2021.32). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1469-9877](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1469-9877).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Shinn_2019_23-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Shinn_2019_23-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Shinn_2019_23-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Shinn_2019_23-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Shinn_2019_23-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Shinn_2019_23-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-Shinn_2019_23-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-Shinn_2019_23-7) [***i***](#cite_ref-Shinn_2019_23-8) Shinn, Christopher A. (2019) [2016]. "Inside the Italian Empire: Colonial Africa, Race Wars, and the 'Southern Question'". In Kirkland, Ewan (ed.). *Shades of Whiteness*. [Leiden](/source/Leiden) and [Boston](/source/Boston): [Brill Publishers](/source/Brill_Publishers). pp. 35–51. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1163/9781848883833_005](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9781848883833_005). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-84888-383-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84888-383-3). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [201401541](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:201401541).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Trevisan_2017_24-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Trevisan_2017_24-1) Trevisan, Paola (August 2017). Jackson, Louise; Johnston, Gordon (eds.). "'Gypsies' in Fascist Italy: from expelled foreigners to dangerous Italians". *[Social History](/source/Social_History_(journal))*. **42** (3). [Abingdon-on-Thames](/source/Abingdon-on-Thames), [Oxfordshire](/source/Oxfordshire): [Taylor & Francis](/source/Taylor_%26_Francis): 342–364. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/03071022.2017.1327643](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03071022.2017.1327643). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1470-1200](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1470-1200). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [48543383](https://www.jstor.org/stable/48543383).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-JMIS_2012_25-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-JMIS_2012_25-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-JMIS_2012_25-2) De Napoli, Olindo (2012). Davis, John A. (ed.). "The origin of the Racist Laws under fascism. A problem of historiography". *[Journal of Modern Italian Studies](/source/Journal_of_Modern_Italian_Studies)*. **17** (1). [Abingdon-on-Thames](/source/Abingdon-on-Thames), [Oxfordshire](/source/Oxfordshire): [Taylor & Francis](/source/Taylor_%26_Francis): 106–122. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/1354571X.2012.628112](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F1354571X.2012.628112). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1469-9583](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1469-9583). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [216113682](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:216113682).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Gentile_2004_26-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Gentile_2004_26-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Gentile_2004_26-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Gentile_2004_26-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Gentile_2004_26-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Gentile_2004_26-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-Gentile_2004_26-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-Gentile_2004_26-7) [***i***](#cite_ref-Gentile_2004_26-8) [Gentile, Emilio](/source/Emilio_Gentile) (2004). ["Fascism in Power: The Totalitarian Experiment"](https://books.google.com/books?id=xeHuSpHzqGUC&pg=PA44). In Griffin, Roger; Feldman, Matthew (eds.). *Fascism: Critical Concepts in Political Science*. Vol. IV (1st ed.). [London](/source/London) and [New York](/source/New_York_City): [Routledge](/source/Routledge). pp. 44–45. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780415290159](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415290159).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-JMIS_2003_27-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-JMIS_2003_27-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-JMIS_2003_27-2) Barrera, Giulia (2003). Davis, John A. (ed.). "Mussolini's colonial race laws and state-settler relations in Africa Orientale Italiana (1935–41)". *[Journal of Modern Italian Studies](/source/Journal_of_Modern_Italian_Studies)*. **8** (3). [Abingdon-on-Thames](/source/Abingdon-on-Thames), [Oxfordshire](/source/Oxfordshire): [Taylor & Francis](/source/Taylor_%26_Francis): 425–443. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/09585170320000113770](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09585170320000113770). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1469-9583](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1469-9583). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [145516332](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145516332).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Negash_1997_28-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Negash_1997_28-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Negash_1997_28-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Negash_1997_28-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Negash_1997_28-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Negash_1997_28-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-Negash_1997_28-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-Negash_1997_28-7) [***i***](#cite_ref-Negash_1997_28-8) Negash, Tekeste (1997). ["Introduction: The legacy of Italian colonialism"](https://books.google.com/books?id=CBrImoJfFboC&pg=PA17). *Eritrea and Ethiopia: The Federal Experience*. [Uppsala](/source/Uppsala): [Nordiska Afrikainstitutet](/source/Nordic_Africa_Institute). pp. 13–17. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-91-7106-406-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-91-7106-406-6). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [1122565258](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1122565258).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Hollander_1997_29-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Hollander_1997_29-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Hollander_1997_29-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Hollander_1997_29-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Hollander_1997_29-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Hollander_1997_29-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-Hollander_1997_29-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-Hollander_1997_29-7) [***i***](#cite_ref-Hollander_1997_29-8) Hollander, Ethan J. (1997). [*Italian Fascism and the Jews*](https://web.archive.org/web/20080515202656/http://weber.ucsd.edu/~ejhollan/Haaretz%20-%20Ital%20fascism%20-%20English.PDF) (PDF). [San Diego](/source/San_Diego), [California](/source/California): [University of California Press](/source/University_of_California_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-8039-4648-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8039-4648-1). Archived from [the original](http://weber.ucsd.edu/~ejhollan/Haaretz%20-%20Ital%20fascism%20-%20English.PDF) (PDF) on 15 May 2008. Retrieved 21 April 2026.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** Sestani, Armando, ed. (10 February 2012). "Il confine orientale: una terra, molti esodi" [The Eastern Border: One Land, Multiple Exoduses]. [*I profugi istriani, dalmati, e fiumani a Lucca*](http://www.provincia.lucca.it/scuolapace/uploads/quaderni/ricordo2012.pdf) [*The Istrian, Dalmatian, and Rijeka Refugees in Lucca*] (PDF) (in Italian). [Lucca](/source/Lucca), Italy: Instituto storico della Resistenca e dell'Età Contemporanea in Provincia di Lucca. pp. 12–13. When dealing with such a race as Slavic—inferior and barbarian—we must not pursue the carrot, but the stick policy. We should not be afraid of new victims. The Italian border should run across the Brenner Pass, Monte Nevoso and the Dinaric Alps. I would say we can easily sacrifice 500,000 barbaric Slavs for 50,000 Italians.[*[permanent dead link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** [21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30]

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Goeschel_2017_33-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Goeschel_2017_33-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Goeschel_2017_33-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Goeschel_2017_33-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Goeschel_2017_33-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Goeschel_2017_33-5) Goeschel, Christian (March 2017). Leow, Rachel; Gallagher, John (eds.). "Staging Friendship: Mussolini and Hitler in Germany in 1937". *[The Historical Journal](/source/The_Historical_Journal)*. **60** (1). [Cambridge](/source/Cambridge) and [New York](/source/New_York_City): [Cambridge University Press](/source/Cambridge_University_Press): 149–172. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/S0018246X15000540](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0018246X15000540). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1469-5103](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1469-5103). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [156952523](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:156952523).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Robertson_1988_34-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Robertson_1988_34-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Robertson_1988_34-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Robertson_1988_34-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Robertson_1988_34-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Robertson_1988_34-5) Robertson, E. M. (January 1988). [Evans, Richard J.](/source/Richard_J._Evans); Neuburger, Mary C. (eds.). ["Race as a Factor in Mussolini's Policy in Africa and Europe"](http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/002200948802300103). *[Journal of Contemporary History](/source/Journal_of_Contemporary_History)*. **23** (1). [Thousand Oaks, California](/source/Thousand_Oaks%2C_California): [SAGE Publications](/source/SAGE_Publications): 37–58. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/002200948802300103](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002200948802300103). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1461-7250](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1461-7250). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [161818702](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161818702).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** Giuseppe Acerbi (2011). [*Le leggi antiebraiche e razziali italiane ed il ceto dei giuristi*](https://books.google.com/books?id=JJ9qbG1aoNYC&pg=PA33). Giuffrè Editore. pp. 33–. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-88-14-15571-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-14-15571-0). Retrieved 9 August 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** Richard S. Levy (1 January 2005). [*Antisemitism: A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Tdn6FFZklkcC&pg=PA585). ABC-CLIO. pp. 585–. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-85109-439-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-439-4). Retrieved 12 August 2013.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-40)** [*Diplomatic documents relating to Italy's aggression against Greece; the Greek White Book*](https://archive.org/details/diplomatic-documents-relating-to-italy-s). American Council on Public Affairs. 1943. pp. 5–8.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-41)** Moro, Renato (2026). ["Catholic Anti-Protestantism until the Second World War"](https://books.google.com/books?id=Q9PKEQAAQBAJ&pg=PR184). In Hutchinson, Mark P.; Saresella, Daniela; Zanini, Paolo (eds.). *A Global History of Italian Protestantism*. Vol. 2: *From the Napoleonic Wars to the Present*. [Leiden](/source/Leiden) and [Boston](/source/Boston): [Brill Publishers](/source/Brill_Publishers). pp. 184–209. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1163/9789004748903_016](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004748903_016). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-74890-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-74890-3).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-42)** Messina, Dino (7 July 2017). ["I pentecostali perseguitati dal fascismo"](https://lanostrastoria.corriere.it/2017/07/07/i-pentecostali-perseguitati-dal-fascismo/). *[Corriere della Sera](/source/Corriere_della_Sera)* (in Italian). [Milan](/source/Milan), Italy: [RCS MediaGroup](/source/RCS_MediaGroup). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1120-4982](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1120-4982). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170711150321/https://lanostrastoria.corriere.it/2017/07/07/i-pentecostali-perseguitati-dal-fascismo/) from the original on 11 July 2017. Retrieved 21 April 2026.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-43)** ["Minority Rights Group International – Italy – Greek-speakers"](https://minorityrights.org/minorities/greek-speakers/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190109060358/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/greek-speakers/) 9 January 2019 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-44)** Jepson, Allan; Clarke, Alan (2015). [*Managing and Developing Communities, Festivals, and Events*](https://books.google.com/books?id=A-wYDAAAQBAJ). AIAA. p. 137. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1137508539](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1137508539). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190114044433/https://books.google.gr/books?id=A-wYDAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover) from the original on 14 January 2019. Retrieved 13 January 2019.

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPaxton20044–5_46-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPaxton20044–5_46-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPaxton20044–5_46-2) [Paxton (2004)](#CITEREFPaxton2004), pp. 4–5.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-m-w_47-0)** ["fascism"](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/fascism). *[Merriam-Webster Online](/source/Merriam-Webster_Online)*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170822084905/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/fascism) from the original on 22 August 2017. Retrieved 22 August 2017.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMussolini2006227_48-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMussolini2006227_48-1) [Mussolini (2006)](#CITEREFMussolini2006), p. 227.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFalasca-Zamponi200095_49-0)** [Falasca-Zamponi (2000)](#CITEREFFalasca-Zamponi2000), p. 95.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-50)** Johnston, Peter (12 April 2013). ["The Rule of Law: Symbols of Power"](https://web.archive.org/web/20170330232643/http://www.okwu.edu/keating-center/2013/04/the-rule-of-law-symbols-of-power/). The Keating Center, [Oklahoma Wesleyan University](/source/Oklahoma_Wesleyan_University). Archived from [the original](http://www.okwu.edu/keating-center/2013/04/the-rule-of-law-symbols-of-power/) on 30 March 2017. Retrieved 28 April 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-51)** Watkins, Tom (2013). ["Policing Rome: Maintaining Order in Fact and Fiction"](https://web.archive.org/web/20140316011914/http://intraweb.stockton.edu/eyos/page.cfm?siteID=78&pageID=35). *Fictional Rome*. Stockton, New Jersey: [Stockton University](/source/Stockton_University). Archived from [the original](http://intraweb.stockton.edu/eyos/page.cfm?siteID=78&pageID=35) on 16 March 2014. Retrieved 28 April 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-52)** ["Fasces"](https://Britannica.com/topic/fasces). *Britannica.com*. Britannica. Retrieved 17 April 2024. When carried inside Rome, the ax was removed (unless the magistrate was a dictator or general celebrating a triumph) as recognition of the right of a Roman citizen to appeal a magistrate's ruling.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrennan20222,_12_53-0)** [Brennan 2022](#CITEREFBrennan2022), pp. 2, 12.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Kellas_2004_54-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Kellas_2004_54-1) Kellas, James G. (2004). ["Italy/Italia"](https://books.google.com/books?id=MseGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA98). *Nationalist Politics in Europe: The Constitutional and Electoral Dimensions*. [Basingstoke](/source/Basingstoke) and [New York](/source/New_York_City): [Palgrave Macmillan](/source/Palgrave_Macmillan). pp. 98–107. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1057/9780230597273_6](https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230597273_6). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-230-59727-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-59727-3). [LCCN](/source/LCCN_(identifier)) [2003062247](https://lccn.loc.gov/2003062247).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Forlenza_2018_55-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Forlenza_2018_55-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Forlenza_2018_55-2) Forlenza, Rosario (2018). ["Democracy and The Power of Memory: The "Risorgimento" in Modern Italian Politics"](https://books.google.com/books?id=6gvWEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA157). *On the Edge of Democracy: Italy, 1943–1948*. [Oxford](/source/Oxford) and [New York](/source/New_York_City): [Oxford Academic](/source/Oxford_Academic). pp. 157–177. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/oso/9780198817444.003.0006](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198817444.003.0006). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780191859045](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780191859045).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-autogenerated3_56-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-autogenerated3_56-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-autogenerated3_56-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-autogenerated3_56-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-autogenerated3_56-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-autogenerated3_56-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-autogenerated3_56-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-autogenerated3_56-7) Terence Ball, Richard Bellamy. *The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century Political Thought*. Cambridge University Press, p. 133. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0521691628](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521691628)

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Griffin_2008_62-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Griffin_2008_62-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Griffin_2008_62-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Griffin_2008_62-3) [Griffin, Roger](/source/Roger_Griffin) (2008). "*I am no longer human. I am a Titan. A god!* The Fascist Quest to Regenerate Time". In [Feldman, Matthew](/source/Matthew_Feldman_(historian)) (ed.). *A Fascist Century: Essays by Roger Griffin*. Palgrave History Collection (1st ed.). [Basingstoke](/source/Basingstoke) and [New York](/source/New_York_City): [Palgrave Macmillan](/source/Palgrave_Macmillan). pp. 2–23. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1057/9780230594135_1](https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230594135_1). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-230-59413-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-59413-5).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-gentile_63-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-gentile_63-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-gentile_63-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-gentile_63-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-gentile_63-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-gentile_63-5) Gregor, A. James (2004). [*Giovanni Gentile: Philosopher of Fascism*](https://books.google.com/books?id=xQEjHAAACAAJ&q=giovanni+gentile). Transaction Pub. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0765805936](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0765805936). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20151030094219/https://books.google.com/books?id=xQEjHAAACAAJ&dq=giovanni+gentile) from the original on 30 October 2015. Retrieved 14 August 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-64)** Fabio Fernando Rizi, *Benedetto Croce and Italian Fascism*. University of Toronto Press, 2003. p.249 [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780802037626](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802037626)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Tomasevich_2002_65-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Tomasevich_2002_65-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Tomasevich_2002_65-2) Tomasevich, Jozo (2002). ["Foreign Annexation of Yugoslavia"](https://books.google.com/books?id=fqUSGevFe5MC&pg=PA130). *War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: Occupation and Collaboration*. [Stanford, California](/source/Stanford%2C_California): [Stanford University Press](/source/Stanford_University_Press). pp. 130–156. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780804779241](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780804779241). [LCCN](/source/LCCN_(identifier)) [2001020024](https://lccn.loc.gov/2001020024).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Wolff_2001_66-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Wolff_2001_66-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Wolff_2001_66-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Wolff_2001_66-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Wolff_2001_66-4) Wolff, Larry (2001). ["Conclusions and Continuities: The Legacy of the Venetian Enlightenment in Napoleonic Illyria, Habsburg Dalmatia, and Yugoslavia"](https://books.google.com/books?id=B2LFRiT1nfYC&pg=PA355). *Venice and the Slavs: The Discovery of Dalmatia in the Age of Enlightenment*. [Stanford, California](/source/Stanford%2C_California): [Stanford University Press](/source/Stanford_University_Press). p. 355–362. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780804739467](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780804739467).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-SacroEgoismo2012_69-0)** Lipušček, U. (2012) *Sacro egoismo: Slovenci v krempljih tajnega londonskega pakta 1915*, Cankarjeva založba, Ljubljana. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9612318710](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9612318710)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Cresciani_ClashOfCivilisations_70-0)** Cresciani, Gianfranco (2004) [Clash of civilisations](https://docs.google.com/open?id=0B1aAzmXBjZO5eFQySUlrdTBYRkk) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200506152156/https://docs.google.com/open?id=0B1aAzmXBjZO5eFQySUlrdTBYRkk) 6 May 2020 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), Italian Historical Society Journal, Vol. 12, No. 2, p. 4

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hehn_2005_44–45_71-0)** Hehn, Paul N. (2005). [*A Low Dishonest Decade: The Great Powers, Eastern Europe, and the Economic Origins of World War II, 1930–1941*](https://books.google.com/books?id=nOALhEZkYDkC&pg=PA45). Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 44–45. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0826417612](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0826417612).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-Ro106_73-0)** [Rodogno, Davide](/source/Davide_Rodogno) (2006). [*Fascism's European Empire: Italian Occupation during the Second World War*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ZcUNELPsQQsC&pg=PA106). Cambridge University Press. p. 106. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0521845157](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521845157).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-77)** Lemkin, Raphael; Power, Samantha (2008). [*Axis Rule in Occupied Europe*](https://books.google.com/books?id=y0in2wOY-W0C). The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd. pp. 99–107. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1584779018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1584779018). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160502200304/https://books.google.com/books?id=y0in2wOY-W0C) from the original on 2 May 2016. Retrieved 14 August 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-78)** Rodogno 2006, p. 84

1. **[^](#cite_ref-79)** Aristotle A. Kallis. *Fascist Ideology: Expansionism in Italy and Germany 1922–1945*. London; New York: Routledge, 2000. p. 118. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0415216111](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415216111)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-80)** McGregor Knox, *Mussolini Unleashed, 1939–1941: Politics and Strategy in fascist Italy's Last War*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986, 1999. p. 38. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0521338356](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521338356)

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-82)** Adda Bruemmer Bozeman. "Regional Conflicts Around Geneva: An Inquiry into the Origin", *Nature*, and Implications of the Neutralized Zone of Savoy and of the Customs-free Zones of Gex and Upper Savoy. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1949. p. 196.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-autogenerated2006_83-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-autogenerated2006_83-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-autogenerated2006_83-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-autogenerated2006_83-3) Davide Rodogno. *Fascism's European Empire: Italian Occupation during the Second World War*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. p. 88. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0521845151](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521845151)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-84)** John Gooch. *Mussolini and his Generals: The Armed Forces and Fascist Foreign Policy, 1922–1940*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. p. 452. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0521856027](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521856027)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-John_F._L_1989._p._91_85-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-John_F._L_1989._p._91_85-1) John F. L. Ross. *Neutrality and International Sanctions: Sweden, Switzerland, and Collective Security*. ABC-CLIO, 1989. p. 91. [ISBN unspecified]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-86)** Aurelio Garobbio. *A colloquio con il duce*. 1998. Mursia, p. xvi. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-8842524229](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8842524229)

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-88)** Ferdinando Crespi. *Ticino irredento: la frontiera contesa : dalla battaglia culturale dell'Adula ai piani d'invasione*, F. Angeli, 2004, p. 284 [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [8846453646](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/8846453646)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-89)** Crespi 2004, p. 250

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Knox_90-0)** McGregor Knox, *[Mussolini Unleashed, 1939–1941: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War](https://books.google.com/books?id=_PwCu_D-HiUC) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20151018022101/https://books.google.com/books?id=_PwCu_D-HiUC) 18 October 2015 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)* (Cambridge: [Cambridge University Press](/source/Cambridge_University_Press), 1982), 138. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0521338356](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521338356)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-rix_91-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-rix_91-1) Juliet Rix. *Malta*. Bradt Travel Guides. 2010. pp. 16–17. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1841623122](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1841623122)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-92)** [Jeffrey Cole](/source/Jeffrey_Cole). *Ethnic Groups of Europe: An Encyclopedia*. ABC-CLIO. 2011. p. 254. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1598843026](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1598843026)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-93)** Norman Berdichevsky. *Nations, Language, and Citizenship*. McFarland. 2004. pp. 70–71. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0786417100](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0786417100)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-94)** Tony Pollard, Iain Banks. *Scorched Earth: Studies in the Archaeology of Conflict*. Brill. 2007, p. 4. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9004164482](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004164482)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Jon_Wright_p._165_95-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Jon_Wright_p._165_95-1) John Wright. *History of Libya*. Oxford University Press. 2012, p. 165. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0199327119](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199327119)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-96)** Susan Slyomovics. *The Walled Arab City in Literature, Architecture and History: The Living Medina in the Maghrib*. Routledge, 2003. p. 124.[ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0714651774](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0714651774)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-97)** Robert O. Paxton. *Vichy France: Old Guard and New Order 1940–1944*. Columbia University Press, 2001. p. 74. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0231124690](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0231124690)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Lucas_F._Bruyning_1990._p._113_98-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Lucas_F._Bruyning_1990._p._113_98-1) Lucas F. Bruyning, Joseph Theodoor Leerssen. *Italy – Europe*. Rodopi, 1990. p. 113. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9051831948](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9051831948)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Fascism_2018a_99-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Fascism_2018a_99-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Fascism_2018a_99-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Fascism_2018a_99-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Fascism_2018a_99-4) Almeida de Carvalho Filho, Rita (October 2018). [Griffin, Roger](/source/Roger_Griffin); Almeida de Carvalho, Rita (eds.). ["Ideology and Architecture in the Portuguese "Estado Novo": Cultural Innovation within a Para-Fascist State (1932–1945)"](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22116257-00702002). *Fascism: Journal of Comparative Fascist Studies*. **7** (2: *Architectural Projections of a "New Order" in Interwar Dictatorships – Part 2*). [Leiden](/source/Leiden) and [Boston](/source/Boston): [Brill Publishers](/source/Brill_Publishers): 141–174. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1163/22116257-00702002](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22116257-00702002). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2211-6257](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2211-6257).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-105)** Christopher Hibbert, Benito Mussolini (1975), p. 99

1. **[^](#cite_ref-106)** Zimmerman, p.160

1. **[^](#cite_ref-107)** Hibbert, p. 98

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-Neocleous,_Mark_1997._p._35_110-0)** Neocleous, Mark. *Fascism*. Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA: University of Minnesota Press, 1997. p. 35

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-113)** ["Talks with Mussolini"](https://archive.org/details/talkswithmussoli006557mbp). Little Brown and Company. 4 January 2024.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-115)** ["The Manifesto of Race"](https://web.archive.org/web/20160414213149/http://ww2.d155.org/pr/tdirectory/APetersen/Lists/19th%20%2020th%20Century%20World%20History%20Calendar/Attachments/232/The%20Manifesto%20of%20Race.pdf) (PDF). 1938. Archived from [the original](http://ww2.d155.org/pr/tdirectory/APetersen/Lists/19th%20%2020th%20Century%20World%20History%20Calendar/Attachments/232/The%20Manifesto%20of%20Race.pdf) (PDF) on 14 April 2016. Retrieved 1 March 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-116)** Hibbert, Christopher (1962). *Il Duce; the Life of Benito Mussolini*. Little, Brown. p. 87.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-118)** [Gunther, John](/source/John_Gunther) (1940). [*Inside Europe*](https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.149663/2015.149663.Inside-Europe#page/n283/mode/2up). New York: Harper & Brothers. p. 262.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-autogenerated1999_119-0)** Claudio G. Segrè. *Italo Balbo: A Fascist Life*. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1999. p. 346. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0520071995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520071995)

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-121)** Kroener, Bernhard R.; Muller, Rolf-Dieter; Umbreit, Hans (2003). *Germany and the Second World War Organization and Mobilization in the German Sphere of Power.* Vol. VII. New York: Oxford University Press p. 247

1. **[^](#cite_ref-122)** Gillette, Aaron (2004). [*Racial Theories in Fascist Italy*](https://books.google.com/books?id=6Y8XRZAdv9IC&pg=PA95). [London](/source/London) and [New York](/source/New_York_City): [Taylor & Francis](/source/Taylor_%26_Francis). p. 95. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-203-16489-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-16489-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-knickerbocker1941_123-0)** Knickerbocker, H. R. (1941). [*Is Tomorrow Hitler's? 200 Questions on the Battle of Mankind*](https://books.google.com/books?id=RwGwpIBHhgcC&pg=PA72). Reynal & Hitchcock. pp. 72–73. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1417992775](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1417992775). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20151125050130/https://books.google.com/books?id=RwGwpIBHhgcC&lpg=PR2&pg=PA72) from the original on 25 November 2015. Retrieved 14 August 2015. {{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#invalid_isbn_date))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-124)** [Ruth Ben-Ghiat](/source/Ruth_Ben-Ghiat). *Fascist Modernities: Italy, 1922–1945*. University of California. 2001. p. 126. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0520223639](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520223639)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-gunther1940_125-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-gunther1940_125-1) [Gunther, John](/source/John_Gunther) (1940). [*Inside Europe*](https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.149663/2015.149663.Inside-Europe#page/n273/mode/2up). New York: Harper & Brothers. pp. 251–253. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190201043331/https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.149663/2015.149663.Inside-Europe#page/n273/mode/2up) from the original on 1 February 2019. Retrieved 18 January 2018.[ISBN unspecified]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-126)** George Sylvester Counts. *Bolshevism, fascism, and capitalism: an account of the three economic systems*. 3rd edition. Yale University Press, 1970. p. 96. [ISBN unspecified]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Mark_Antliff_2007._p._171_127-0)** Mark Antliff. *Avant-Garde Fascism: The Mobilization of Myth, Art, and Culture in France, 1909–1939*. Duke University Press, 2007. p. 171. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0822340157](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0822340157)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-128)** Maria Sop Quine. *Population Politics in Twentieth Century Europe: Fascist Dictatorships and Liberal Democracies*. Routledge, 1995. p. 47. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0415080699](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415080699)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Maria_Sop_Quine_1995._pp._46–47_129-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Maria_Sop_Quine_1995._pp._46–47_129-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Maria_Sop_Quine_1995._pp._46–47_129-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Maria_Sop_Quine_1995._pp._46–47_129-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Maria_Sop_Quine_1995._pp._46–47_129-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Maria_Sop_Quine_1995._pp._46–47_129-5) Maria Sop Quine. *Population Politics in Twentieth Century Europe: Fascist Dictatorships and Liberal Democracies*. Routledge, 1995. pp. 46–47. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0415080699](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415080699)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Wilson_2000_130-0)** Wilson, Perry R. (2000) [1996]. ["Women in Fascist Italy"](https://books.google.com/books?id=aJvzjv12CkcC&pg=PA78). In [Bessel, Richard](/source/Richard_Bessel) (ed.). *Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany: Comparisons and Contrasts* (Reprint ed.). [Cambridge](/source/Cambridge) and [New York](/source/New_York_City): [Cambridge University Press](/source/Cambridge_University_Press). pp. 78–93. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780521477116](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521477116).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-psychoanalysis_131-0)** Bollas, Christopher, *Being a Character: Psychoanalysis and Self-Experience* (Routledge, 1993) [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0415088152](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415088152), p. 205.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-malagreca-bridgew_132-0)** Malagreca, Miguel (May 2006). ["Lottiamo Ancora 1: Reviewing One Hundred and Fifty Years of Italian Feminism"](http://www.bridgew.edu/soas/jiws/May06/ItalianfeminismMiguel.pdf) (PDF). *Journal of International Women's Studies*. **7** (4). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20121225061018/http://www.bridgew.edu/SoAS/jiws/May06/ItalianfeminismMiguel.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 25 December 2012. Retrieved 22 July 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-mussolini73_133-0)** McDonald, Hamish, *Mussolini and Italian Fascism*. Nelson Thornes. 1999. p. 27. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0748733868](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0748733868)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-university74_134-0)** Mann, Michael. *Fascists*. Cambridge University Press. 2004. p. 101. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0521831314](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521831314)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-routledge75_135-0)** [Durham, Martin](/source/Durham%2C_Martin), *Women and Fascism*. Routledge. 1998. p. 15. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0415122801](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415122801)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-136)** Kevin Passmore, *Women, Gender and Fascism in Europe, 1919-45*. [New Brunswick, New Jersey](/source/New_Brunswick%2C_New_Jersey): [Rutgers University Press](/source/Rutgers_University_Press). 2003. p. 16 [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0813533087](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0813533087)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-137)** De Grand, Alexander (1976). ["Women under Italian Fascism"](http://www.jstor.org/stable/2638244). *The Historical Journal*. **19** (4): 947–68. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/S0018246X76000011](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0018246X76000011). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2638244](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2638244).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-lazzaro1_138-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-lazzaro1_138-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-lazzaro1_138-2) Claudia Lazzaro, Roger J. Crum. "Forging a Visible Fascist Nation: Strategies for Fusing the Past and Present" by Claudia Lazzaro, *Donatello Among The Blackshirts: History And Modernity in the Visual Culture of Fascist Italy*. [Ithaca, New York](/source/Ithaca%2C_New_York): [Cornell University Press](/source/Cornell_University_Press), 2005. p. 16. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0801489211](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801489211)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-autogenerated1989_139-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-autogenerated1989_139-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-autogenerated1989_139-2) Denis Mack Smith. *Italy and its Monarchy*. Yale University Press, 1989. p. 265. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0274734382](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0274734382)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-140)** Emilio Gentile. *The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist Italy*. Harvard University Press, 1996. p. 119. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0674784758](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674784758)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-autogenerated11_141-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-autogenerated11_141-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-autogenerated11_141-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-autogenerated11_141-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-autogenerated11_141-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-autogenerated11_141-5) John Francis Pollard. *The fascist Experience in Italy*. Routledge. 1998. p. 72. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0415116312](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415116312)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-142)** Christopher Duggan. *Fascist Voices: An Intimate History of Mussolini's Italy*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2013. p. 76. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0199730780](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199730780)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-143)** Beasley Sr., Jimmy Lee. *I Was There When It Happened*. Xlibris Corporation, 2010. p. 39. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1453544570](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1453544570)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-144)** Davide Rodogno. *Fascism's European Empire: Italian Occupation during the Second World War*. p. 113. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0521845151](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521845151)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-lastdays,_pp_16–17_145-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-lastdays,_pp_16–17_145-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-lastdays,_pp_16–17_145-2) Moseley, Ray (2004). [*Mussolini: The Last 600 Days of Il Duce*](https://books.google.com/books?id=UmxaWvOL_IgC&q=Campo+Imperatore+abruzzo+mussolini&pg=PA7). Taylor Trade. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1589790952](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1589790952).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-146)** Luisa Quartermaine. *Mussolini's Last Republic: Propaganda and Politics in the Italian Social Republic (R.S.I.) 1943–45*. Intellect Books, 1 January 2000. p. 102. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1902454085](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1902454085)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-147)** John F. Pollard. *The Vatican and Italian Fascism, 1929–32: A Study in Conflict*. Cambridge University Press, 1985, 2005. p. 10. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0521023665](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521023665)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-148)** Wiley Feinstein. *The Civilization of the Holocaust in Italy: Poets, Artists, Saints, Anti-Semites*. Rosemont Publish & Printing Corp., 2003. p. 56. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1611472608](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1611472608)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Payne_1996_215_149-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Payne_1996_215_149-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Payne_1996_215_149-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Payne_1996_215_149-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Payne_1996_215_149-4) [Payne, Stanley G.](/source/Stanley_G._Payne) (1996). *A History of Fascism, 1914–1945* (1st ed.). [London](/source/London) and [New York](/source/New_York_City): [Routledge](/source/Routledge). p. 215. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1857285956](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1857285956).

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Berghaus_2019_154-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Berghaus_2019_154-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Berghaus_2019_154-2) Somigli, Luca; Di Genova, Giorgio (2019). ["Italy"](https://books.google.com/books?id=dBd-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA576). In Berghaus, Günter (ed.). *Handbook of International Futurism*. [Berlin](/source/Berlin), [Boston](/source/Boston), and [Munich](/source/Munich): [De Gruyter](/source/De_Gruyter). pp. 576–627. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1515/9783110273564-037](https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110273564-037). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9783110273564](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110273564).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-155)** Elazar, Dahlia S. (2001). [*The Making of Fascism: Class, State, and Counter-Revolution, Italy 1919–1928*](http://www.abc-clio.com/product.aspx?isbn=978-0275958640) (1st ed.). [Westport, Connecticut](/source/Westport%2C_Connecticut): [Greenwood Publishing Group](/source/Greenwood_Publishing_Group). p. 73. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0275958640](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0275958640). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20131224111411/http://www.abc-clio.com/product.aspx?isbn=9780275958640) from the original on 24 December 2013. Retrieved 1 November 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-156)** ["Il manifesto dei fasci di combattimento"](http://web.tiscalinet.it/regno76/testi/manifesti/Il%20manifesto%20dei%20fasci%20di%20combattimento.htm). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20140220075247/http://web.tiscalinet.it/regno76/testi/manifesti/Il%20manifesto%20dei%20fasci%20di%20combattimento.htm) from the original on 20 February 2014. Retrieved 2 February 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-157)** Zeev Sternhell, with Mario Sznajder, Maia Asheri, *The Birth of Fascist Ideology: From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution* Princeton: NJ, Princeton University Press, 1994, p. 33. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0691032894](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691032894)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-158)** Jacob Leib Talmon, *The Myth of the Nation and the Vision of Revolution*, University of California Press, 1981, p. 451. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0520044494](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520044494)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-159)** Zeev Sternhell, *Neither Left nor Right: Fascist Ideology in France*, Princeton University Press, 1996, p. 107. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0691006291](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691006291)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-160)** Jacob Leib Talmon, *The Myth of the Nation and the Vision of Revolution*, University of California Press, 1981, p. 501. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0520044494](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520044494)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-heater_161-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-heater_161-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-heater_161-2) Heater, Derek Benjamin (1987). [*Our World this Century*](https://books.google.com/books?id=94oMyEWGnXYC&q=Lateran+Treaty+mussolini&pg=PA47). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0199133247](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0199133247).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-162)** Spignesi, Stephen J (2003). [*The Italian 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential, Cultural, Scientific, and Political Figures, Past and Present*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ufXPKUqorS8C&q=%22Democracy+is+beautiful+in+theory%22). CITADEL PR. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0806523999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0806523999). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20151130120200/https://books.google.com/books?id=ufXPKUqorS8C&dq=%22Democracy+is+beautiful+in+theory%22) from the original on 30 November 2015. Retrieved 14 August 2015.

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-matteotti_164-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-matteotti_164-1) ["So Long Ago"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090224094326/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,797902,00.html). *Time*. 8 January 2008. Archived from [the original](http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,797902,00.html) on 24 February 2009. Retrieved 16 July 2008.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-JMIS_2022_165-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-JMIS_2022_165-1) Foot, John (2022). Davis, John A. (ed.). ["A micro-history of Fascist violence. Squadristi, victims, and perpetrators"](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F1354571X.2022.2045454). *[Journal of Modern Italian Studies](/source/Journal_of_Modern_Italian_Studies)*. **27** (4). [Abingdon-on-Thames](/source/Abingdon-on-Thames), [Oxfordshire](/source/Oxfordshire): [Taylor & Francis](/source/Taylor_%26_Francis): 528–549. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/1354571X.2022.2045454](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F1354571X.2022.2045454). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1469-9583](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1469-9583). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [248060324](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:248060324).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-TPV_2008_166-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-TPV_2008_166-1) Eubank, William; Weinberg, Leonard (2000). [Forest, James J. F.](/source/James_J._F._Forest) (ed.). "The Italian regions and the prospects for democracy". *[Terrorism and Political Violence](/source/Terrorism_and_Political_Violence)*. **12** (3–4: *The Democratic Experience and Political Violence*). [London](/source/London) and [New York](/source/New_York_City): [Routledge](/source/Routledge): 293–307. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/09546550008427580](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09546550008427580). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1556-1836](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1556-1836). [LCCN](/source/LCCN_(identifier)) [93642626](https://lccn.loc.gov/93642626).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Nash_2004_167-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Nash_2004_167-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Nash_2004_167-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Nash_2004_167-3) [Nash, Jay R.](/source/Jay_Robert_Nash) (2004). [""PREPARE ORATIONS FOR MY FUNERAL"/June 10, 1924"](https://books.google.com/books?id=SpSHEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA122). *The Great Pictorial History of World Crime*. Vol. 1. [London](/source/London) and [New York](/source/New_York_City): [Bloomsbury Academic](/source/Bloomsbury_Academic). pp. 122–125. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9798216316558](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9798216316558).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-171)** Candeloro, Giorgio (1986). [*Il fascismo e le sue guerre*](https://books.google.com/books?id=i0B0pptCs4oC&dq=matteotti+assassinato+da+ceka&pg=PA68) (in Italian). Feltrinelli. p. 68. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-8807808043](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8807808043). Retrieved 13 January 2023.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-fsmith_172-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-fsmith_172-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-fsmith_172-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-fsmith_172-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-fsmith_172-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-fsmith_172-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-fsmith_172-6) ["Mussolini and Fascism in Italy"](http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch12.htm). FSmitha.com. 8 January 2008. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20080623084330/http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch12.htm) from the original on 23 June 2008. Retrieved 16 July 2008.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-Exile_2019_174-0)** Garofalo, Piero; Leake, Elizabeth; Renga, Dana (2019). "Confino in historical perspective". *Internal exile in Fascist Italy: History and representations of confino*. [Berlin](/source/Berlin), [Boston](/source/Boston), [Manchester](/source/Manchester), and [Munich](/source/Munich): [De Gruyter](/source/De_Gruyter)/[Manchester University Press](/source/Manchester_University_Press). pp. 45–88. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.7765/9781526133885.00008](https://doi.org/10.7765%2F9781526133885.00008). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781526133885](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781526133885).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-farrell_175-0)** Farrell, Nicholas Burgess (2004). [*Mussolini: A New Life*](https://books.google.com/books?id=aSlIzmsxU8oC&q=new+life+mussolini). Orion Publishing Group. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1842121235](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1842121235). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20151127020944/https://books.google.com/books?id=aSlIzmsxU8oC&dq=new+life+mussolini) from the original on 27 November 2015. Retrieved 14 August 2015.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-177)** [1][100][165][166]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-178)** Edward R. Tannenbaum. *The Fascist Experience*. ACLS History E-Book Project. 2008. p. 22. [ISBN unspecified]

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-macdonal_179-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-macdonal_179-1) Macdonald, Hamish (1999). [*Mussolini and Italian Fascism*](https://books.google.com/books?id=221W9vKkWrcC&q=Gabriele+d%27Annunzio+paris+peace&pg=PT16). Nelson Thornes. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0748733868](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0748733868).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-180)** Roger Eatwell. *Fascism: A History*. Penguin Books. 1995. p. 49. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0140257007](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0140257007)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-181)** [A. James Gregor](/source/A._James_Gregor), *Giovanni Gentile: Philosopher of Fascism*, New Brunswick: NJ, Transaction Publishers, 2004, p. 55. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0765805936](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0765805936)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-182)** [A. James Gregor](/source/A._James_Gregor), *Phoenix: Fascism in Our Time*, New Brunswick: NJ, Transaction Press, 2009, p. 191. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0765808554](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0765808554)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-183)** Jacob L. Talmon, *The Myth of the Nation and the Vision of Revolution: The Origins of Ideological Polarization*, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. 1991. p. 484. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0520044494](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520044494)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-184)** Mussolini's interview, "Soliloquy for 'freedom' Trimellone island", on the Italian Island of Trimelone, journalist Ivanoe Fossani, 20 March 1945, *Opera Omnia*, vol. 32. Interview is also known as "Testament of Benito Mussolini", or *Testamento di Benito Mussolini.* Also published under "Mussolini confessed to the stars", Publishing House Latinitas, Rome, 1952

1. **[^](#cite_ref-185)** Maurice Parmelle, *Bolshevism, Fascism, and the Liberal-Democratic State*, London; Chapman and Hill, LTD, New York: John Wiley and Son, Inc., 1935, p. 190. [ISBN unspecified]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-marchonrome_186-0)** ["March on Rome"](http://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9083848/March-on-Rome). *[Encyclopædia Britannica](/source/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica)*. 8 January 2008.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-giolitti_187-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-giolitti_187-1) De Grand, Alexander J (2001). [*The Hunchback's Tailor: Giovanni Giolitti and Liberal Italy from the Challenge of Mass Politics to the Rise of Fascism, 1882–1922*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Y5x7hE8hp1UC&q=Giovanni+Giolitti++mussolini). Greenwood Publishing Group. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [027596874X](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/027596874X).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-188)** Peter Neville, *Mussolini*, Oxon; New York: Routledge, 2004, p. 36. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0415249904](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415249904)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-189)** [Denis Mack Smith](/source/Denis_Mack_Smith), *Modern Italy: A Political History*, University of Michigan Press, 1997, first publish in 1959, p. 284. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0472108954](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0472108954)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-190)** Dahlia S. Elazar, *The Making of Fascism: Class, State, and Counter-revolution, Italy 1919–1922*. Greenwood Publishing Group. 2001. p. 141. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0275958640](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0275958640)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-rg207_191-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-rg207_191-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-rg207_191-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-rg207_191-3) Roger Griffin, Matthew Feldman. Fascism: Fascism and culture. London; New York City, US: Routledge, 2004. p. 207. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0415290180](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415290180)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-jstororgro_192-0)** Sarti, Roland (8 January 2008). "Fascist Modernization in Italy: Traditional or Revolutionary". *The American Historical Review*. **75** (4). Roland Sarti: 1029–1045. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/1852268](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1852268). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [1852268](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1852268).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-appstate_193-0)** ["Mussolini's Italy"](https://web.archive.org/web/20080415145038/http://www.appstate.edu/~brantzrw/history3134/mussolini.html). Appstate.edu. 8 January 2008. Archived from [the original](http://www.appstate.edu/~brantzrw/history3134/mussolini.html) on 15 April 2008.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Guerin2_194-0)** [Daniel Guérin](/source/Daniel_Gu%C3%A9rin), *[Fascism and Big Business](/source/Fascism_and_Big_Business)* Chapter IX, Second section, p. 193 in the 1999 Syllepse Editions. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-2913165014](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2913165014)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Guerin_195-0)** [Daniel Guérin](/source/Daniel_Gu%C3%A9rin) *[Fascism and Big Business](/source/Fascism_and_Big_Business)*, Chapter IX, First section, p. 191 in the 1999 Syllepse Editions. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-2913165014](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2913165014)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-196)** Franklin Hugh Adler, *Italian Industrialists from Liberalism to Fascism: The political development of the industrial bourgeoisie, 1906–1934*, Cambridge University Press, 1995, p. 188. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0521522779](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521522779)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-197)** Adrian Lyttelton, *Seizure of Power: Fascism in Italy, 1919–1929*, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1973, p. 96. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0297765868](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0297765868)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Guerin3_198-0)** [Daniel Guérin](/source/Daniel_Gu%C3%A9rin), *[Fascism and Big Business](/source/Fascism_and_Big_Business)*, Chapter IX, Fifth section, p. 197 in the 1999 Syllepse Editions. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-2913165014](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2913165014)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-199)** Paul Corner, *Mussolini e il fascismo*. Viella Libreria Editrice. 2022. p. 101. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [979-1254690604](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/979-1254690604)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-200)** Sarti, 1968

1. **[^](#cite_ref-201)** Warwick Palmer, Alan (1996). [*Who's Who in World Politics: From 1860 to the Present Day*](https://books.google.com/books?id=YdMWTvXhVlUC&q=mussolini's+achievements&pg=PA259). Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0415131618](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415131618).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-202)** Tolliday, Steven (1991). [*The Power to Manage?: Employers and Industrial Relations in Comparative*](https://books.google.com/books?id=UQGKReSZtWsC&q=fiat+fascism&pg=PA205). Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0415026253](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415026253).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-203)** ["Anno 1925"](http://cronologia.leonardo.it/storia/a1925b.htm). Cronologia.it. 8 January 2008. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20110722072642/http://cronologia.leonardo.it/storia/a1925b.htm) from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 16 July 2008.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-economy_204-0)** ["The Economy in Fascist Italy"](http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/economy_in_fascist_italy.htm). HistoryLearningSite.co.uk. 8 January 2008. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20081015060608/http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/economy_in_fascist_italy.htm) from the original on 15 October 2008. Retrieved 16 July 2008.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-205)** Gianni Toniolo, editor, *The Oxford Handbook of the Italian Economy Since Unification*, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013, p. 59. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0199936694](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199936694)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-206)** Carl Schmidt, *The Corporate State in Action: Italy under Fascism*, London: Victor Gollancz Ltd., 1939, pp. 153–76. [ISBN unspecified]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-207)** Costanza A. Russo, "Bank Nationalizations of the 1930s in Italy: The IRI Formula", *Theoretical Inquiries in Law*, Vol. 13:407 (2012), p. 408

1. **[^](#cite_ref-208)** [Iván T. Berend](/source/Iv%C3%A1n_T._Berend), *An Economic History of Twentieth-Century Europe*, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006, p. 93. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0521856669](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521856669)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-209)** Patricia Knight, *Mussolini and Fascism: Questions and Analysis in History*, New York: Routledge, 2003, p. 65. [ISBN unspecified]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-210)** [Martin Blinkhorn](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Martin_Blinkhorn&action=edit&redlink=1), *Mussolini and Fascist Italy*, 2nd edition, New York: Routledge, 1991, p. 26. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0415102315](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415102315)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-211)** [Lateran Treaty](http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/331566/Lateran-Treaty)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-212)** *Chambers Dictionary of World History*. Larousse Kingfisher Chambers. 2000. pp. 464–65. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0550130006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0550130006)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Guardian_2013_213-0)** [How the Vatican built a secret property empire using Mussolini's millions](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/21/vatican-secret-property-empire-mussolini) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20161202103311/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/21/vatican-secret-property-empire-mussolini) 2 December 2016 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine). Papacy used offshore tax havens to create £500m international portfolio, featuring real estate in UK, France and Switzerland. *[The Guardian](/source/The_Guardian)*, 21 January 2013

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Denis_Mack_Smith_1983,_p._162_214-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Denis_Mack_Smith_1983,_p._162_214-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Denis_Mack_Smith_1983,_p._162_214-2) Denis Mack Smith, *Mussolini*, New York: Vintage Books, 1983, p. 162. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0394716582](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0394716582)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-215)** James A. Haught, *2000 Years of Disbelief: Famous People with the Courage to Doubt*, Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1996, p. 256. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1573920674](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1573920674)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-216)** Rachele Mussolini, *Mussolini: An Intimate Biography*, New York: Pocket Books, 1977, p. 131. Originally published by William Morrow in 1974. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0671812720](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0671812720)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Fascism_2018b_217-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Fascism_2018b_217-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Fascism_2018b_217-2) Trajano Filho, Francisco S. (October 2018). [Griffin, Roger](/source/Roger_Griffin); Almeida de Carvalho, Rita (eds.). ["The Many Faces of a Para-Fascist Culture: Architecture, Politics, and Power in Vargas' Regime (1930–1945)"](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22116257-00702003). *Fascism: Journal of Comparative Fascist Studies*. **7** (2: *Architectural Projections of a "New Order" in Interwar Dictatorships – Part 2*). [Leiden](/source/Leiden) and [Boston](/source/Boston): [Brill Publishers](/source/Brill_Publishers): 175–212. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1163/22116257-00702003](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22116257-00702003). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2211-6257](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2211-6257).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Bauerkämper_2010_218-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Bauerkämper_2010_218-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Bauerkämper_2010_218-2) Bauerkämper, Arnd (March 2010). Iordachi, Constantin; Trencsényi, Balázs (eds.). "Transnational Fascism: Cross-Border Relations between Regimes and Movements in Europe, 1922–1939". *East Central Europe*. **37** (2–3). [Leiden](/source/Leiden) and [Boston](/source/Boston): [Brill Publishers](/source/Brill_Publishers): 214–246. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1163/187633010X534469](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F187633010X534469). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1876-3308](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1876-3308).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-219)** [3][99][217][100][218]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-220)** [3][99][217][100][218]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-221)** ["Top Ten Facts About Mussolini"](http://www.ronterpening.com/extras/league_ex.htm). RonterPening.com. 27 January 2008. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20080619101104/http://www.ronterpening.com/extras/league_ex.htm) from the original on 19 June 2008. Retrieved 16 July 2008.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFalasca-Zamponi200053_222-0)** [Falasca-Zamponi 2000](#CITEREFFalasca-Zamponi2000), p. 53.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-223)** Matthews Gibbs, Anthony (2001). [*A Bernard Shaw Chronology*](https://books.google.com/books?id=3x8_4LyMyT4C&q=George+Bernard+Shaw+mussolini). Palgrave. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0312231636](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0312231636). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20151121045615/https://books.google.com/books?id=3x8_4LyMyT4C&dq=George+Bernard+Shaw+mussolini) from the original on 21 November 2015. Retrieved 14 August 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-pound_224-0)** ["Pound in Purgatory"](https://books.google.com/books?id=My2rlb0bnx0C&q=%22I+am+no+superman+like+Mussolini%22&pg=PA71). Leon Surette. 2008. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0252024986](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0252024986). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20151124045350/https://books.google.com/books?id=My2rlb0bnx0C&pg=PA71&lpg=PA71&dq=%22I+am+no+superman+like+Mussolini%22&source=web&ots=UlaTM7Nm67&sig=YW9AV1oyMNjUgc96AgDvJtup2sM&hl=en) from the original on 24 November 2015. Retrieved 14 August 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-225)** ["Mussolini Takes on the Mafia"](http://www.americanmafia.com/Feature_Articles_267.html). AmericanMafia.com. 8 January 2008. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20060213073811/http://www.americanmafia.com/Feature_Articles_267.html) from the original on 13 February 2006. Retrieved 16 July 2008.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-226)** [Alan Morris Schom](/source/Alan_Schom), [A Survey of Nazi and Pro-Nazi Groups in Switzerland: 1930–1945](http://www.wiesenthal.com/site/pp.asp?c=fwLYKnN8LzH&b=243125) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20070926220409/http://www.wiesenthal.com/site/pp.asp?c=fwLYKnN8LzH&b=243125) 26 September 2007 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) for the [Simon Wiesenthal Center](/source/Simon_Wiesenthal_Center)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-227)** Roger Griffin, *The Nature of Fascism*, London: Routledge, 1993, p. 129. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0415096614](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415096614)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-228)** [3][99][217][100][218]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-229)** [Philip Rees](/source/Philip_Rees), *[Biographical Dictionary of the Extreme Right Since 1890](/source/Biographical_Dictionary_of_the_Extreme_Right_Since_1890)*. Simon & Schuster. 1991. p. 148. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0130893017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0130893017)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-230)** Tiso, Giovanni (22 June 2018). ["A brief fascist history of I dont care"](https://overland.org.au/2018/06/a-brief-fascist-history-of-i-dont-care/). *Overland*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180622074713/https://overland.org.au/2018/06/a-brief-fascist-history-of-i-dont-care/) from the original on 22 June 2018. Retrieved 24 October 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-231)** Used by Mussolini in a speech before the Chamber of Deputies on 26 May 1927, *Discorsi del* 1927: Milano, Alpes, 1928, p. 157. [ISBN unspecified]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-232)** ["Credere Obbedire Combattere - Vincere"](http://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/10627). *Imperial War Museums*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191024121925/https://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/10627) from the original on 24 October 2019. Retrieved 24 October 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-233)** Sarti, Roland. 1974. *The Ax Within: Italian Fascism in Action*, New York: New Viewpoints. p. 187. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0531064986](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0531064986)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-234)** ["Italian definition of *boia*"](http://www.treccani.it/vocabolario/boia/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20130618224558/http://www.treccani.it/vocabolario/boia/) 18 June 2013 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-235)** Squires, Nick (30 July 2018). ["Italy's anti-immigration deputy PM Matteo Salvini under fire for citing Mussolini"](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/07/30/italys-anti-immigration-deputy-pm-matteo-salvini-fire-citing/). *The Telegraph*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191024123412/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/07/30/italys-anti-immigration-deputy-pm-matteo-salvini-fire-citing/) from the original on 24 October 2019. Retrieved 24 October 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-236)** ["Europe: Bread & Circuses"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120101085035/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,776767,00.html). *Time*. 13 May 1946. Archived from [the original](http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,776767,00.html) on 1 January 2012. Retrieved 10 January 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-237)** Blamires, Cyprian; Jackson, Paul (2018). [*World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia*](https://books.google.com/books?id=nvD2rZSVau4C&q=%22Mussolini+ha+sempre+ragione%22&pg=PA381). ABC-CLIO. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1576079409](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1576079409) – via Google Books.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-238)** [Motti Fascisti: I 50 più famosi del ventennio](https://www.frasimania.it/motti-fascisti/) *FrasiMania.it*

1. **[^](#cite_ref-239)** Charles F. Delzell, edit., *Mediterranean Fascism 1919–1945*, New York, NY, Walker and Company, 1971, p. 26

1. **[^](#cite_ref-240)** ["Working Class Defence Organization, Anti-Fascist Resistance and the Arditi Del Popolo in Turin, 1919–22"](https://library.fes.de/libalt/journals/swetsfulltext/17283245.pdf) (PDF). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220319044401/https://library.fes.de/libalt/journals/swetsfulltext/17283245.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 19 March 2022. Retrieved 23 September 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-241)** [Working Class Defence Organization, Anti-Fascist Resistance and the Arditi Del Popolo in Turin, 1919–22](https://library.fes.de/libalt/journals/swetsfulltext/17283245.pdf) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220319044401/https://library.fes.de/libalt/journals/swetsfulltext/17283245.pdf) 19 March 2022 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), Antonio Sonnessa, in the *[European History Quarterly](/source/European_History_Quarterly)*, Vol. 33, No. 2, 183–218 (2003)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-242)** ["Anarchist Century"](http://anarchist_century.tripod.com/timeline.html). Anarchist_century.tripod.com. Retrieved 7 April 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-243)** Bruscino, Felicia (25 November 2017). ["Il Popolo del 1925 col manifesto antifascista: ritrovata l'unica copia"](https://www.ultimavoce.it/il-popolo-manifesto-antifascista/). *Ultima Voce* (in Italian). Retrieved 23 March 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-244)** James Martin, 'Piero Gobetti's Agonistic Liberalism', *History of European Ideas*, **32**, (2006), pp. 205–222.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-245)** Pugliese, Stanislao G.; Pugliese, Stanislao (2004). [*Fascism, Anti-fascism, and the Resistance in Italy: 1919 to the Present*](https://books.google.com/books?id=sDyqHO2LVosC&pg=PA10). Rowman & Littlefield. p. 10. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7425-3123-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-3123-9). Retrieved 11 June 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-246)** Tollardo, Elisabetta (2016). [*Fascist Italy and the League of Nations, 1922-1935*](https://books.google.com/books?id=A6JlDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA152). Springer. p. 152. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-349-95028-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-95028-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-247)** Scala, Spencer M. Di (1988). [*Renewing Italian Socialism: Nenni to Craxi*](https://books.google.com/books?id=c8gGaCQDLUsC&pg=PA6). Oxford University Press. pp. 6–8. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-536396-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-536396-8). Retrieved 11 June 2020.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-jam_248-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-jam_248-1) James D. Wilkinson (1981). *The Intellectual Resistance Movement in Europe*. Harvard University Press. p. 224.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-249)** Stanislao G. Pugliese (1999). *Carlo Rosselli: socialist heretic and antifascist exile*. Harvard University Press. p. 51.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-250)** [""Oggi in Spagna, domani in Italia""](https://www.collettiva.it/rubriche/buona-memoria/2023/05/07/news/_oggi_in_spagna_domani_in_italia_-2984121/) (in Italian). Retrieved 12 May 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-251)** [Milica Kacin Wohinz](/source/Milica_Kacin_Wohinz), [Jože Pirjevec](/source/Jo%C5%BEe_Pirjevec), *Storia degli sloveni in Italia : 1866–1998* (Venice: Marsilio, 1998)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-252)** Milica Kacin Wohinz, *Narodnoobrambno gibanje primorskih Slovencev : 1921–1928* (Trieste: Založništvo tržaškega tiska, 1977)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-253)** [Milica Kacin Wohinz](/source/Milica_Kacin_Wohinz), *Prvi antifašizem v Evropi* (Koper: Lipa, 1990)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-254)** Mira Cenčič, *TIGR : Slovenci pod Italijo in TIGR na okopih v boju za narodni obstoj* (Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga, 1997)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-255)** Vid Vremec, Pinko Tomažič in drugi tržaški proces 1941 (Trieste: Založništvo tržaškega tiska, 1989)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-256)** ["Intelligence and Operational Support for the Anti-Nazi Resistance"](http://darbysrangers.tripod.com/id102.htm). Darbysrangers.tripod.com.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-257)** ["Costituzione della Repubblica Italiana"](https://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/eli/id/1947/12/27/047U0001/sg). *www.gazzettaufficiale.it* (in Italian). [Rome](/source/Rome), Italy: [Gazzetta Ufficiale](/source/Gazzetta_Ufficiale). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191114205242/https://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/eli/id/1947/12/27/047U0001/sg) from the original on 14 November 2019. Retrieved 14 November 2019.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Treccani_1949_258-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Treccani_1949_258-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Treccani_1949_258-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Treccani_1949_258-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Treccani_1949_258-4) Almagià R, Tommasini G, Dessy L, Longo V, Ducci G, Santoro G, Tremelloni R, Bernabò-Brea L, Salvatorelli L, Torsiello M, Garosci A, Bocelli A, Becatti G, Argan GC, Maltese C, Lavagnino CM (1949). ["Italia"](https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/italia_res-18acd5fe-87e6-11dc-8e9d-0016357eee51_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/). *Enciclopedia Italiana* (in Italian). Vol. II Appendice. [Rome](/source/Rome), Italy: [Enciclopedia Treccani](/source/Enciclopedia_Treccani). Retrieved 21 April 2026. *Ordinamento politico e amministrativo*. – Il referendum istituzionale del 2 giugno 1946 ha dato all'Italia un regime repubblicano definitivamente codificato nella costituzione entrata in vigore il 1° gennaio 1948 (v. appresso). Il referendum, su un complesso di 23.437.143 voti validi (93,9% dei votanti) dette 12.718.641 voti (54,3%) favorevoli al regime repubblicano: la percentuale fu del 64,8% nell'Italia settentrionale, 63,5% nella centrale, 32,6% nella meridionale, e 36% nella insulare. [...] La costituzione, prevista ed auspicata dai due decr. legisl. luog. 25 giugno 1944, n. 151 e 16 marzo 1946, n. 98, preceduta dai complessi lavori del Ministero per la costituente, è stata predisposta dalla commissione per la costituzione, nominata il 19 luglio 1946 in seno alla costituente, formata da 75 deputati e presieduta dall'on. M. Ruini. Tale commissione, dopo 362 sedute plenarie e di sottocommissioni, sezioni o comitati, ha presentato il 31 gennaio 1947 all'Assemblea costituente il progetto, seguìto da una dotta relazione dello stesso presidente Ruini. Iniziatone il 4 marzo 1947 l'esame, l'Assemblea costituente, sotto la presidenza di U. Terracini, dopo averlo discusso in 170 sedute, l'ha approvato il 22 dicembre 1947: la costituzione è entrata in vigore il 1° gennaio 1948.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-259)** McGaw Smyth, Howard (September 1948). "Italy: From Fascism to the Republic (1943–1946)". *[The Western Political Quarterly](/source/The_Western_Political_Quarterly)*. **1** (3). [Thousand Oaks, California](/source/Thousand_Oaks%2C_California): [SAGE Publications](/source/SAGE_Publications) on behalf of the [University of Utah](/source/University_of_Utah): 205–222. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/442274](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F442274). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1938-274X](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1938-274X). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [442274](https://www.jstor.org/stable/442274).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-260)** ["Cronologia dell'insurrezione a Milano – 25 aprile"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110527200809/http://www.associazioni.milano.it/isec/ita/cronologia/crono25apr.htm). *www.associazioni.milano.it* (in Italian). [Sesto San Giovanni](/source/Sesto_San_Giovanni), Italy: Fondazione ISEC. Archived from [the original](http://www.associazioni.milano.it/isec/ita/cronologia/crono25apr.htm) on 27 May 2011. Retrieved 21 April 2026.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-www.anpi.it_261-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-www.anpi.it_261-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-www.anpi.it_261-2) ["Chi Siamo"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110502161717/http://www.anpi.it/chi-siamo). *www.anpi.it* (in Italian). [Rome](/source/Rome), Italy: [Associazione Nazionale Partigiani d'Italia](/source/ANPI). Archived from [the original](http://www.anpi.it/chi-siamo) on 2 May 2011. Retrieved 21 April 2026.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-262)** ["RISCOPRIRE I VALORI DELLA RESISTENZA NELLA COSTITUZIONE"](https://www.aclibresciane.it/attivita/riscoprire-i-valori-della-resistenza-nella-costituzione) (in Italian). Retrieved 22 October 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-263)** ["Festa dell'anpi"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100524160027/http://www.anpifesta.org/). anpi.it. Archived from [the original](http://anpifesta.org/) on 24 May 2010. Retrieved 22 October 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-264)** ["Bella ciao, significato e testo: perché la canzone della Resistenza non appartiene (solo) ai comunisti"](https://notizie.virgilio.it/bella-ciao-significato-e-testo-perche-la-canzone-della-resistenza-non-appartiene-solo-ai-comunisti-1541819) (in Italian). 13 September 2022. Retrieved 21 October 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-265)** ["ATENE – Comizio di chiusura di Alexis Tsipras"](https://web.archive.org/web/20200420023001/http://pstream.lastampa.it.dl1.ipercast.net/lastampa/2015/01/23/d37A1QUG.mp4). Archived from [the original](http://pstream.lastampa.it.dl1.ipercast.net/lastampa/2015/01/23/d37A1QUG.mp4) on 20 April 2020. Retrieved 23 January 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-266)** ["Non solo Tsipras: "Bella ciao" cantata in tutte le lingue del mondo Guarda il video – Corriere TV"](http://video.corriere.it/bella-ciao-tutte-lingue-mondo-cosi-canto-partigiani-diventato-global/24c02342-a38b-11e4-808e-442fa7f91611) [Not only Tsipras: "Bella ciao" sung in all languages of the world Watch the video – Corriere TV]. *video.corriere.it* (in Italian).

## Sources

- Brennan, T. Corey (2022). ["Constructing Fasces in Mussolini's Italy"](https://books.google.com/books?id=Dr-CEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA178). *The Fasces: A History of Ancient Rome's Most Dangerous Political Symbol*. [Oxford](/source/Oxford) and [New York](/source/New_York_City): [Oxford Academic](/source/Oxford_Academic). pp. 178–197. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/oso/9780197644881.003.0011](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780197644881.003.0011). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-764488-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-764488-1).

- [Dutt, R. Palme](/source/R._Palme_Dutt) (October 1935). ["Chapter V: How Fascism Came In Italy"](https://www.marxists.org/archive//dutt/1935/fascism-social-revolution-3.pdf) (PDF). *Fascism and Social Revolution* (3rd Revised ed.). [New York](/source/New_York_City): [International Publishers](/source/International_Publishers). pp. 111–126. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781434405234](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781434405234). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20260306081313/https://www.marxists.org/archive/dutt/1935/fascism-social-revolution-3.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 6 March 2026. Retrieved 21 April 2026 – via [Marxists Internet Archive](/source/Marxists_Internet_Archive). {{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#invalid_isbn_date))

- Falasca-Zamponi, Simonetta (2000). [*Fascist Spectacle: The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini's Italy*](https://books.google.com/books?id=1aUwDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover). [Oakland, California](/source/Oakland%2C_California): [University of California Press](/source/University_of_California_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-520-22677-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22677-7).

- [Grand Council of Fascism](/source/Grand_Council_of_Fascism) (30 April 1927). ["Carta del Lavoro"](https://archive.org/details/carta-del-lavoro/page/1794/mode/2up). *[Gazzetta Ufficiale](/source/Gazzetta_Ufficiale)* (in Italian). No. 100. [Rome](/source/Rome), [Kingdom of Italy](/source/Kingdom_of_Italy): [Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato](/source/Istituto_Poligrafico_e_Zecca_dello_Stato). Retrieved 9 April 2026 – via [Internet Archive](/source/Internet_Archive).{{[cite magazine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_magazine)}}: CS1 maint: url-status ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_url-status))

- Gregor, A. James (2005). [*Mussolini's Intellectuals: Fascist Social and Political Thought*](https://books.google.com/books?id=gVqXffoJaiMC&printsec=frontcover). [Princeton, New Jersey](/source/Princeton%2C_New_Jersey) and [Woodstock, Oxfordshire](/source/Woodstock%2C_Oxfordshire): [Princeton University Press](/source/Princeton_University_Press). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/j.ctt7ss3x](https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctt7ss3x). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4008-2634-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-2634-6). [LCCN](/source/LCCN_(identifier)) [2004049133](https://lccn.loc.gov/2004049133).

- Marpicati, Arturo; [Mussolini, Benito](/source/Benito_Mussolini); Volpe, Gioacchino (1932). ["Fascismo"](https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/fascismo_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/). *Enciclopedia Italiana* (in Italian). [Rome](/source/Rome), [Kingdom of Italy](/source/Kingdom_of_Italy): [Enciclopedia Treccani](/source/Enciclopedia_Treccani). Retrieved 21 April 2026.

- [Mussolini, Benito](/source/Benito_Mussolini) (2006) [1928]. [*My Autobiography: With "The Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism"*](https://books.google.com/books?id=McMsAwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover). Translated by Child, Richard W. [Garden City, New York](/source/Garden_City%2C_New_York): [Dover Publications](/source/Dover_Publications). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-486-44777-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-44777-3).

- [Paxton, Robert O.](/source/Robert_Paxton) (2004). *[The Anatomy of Fascism](/source/The_Anatomy_of_Fascism)* (1st ed.). [New York](/source/New_York_City): [Alfred A. Knopf](/source/Alfred_A._Knopf). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4000-4094-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-4094-0).

- [Sorel, Georges](/source/Georges_Sorel) (2004) [1908]. Jennings, Jeremy (ed.). [*Reflections on Violence*](https://files.libcom.org/files/Sorel-Reflections-on-Violence-ed-Jennings.pdf) (PDF). Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought. [Cambridge](/source/Cambridge) and [New York](/source/New_York_City): [Cambridge University Press](/source/Cambridge_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780511815614](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780511815614). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20260126094116/https://files.libcom.org/files/Sorel-Reflections-on-Violence-ed-Jennings.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 26 January 2026. Retrieved 21 April 2026.

## Further reading

### General

- Acemoglu, Daron; De Feo, Giuseppe; De Luca, Giacomo; Russo, Gianluca. 2022. "[War, Socialism, and the Rise of Fascism: An Empirical Exploration](https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjac001)". *The Quarterly Journal of Economics*

- [De Felice, Renzo](/source/Renzo_De_Felice). 1977. *Interpretations of Fascism*, translated by Brenda Huff Everett, Cambridge; London: Harvard University Press [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0674459628](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0674459628).

- Eatwell, Roger. 1996. *Fascism: A History.* New York: Allen Lane.

- Hughes, H. Stuart. 1953. *The United States and Italy.* Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

- [Kertzer, David I.](/source/David_Kertzer) (2014). [*The Pope and Mussolini: The Secret History of Pius XI and the Rise of Fascism in Europe*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xc3QAgAAQBAJ). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0198716167](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198716167).

- Mack Smith, Denis. "Mussolini, Artist in Propaganda: The Downfall of Fascism". *History Today* (Apr 1959) 9#4 pp. 223–232.

- [Paxton, Robert O.](/source/Robert_Paxton) 2004. *[The Anatomy of Fascism](/source/The_Anatomy_of_Fascism)*. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1400040949](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1400040949).

- Payne, Stanley G. 1995. *A History of Fascism, 1914–45*. Madison, Wisc.: University of Wisconsin Press [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0299148742](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0299148742).

- Reich, Wilhelm. 1970. *The Mass Psychology of Fascism*. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux.

- [Seldes, George](/source/George_Seldes). 1935. *Sawdust Caesar: The Untold History of Mussolini and Fascism*. New York and London: Harper and Brothers.

- [Alfred Sohn-Rethel](/source/Alfred_Sohn-Rethel). *Economy and Class Structure of German Fascism*, London, CSE Bks, 1978 [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0906336007](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0906336007).

- Adler, Frank, and Danilo Breschi, eds. *Special Issue on Italian Fascism*, *[Telos](/source/Telos_(journal))* 133 (Winter 2005).

### Fascist ideology

- [De Felice, Renzo](/source/Renzo_De_Felice). 1976. *Fascism: An Informal Introduction to Its Theory and Practice: An Interview with Michael Ledeen*, New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0878551905](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0878551905).

- Fritzsche, Peter. 1990. *Rehearsals for Fascism: Populism and Political Mobilization in Weimar Germany*. New York: Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0195057805](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0195057805).

- [Gregor, A. James](/source/A._James_Gregor) "Mussolini's Intellectuals: Fascist Social and Political Thought". Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 2005. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0691127903](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691127903).

- [Griffin, Roger](/source/Roger_Griffin). 2000. "Revolution from the Right: Fascism", chapter in David Parker (ed.) *Revolutions and the Revolutionary Tradition in the West 1560–1991*, Routledge, London.

- [Laqueur, Walter](/source/Walter_Laqueur). 1966. *Fascism: Past, Present, Future,* New York: Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.

- [Schapiro, J. Salwyn](/source/J._Salwyn_Schapiro). 1949. *Liberalism and The Challenge of Fascism, Social Forces in England and France (1815–1870).* New York: McGraw-Hill.

- Laclau, Ernesto. 1977. *Politics and Ideology in Marxist Theory: Capitalism, Fascism, Populism.* London: NLB/Atlantic Highlands Humanities Press.

- [Sternhell, Zeev](/source/Zeev_Sternhell) with Mario Sznajder and Maia Asheri. [1989] 1994. *The Birth of Fascist Ideology, From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution.* Trans. David Maisei. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

### International fascism

- [Coogan, Kevin](/source/Kevin_Coogan) (1999). [*Dreamer of the Day: Francis Parker Yockey and the Postwar Fascist International*](/source/Dreamer_of_the_Day). Brooklyn: [Autonomedia](/source/Autonomedia). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-57027-039-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57027-039-0).

- Gregor, A. James. 2006. "The Search for Neofascism: The Use and Abuse of Social Science". New York: Cambridge University Press.

- Griffin, Roger. 1991. *The Nature of Fascism*. New York: St. Martin's Press.

- Paxton, Robert O. 2004. *The Anatomy of Fascism*. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

- [Weber, Eugen](/source/Eugen_Weber). [1964] 1985. *Varieties of Fascism: Doctrines of Revolution in the Twentieth Century,* New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, contains chapters on fascist movements in different countries.

- Wallace, Henry. ["The Dangers of American Fascism"](https://web.archive.org/web/20080610175131/http://newdeal.feri.org/wallace/haw23.htm). *[The New York Times](/source/The_New_York_Times)*, Sunday, 9 April 1944.

- [Trotsky, Leon](/source/Leon_Trotsky). 1944. ["Fascism, What it is and how to fight it"](https://www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/works/1944/1944-fas.htm) Pioneer Publishers (pamphlet).

## External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to [Italian Fascism](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Italian_Fascism).

- ["Fascist Italy and the Jews: Myth versus Reality"](http://www.yadvashem.org/holocaust/video-lectures/fascist-italy) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170227174114/http://www.yadvashem.org/holocaust/video-lectures/fascist-italy) 27 February 2017 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), an online lecture by Iael Nidam-Orvieto of [Yad Vashem](/source/Yad_Vashem).

- ["Fascism Part I – Understanding Fascism and Anti-Semitism"](http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/understanding_fascism.htm).

- ["The Functions of Fascism"](https://archive.today/20121209090900/http://www.radio4all.net/proginfo.php?id=15029), a radio lecture by [Michael Parenti](/source/Michael_Parenti).

- ["The Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism"](http://media.wix.com/ugd/927b40_c1ee26114a4d480cb048f5f96a4cc68f.pdf) (1933), authorized translation.

- ["Italian Fascism"](http://histclo.com/essay/war/ww2/tol/tol-ita.html).

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Slovakia Landser Liechtenstein Homeland Service National Democratic Party (Austria) National Democratic Party of Germany National Fascist Community National Front (Hungary) National Front (Switzerland) National Movement of Switzerland National Radical Camp National Radical Camp (1993) National Revival of Poland National Union (Switzerland) Nationalist Front (Germany) Nazi Party Greater German People's Community Nazi Germany National Socialist Freedom Movement National Socialist Working Association New Order Nipsters No Colours Records PC Records Positive Christianity German Christians Republic Movement The Right (Germany) Rock-O-Rama Records Shield and Sword Slovak People's Party Socialist Reich Party Stahlgewitter Sudeten German Party The Third Path United Hungarian National Socialist Party Vlajka Volksdeutsche Bewegung Volkssozialistische Bewegung Deutschlands/Partei der Arbeit Wiking-Jugend Southern Europe ADÑ–Spanish Identity Albanian Fascist Party Balli Kombëtar Brothers of Italy CEDADE Democratic Fascist Party European Nation State Fasci d'Azione Rivoluzionaria Fasci Italiani di Combattimento Fascio d'Azione Rivoluzionaria Falange Sección Femenina La Falange (1999) Falange Auténtica Falange Española Falange Española Auténtica Falange Española de las JONS Falange Española de las JONS (1976) Falange Española Independiente Falangist Movement of Spain Freethinkers' Party Imperium Europa Italian fascism National Fascist Party (Italy) Italian Social Republic Republican Fascist Party Italian Social Movement Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista Juntas Españolas National Alliance (Spain) National Alliance July 18 National Democracy (Italy) National Democracy (Spain) National Front (Spain, 1986) National Front (Spain, 2006) National Union (Italy, 1923) National Union (Spain) New Force (Italy) New Force (Spain) Republican Social Movement The Right (Italy) Sammarinese Fascist Party Spanish Military Union Struggle of the People Student Action Terza Posizione Tricolour Flame Unidad Falangista Montañesa Youth Front Eastern and Southeastern Europe Autochthonous Croatian Party of Rights Bosnian Movement of National Pride Bulgarian National Socialist Workers Party Croatian Liberation Movement Croatian National Resistance Croatian Party of Rights Crusade of Romanianism ELAM (Cyprus) Ethnic National Union Eurasia Movement Eurasia Party Format18 For the Native Language! Front of National Revolutionary Action German Party German People's Party Golden Dawn Greek National Socialist Party Hosank Iron Guard Kolovrat LEPEN Liberal Democratic Party of Russia Lithuanian Nationalist Union National Agrarian Party National Bolshevik Front National Bolshevik Party National-Christian Defense League National Christian Party National Fascist Movement National Italo-Romanian Cultural and Economic Movement National Party – Greeks National Socialist Patriotic Organisation National Socialist Society National Social Movement National Romanian Fascio National Renaissance Front National Salvation Front Nokturnal Mortum Obraz Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists The Other Russia of E. V. Limonov Pamyat Patriotic Alliance People's Party Progressive Socialist Party of Ukraine Ratniks (Bulgaria) Romanian Front Russian Imperial Movement Russian Fascist Party Russian Women's Fascist Movement Serbian Action Serbian Radical Party Steel Shield Svoboda Union of Bulgarian National Legions Ustaše Ustaše in Australia Croatian Revolutionary Brotherhood Yugoslav Radical Union ZBOR North America Fascism in Canada Aryan Guard Canadian Association for Free Expression Canadian Union of Fascists Citizens for Foreign Aid Reform Heritage Front Parti national social chrétien Fascism in the United States American Front American Nazi Party Fascist League of North America Identity Evropa League of the South Nationalist Social Club-131 Nationalist Front (United States) Patriot Front Proud Boys Rise Above Movement Silver Legion of America Christian Party (United States, 1930s) Traditionalist Worker Party Vanguard America Volksfront Revolutionary Mexicanist Action Mexican Democratic Party Mexican 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(Argentina) Popular Dignity Popular Freedom Alliance Popular Representation Party Popular Socialist Vanguard Republican League La Resistencia Dios, Patria y Familia Revolutionary Union Tacuara Nationalist Movement People Australia Campbell (Eric) Campbell (Graeme) Cottrell Groot Mills Saleam Austria Dollfuss Miklas Pfrimer Planetta Schuschnigg Seyss-Inquart Starhemberg Belgium Daye Declercq Degrelle Denis Elias Eriksson Hermans Lagrou Poulet Severen Streel van de Wiele Croatia Boban Francetić Kraljević Kvaternik Luburić Pavelić Pavičić Rover Servatzy Finland Helanen Isotalo Kalsta Konkka Kosola Orko Simojoki Somersalo Törni Varjonen France Augier Bardèche Benoist-Méchin Béraud Brasillach Bucard Châteaubriant Déat Déroulède Dior Doriot La Rochelle Lagardelle Laval Pétain Rebatet Valois Vial Germany Abetz Andrae Baeumler Berchtold Berger Best Brunner Bühler Darré Falkenhausen Hocke Feder Forster Frank Franz V Gesche Goebbels Göring Graf Greiser Günther Hanke Heiden Hess Heydrich Himmler Hitler Klintzsch Kuhn Ludendorff Maurice Müller Niekisch Ploetz Rahn Reitsch Renthe-Fink Ribbentrop Rieger Rosenberg Schmitt Schreck Skorzeny Strasser (Gregor) Strasser (Otto) Streicher Terboven Thadden Krosigk Zündel Greece Dragoumis Kasidiaris Koryzis Lagos Michaloliakos Papadopoulos India Adityanath Advani Bose Godse Golwalkar Hedgewar Mukherjee Savarkar Vajpayee Iran Forouhar Kashani Monshizadeh Pezeshkpour Teymourtash Israel Ahimeir Ben-Ari Ben-Gvir Eldad Eliyahu Goldstein Gopstein Greenberg Ha'ivri Heruti Kahane Marzel Natan-Zada Stern Yeivin Italy Acerbo Alfieri Ambris D'Annunzio Azara Badoglio Balbo Torrente Ballester Bastianini Bianchi Boni Bono Boselli Bottai Ciano (Costanzo) Ciano (Galeazzo) Cogni Corradini Freda Gentile Giuriati Gozi Grandi Graziani Guidi Malaparte Marinetti Michels Morgagni Mussolini Olivetti Panunzio Papini Pavolini Rauti Ricci Ridruejo Rocco Rossoni Sarfatti Soffici Spirito Volpi Japan Akao Araki Chō Hashimoto Honjō Kita Kodama Matsuoka Nonaka Ōkawa Sasakawa Romania Antonescu Bacaloglu Codreanu Crainic Cuza Gigurtu Goga Manoilescu Moța Ogoranu Sima Russia Astroŭski Borovikov Ilyin Kaminski Martsinkevich Milchakov Oktan Prilepin Prokhanov Rodzaevsky Spain Arrese Bau Nolla Bilbao Eguía Carrero Blanco Fernández-Cuesta Franco Franco y Polo Giménez Caballero Primo de Rivera Ramos Sánchez Mazas Serrano Suñer Ukraine Bandera Biletsky Dontsov Gubarev Klyachkivsky Lebed Rebet Samchuk Shukhevych Stetsko Tyahnybok Vitrenko United Kingdom Beckett Chamberlain Chesterton Lake Leese Mosley (Diana) Mosley (Oswald) Pankhurst Pearson Ramsay Robinson Southgate Tyndall Vaughan-Henry Wellesley United States Auernheimer Collins Fuentes Joyce Pelley Pound Yockey Other Burdi Celmiņš Martínez Perón Quisling Ramírez Riva-Agüero y Osma Šešelj Szálasi Works Literature 1776 Returns La Conquista del Estado The Culture of Critique Defiance The Doctrine of Fascism Essentials of Hindutva Fascist Manifesto For My Legionaries The Foundations of Geopolitics: The Geopolitical Future of Russia The Fourth Political Theory Hitlers Zweites Buch Hutu Ten Commandments Imperium: The Philosophy of History and Politics An Investigation of Global Policy with the Yamato Race as Nucleus Kokutairon and Pure Socialism The Last Will of a Russian Fascist Manifesto of Race Manifesto of the Fascist Intellectuals Mein Kampf My Autobiography My Life The Myth of the Twentieth Century OPROP! Our Race Will Rule Undisputed Over The World Protestantische Rompilger A Racial Program for the Twentieth Century Uncomfortable Questions for Comfortable Jews A Warning to the Hindus Who Are the Mind Benders? Periodicals Action Ajan Suunta L'Alba El Alcázar The American Review Der Angriff Arriba The Blackshirt La Conquista del Estado Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung Das Deutsche Mädel La Difesa della Razza Eleftheros Kosmos The European Fashist Fashizmi La France au travail Fritt Folk Fronten Gândirea Gioventù Fascista Golden Dawn Hamaas Hrvatski Domobran Je suis partout Kangura Kansallissosialisti Kesari Limonka Masada2000 Münchener Beobachter Nash Put' Nástup Nation Europa Neue Anthropologie Neues Volk Het Nieuwe Volk Norsk-Tysk Tidsskrift Novopress Norsk-Tysk Tidsskrift Organiser Panchjanya Panzerbär Parole der Woche Le Pays Réel Der Pimpf Il Popolo d'Italia Das Reich Revue d'histoire du fascisme Das Schwarze Korps Sfarmă-Piatră Signal Siniristi Spearhead Der Stürmer Türkische Post Der Umbruch Vairas Vlajka Volk en Staat Völkischer Beobachter Die Wehrmacht Wochenspruch der NSDAP Film L'Armata Azzurra Bengasi Condottieri The Daughter of the Samurai Erbkrank Europa: The Last Battle The Great Appeal The Old Guard Raza Scipio Africanus: The Defeat of Hannibal Der Sieg des Glaubens The Siege of the Alcazar Lo squadrone bianco Tag der Freiheit: Unsere Wehrmacht Triumph of the Will Music Fashwave Hindutva pop National Socialist black metal Nazi punk Rock Against Communism White power music Other Allach StoneToss Related topics Art of the Third Reich Fascist architecture Heroic realism Nazi architecture Nazism and cinema History 1900s Herero and Nama genocide and the Holocaust 1910s Arditi Fascio Fasci d'Azione Rivoluzionaria Armenian genocide and the Holocaust 1920s March on Rome Corfu incident Acerbo Law Beer Hall Putsch Aventine Secession Italian economic battles Le Faisceau 28 May 1926 coup d'état Libyan genocide 1930s March of the Iron Will November 1932 German federal election March 1933 German federal election Enabling Act Austrian Civil War July Putsch 1934 Montreux Fascist conference Romani Holocaust 4th of August Regime Anti-Comintern Pact Spanish Civil War 1940s World War II Nazi crimes against the Polish nation The Holocaust Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia End in Italy Nuremberg Trials Tokyo Trials Lists Anti-fascists British fascist parties Fascist movements by country (A–F G–M N–T U–Z) Secretaries of Italian fascist parties Related topics Anti-fascism Criticism of fascism Fascist (epithet) Fascist mysticism Feudal fascism F-scale (personality test) Morenazi Para-/semi-fascism Post-fascism Proto-fascism Red fascism Red–green–brown alliance Roman salute Sansepolcrismo Social fascism Sorelianism Synarchism Szeged Idea Trumpism Donald Trump and fascism Völkisch movement Category

[Portals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals):
- [History](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:History)
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**Italian fascism** at Wikipedia's [sister projects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects):

- [**Definitions**](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Fascism) from Wiktionary
- [**Media**](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Italian_Fascism) from Commons
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- [**Data**](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q747081) from Wikidata

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Italian fascism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_fascism) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_fascism?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.