# Islam in Turkey > Mediated Wiki article. Canonical URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Islam_in_Turkey > Markdown URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Islam_in_Turkey.md > Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Turkey > Source revision: 1345883044 > License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) {{Short description|none}} {{use dmy dates|date=May 2020}} {{Refimprove|date=August 2025}} [[File:Ayasofya Manzarası.jpg|thumb|300px|[Hagia Sophia](/source/Hagia_Sophia), a [mosque](/source/mosque) since 1453 that serves as an important cultural and historical site in [Istanbul](/source/Istanbul), [Turkey](/source/Turkey). It was originally the most important [church](/source/Church_(building)) in the [Byzantine Empire](/source/Byzantine_Empire) and the [Eastern Orthodox Church](/source/Eastern_Orthodox_Church).]] {{Religion in Turkey}} {{Islam by country}} [Islam](/source/Islam) is by far the most practiced religion in [Turkey](/source/Turkey). Most [Turkish people](/source/Turkish_people) are [Sunni](/source/Sunni) Muslims, and most of them belong to the [Hanafi](/source/Hanafi) school of jurisprudence. Smaller numbers belong to the [Alevi](/source/Alevi), [Ja'fari](/source/Ja'fari) and [Alawite](/source/Alawite) minorities. The established presence of Islam in the region that now constitutes modern Turkey dates back to the second half of the 11th century, when the [Seljuks](/source/Seljuk_Empire) started expanding into [eastern Anatolia](/source/Eastern_Anatolia_Region).{{Cite journal|last=Aktas|first=Vahap|date=2014-01-01|title=Islamization of Anatolia and the Effects of Established Sufism (Orders)|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09720073.2014.11891424|journal=The Anthropologist|volume=17|issue=1|pages=147–155|doi=10.1080/09720073.2014.11891424|s2cid=55540974|issn=0972-0073|access-date=27 October 2020|archive-date=22 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122132935/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09720073.2014.11891424|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}} While official records indicate the population of Turkey to be 99.8% Muslim,{{efn|name=thirtythree|These are based on the existing religion information written on every citizen's national ID card, automatically passed on from the parents to every newborn, and do not necessarily represent individual choice. Furthermore, anyone who was not officially registered as Christian or Jewish by the time of the foundation of the republic, was automatically recorded as Muslim, and this label has been passed down to new generations. Therefore, the official number of Muslims also includes people with no religion; converted from Islam to a different religion than Islam; and anyone who is of a different religion than their parents but hasn't applied for a change of their individual records.}} most surveys estimate the percentage to be around 90 to 95%.{{Cite book |last=Nişancı |first=Zübeyir |editor1=Ayşe Betül Aydın |editor2=Hatice Nur Keskin |date=21 March 2023 |title=Faith and Religiosity in Türkiye |url=https://nsp.marmara.edu.tr/dosya/nsp/Resimler/Faith-and-Religiosity-in-T%C3%BCrkiye-Z%C3%BCbeyir-Ni%C5%9Fanc%C4%B1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420223018/https://nsp.marmara.edu.tr/dosya/nsp/Resimler/Faith-and-Religiosity-in-T%C3%BCrkiye-Z%C3%BCbeyir-Ni%C5%9Fanc%C4%B1.pdf |archive-date=20 April 2023 |access-date=23 Aug 2023 |isbn=978-1-64205-906-9 |publisher=[Marmara University](/source/Marmara_University) |url-status=live |language=en}}{{cite web | url=https://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSDocumentationWV7.jsp | title=WVS Database }} {{Cite news | url = https://www.indyturk.com/node/619071/yazarlar/t%C3%BCrkiyede-i%CC%87nan%C3%A7-ve-dindarl%C4%B1k-ara%C5%9Ft%C4%B1rmas%C4%B1-yay%C4%B1mland%C4%B1-dindarla%C5%9Ft%C4%B1k-m%C4%B1 | title = "Türkiye'de İnanç ve Dindarlık" araştırması yayımlandı: Dindarlaştık mı, sekülerleştik mi? | trans-title = "Faith and Religiosity in Turkey" research was published: Have we become religious or secularized? | language = tr | date = 26 March 2023 | first = Nevzat | last = Çiçek | publisher = indyturk.com}}{{cite web|title=Country – Turkey|url=http://joshuaproject.net/countries/TU?page=1|publisher=Joshua Project|access-date=27 April 2014|archive-date=20 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160320162454/https://joshuaproject.net/countries/tu?page=1|url-status=live}}{{Cite web |title=Optimar'dan din-inanç anketi: Yüzde 89 Allah'ın varlığına ve birliğine inanıyor |url=https://t24.com.tr/haber/optimar-dan-din-inanc-anketi-yuzde-89-allah-in-varligina-ve-birligine-inaniyor,821459 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329054608/https://t24.com.tr/haber/optimar-dan-din-inanc-anketi-yuzde-89-allah-in-varligina-ve-birligine-inaniyor,821459 |archive-date=29 March 2020 |access-date=2023-05-21 |website=T24 |language=Turkish}} Because the government registers everyone as [Muslim](/source/Muslim) at birth by default, the official statistics can be misleading. The [Hanafi](/source/Hanafi) school of [fiqh](/source/fiqh) ([maddhab](/source/maddhab)) of [Sunni Islam](/source/Sunni_Islam) makes up about 90% of the Muslim population, with the remaining [Muslim sects](/source/Muslim_sects){{cite web |title=Turkey: International Religious Freedom Report 2007 |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2007/90204.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191204131522/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2007/90204.htm |archive-date=4 December 2019 |access-date=22 September 2016 |publisher=U.S. Department of State}} consisting of [Alevis](/source/Alevis) (close to 10%), [Ja'fari](/source/Ja'fari)s (representing 1%){{Cite web |url=http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam/shia/shia.html |title=Shi'a |access-date=12 August 2009 |archive-date=10 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110110113402/http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam/shia/shia.html |url-status=dead }} and [Alawites](/source/Alawites) (with an estimated population of around 500,000 to 1 million, or about 1%).{{Cite web | url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/10/201210217225938535.html | title=Syria strife tests Turkish Alawites | Turkey | al Jazeera | access-date=10 June 2016 | archive-date=1 October 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001222038/https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/10/201210217225938535.html | url-status=live }} With a sizeable part of population being [Cultural Muslims](/source/Cultural_Muslims),{{citation|author=[Mayer, Ann Elizabeth](/source/Ann_Elizabeth_Mayer)|year=2010|chapter=Turks|title=The Contemporary Middle East: A Westview Reader|publisher=[Westview Press](/source/Westview_Press)|pages=27–30|isbn=978-0-8133-4465-2}} there is also a minority of [Sufi](/source/Sufism) and [non-denominational Muslims](/source/non-denominational_Muslims).{{cite web|title=Pew Forum on Religious & Public life|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity|website=pewforum.org|access-date=29 October 2013|date=2012-08-09|archive-date=26 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226113158/http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=http://www.allaboutturkey.com/sufi.htm|title=Sufism|publisher=All about Turkey|date=20 November 2006|access-date=1 November 2010|archive-date=8 June 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080608012500/http://www.allaboutturkey.com/sufi.htm|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|last=ÖZKÖK|first=Ertuğrul|title=Türkiye artık yüzde 99'u müslüman olan ülke değil|url=https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/yazarlar/ertugrul-ozkok/turkiye-artik-yuzde-99u-musluman-olan-ulke-degil-41220410|access-date=2020-08-13|website=www.hurriyet.com.tr|date=21 May 2019 |language=tr|archive-date=23 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190523014613/https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/yazarlar/ertugrul-ozkok/turkiye-artik-yuzde-99u-musluman-olan-ulke-degil-41220410|url-status=live}}{{cite web |url=https://t24.com.tr/haber/optimar-dan-din-inanc-anketi-yuzde-89-allah-in-varligina-ve-birligine-inaniyor,821459 |title=Optimar'dan din-inanç anketi: Yüzde 89 Allah'ın varlığına ve birliğine inanıyor |publisher=T24.com.tr |access-date=2020-04-04 |archive-date=29 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329054608/https://t24.com.tr/haber/optimar-dan-din-inanc-anketi-yuzde-89-allah-in-varligina-ve-birligine-inaniyor,821459 |url-status=live }} Whether "Turkish Islam" is more "moderate and pluralistic" compared to other Islamic societies is disputed, with a majority claiming this to be true. Reasons given for this statement include: the state constitution not containing any references to Islam, alcohol consumption being prevalent, and instead of promoting religious activities there was a state-imposed [ban on Islamic attire](/source/Headscarf_controversy_in_Turkey) and [restrictions on religious activities](/source/Atat%C3%BCrk's_reforms) until the late 2010s.{{citation|last1=Rabasa|first1=Angel|last2=Larrabee|first2=F. Stephen|year=2008|title=The Rise of Political Islam in Turkey|publisher=[RAND Corporation](/source/RAND_Corporation)|page=96|isbn=978-0-8330-4457-0}}{{citation|author=[Mayer, Ann Elizabeth](/source/Ann_Elizabeth_Mayer)|chapter=Turks|title=The Contemporary Middle East: A Westview Reader|date=27 July 2010 |publisher=[Westview Press](/source/Westview_Press)|pages=27–30|isbn=978-0-8133-4465-2}}{{citation|last1=Rabasa|first1=Angel|last2=Larrabee|first2=F. Stephen|title=The Rise of Political Islam in Turkey|date=2008 |publisher=[RAND Corporation](/source/RAND_Corporation)|page=96|isbn=978-0-8330-4457-0}}{{cite web |last1=Çağatay |first1=Soner |title=Islam, Secularism and Nationalism in Modern Turkey Who is a Turk? |url=https://www.routledge.com/Islam-Secularism-and-Nationalism-in-Modern-Turkey-Who-is-a-Turk/Cagaptay/p/book/9780415567763?srsltid=AfmBOorkOq-ZvUATggJyiKsaAuIkkz9pe-b164rpkVV3n4Sr5DaahlgZ |publisher=[Routledge](/source/Routledge) |page=97 |quote=While Islam remains present in Turkish society, for large parts of the population, its role is reduced to a cultural heritage rather than a religious obligation.}}{{cite book |last1=Yavuz |first1=M. Hakan |title=Secularism and Muslim democracy in Turkey |date=2009 |publisher=[Cambridge University Press](/source/Cambridge_University_Press) |location=Cambridge, UK New York |isbn=9780511815089 |page=135 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511815089 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/secularism-and-muslim-democracy-in-turkey/CC6CDCE70BAD9524CC96465BC6DCA32C |quote=A significant percentage of Turks, particularly in urban areas, observe religious rituals only symbolically, and private belief often does not translate into daily religious practice.}} Others argue this view is not valid, pointing to the fact that some elements of Turkish society are hardliners.Erturk, Omer F. "The myth of Turkish Islam: the influence of Naqshbandi-Gümüşhanevi thought in Turkish Islamic orthodoxy." British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 49.2 (2022): 223-247. == History == {{see also|History of Islam}} === Seljuks and initial history === {{further|Byzantine–Seljuk Wars|Battle of Talas}} {{Unreferenced section|date=August 2025}} [[File:Map of expansion of Caliphate.svg|thumb|Islamic conquest extended to Anatolia during later [Abbasid](/source/Abbasid) period.]] [[File:مسجد منوچهر.jpg|thumb|[Menucihr Mosque](/source/Menucihr_Mosque) in [Kars](/source/Kars), the first mosque within the borders of modern Turkey]] During the Muslim conquests of the 7th and early 8th centuries, [Arab armies](/source/Rashidun_army) established the [Islamic Empire](/source/Caliphate). The [Umayyad Caliphate](/source/Umayyad_Caliphate) continued the spread of [Islam](/source/Islam). The [Islam](/source/Islam)ic [Golden Age](/source/Golden_Age) was soon inaugurated by the middle of the 8th century by the ascension of the [Abbasid](/source/Abbasid) [Caliphate](/source/Caliphate) and the transfer of the capital from [Damascus](/source/Damascus) to [Baghdad](/source/Baghdad).Gregorian, Vartan. ''Islam: A Mosaic, Not a Monolith'', Brookings Institution Press, 2003, pp. 26–38 {{ISBN|0-8157-3283-X}} The later period saw initial expansion and the capture of [Crete](/source/Crete) (840). The Abbasids soon shifted their attention towards the East. During the later fragmentation of the Abbasid rule and the rise of their [Shiite](/source/Shiite) rivals the [Fatimid](/source/Fatimid)s and [Buyid](/source/Buyid)s, a resurgent Byzantium recaptured [Crete](/source/Crete) and [Cilicia](/source/Cilicia) in 961, [Cyprus](/source/Cyprus) in 965, and pushed into the Levant by 975. The Byzantines successfully contested with the [Fatimid](/source/Fatimid)s for influence in the region until the arrival of the [Seljuk Turks](/source/Seljuk_dynasty) who first allied with the Abbasids and then ruled as the ''de facto'' rulers. In 1068, [Alp Arslan](/source/Alp_Arslan) and allied [Turkoman](/source/Turkoman_(ethnonym)) tribes recaptured many Abbasid lands and even invaded Byzantine regions, pushing further into [eastern](/source/Eastern_Anatolia_Region) and [central Anatolia](/source/Central_Anatolia_Region) after a major victory at the [Battle of Manzikert](/source/Battle_of_Manzikert) in 1071. The disintegration of the Seljuk dynasty resulted in the rise of subsequent, smaller, rival [Turkic kingdoms](/source/Anatolian_beyliks) such as the [Danishmends](/source/Danishmends), the [Sultanate of Rum](/source/Sultanate_of_Rum), and various [Atabeg](/source/Atabeg)s who contested the control of the region during the [Crusade](/source/Crusade)s and incrementally expanded across Anatolia until the [rise of the Ottoman Empire](/source/rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire). === Ottoman Empire === {{main|Islam in the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Caliphate}} {{Unreferenced section|date=August 2025}} [[File:Selimiye_Mosque_3.JPG|thumb|[Selimiye Mosque](/source/Selimiye_Mosque%2C_Edirne), [Edirne](/source/Edirne).]] Beginning in the 12th century, new waves of Turkic migrants arrived, many of whom belonging to [Sufi](/source/Sufi) orders. Some of these migrants later went on to incorporate [heterodox](/source/Heterodoxy) beliefs. One Sufi order that appealed to Turks in [Anatolia](/source/Anatolia) was the [Safaviyya](/source/Safaviyya), an order that was originally Sunni and non-political, but later became both [Shi'a](/source/Shia_Islam) and politically based in northwest [Iran](/source/Iran). During the 14th and 15th centuries, the [Safavid](/source/Safavid_order) and similar orders such as the [Bektaşi](/source/Bekta%C5%9Fi) became rivals of the [Ottomans](/source/Ottoman_Empire)—who were [orthodox](/source/Orthodoxy) Sunni Muslims—for political control of eastern Anatolia. Although the Bektaşi order became accepted as a [sect](/source/sect) of orthodox Sunni Muslims, they did not abandon their heterodox beliefs. In contrast, the Safavids eventually conquered Iran, spread their beliefs, and became proponents of orthodox [Twelver Shi'a Islam](/source/Twelver_Shi'ism). The conquest of the Byzantine capital of [Constantinople](/source/Constantinople) (modern day [Istanbul](/source/Istanbul)) in 1453 enabled the Ottomans to consolidate their empire in Anatolia and [Thrace](/source/Thrace). The Ottomans later revived the title of [caliph](/source/Caliphate) during the reign of [Selim I](/source/Selim_I). Despite the absence of a formal institutional structure, Sunni religious functionaries continued to play an important political role. In theory, the codified system of [sharia](/source/sharia) regulated all aspects of everyday life, at least for Muslim subjects of the empire. The head of the [judiciary](/source/judiciary) ranked directly below the sultan, and was second in power only to the grand [vizier](/source/vizier). Early in the Ottoman period, the office of grand [mufti](/source/mufti) of Istanbul evolved into that of ''[Şeyhülislam](/source/List_of_Sheikh-ul-Islams_of_the_Ottoman_Empire)'' (shaykh, or "leader of Islam"), which had ultimate jurisdiction over all the courts in the empire and consequently exercised authority over the interpretation and application of sharia. Legal opinions pronounced by the Şeyhülislam were considered definitive interpretations. === Republic of Turkey === ====One-party period==== {{main|Secularism in Turkey}} {{See also|Atatürk's Reforms}} {{Unreferenced section|date=August 2025}} [[File:Mustafa Kemal Paşa ve Abdurrahman Kamil Efendi (1930).jpg|thumb|[President](/source/President_of_Turkey) [Mustafa Kemal Pasha](/source/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk) and [Mufti](/source/Mufti) Abdurrahman Kamil Effendi in [Amasya](/source/Amasya) (1930)]] The [secularization of Turkey](/source/Secularism_in_Turkey) started during the last years of the [Ottoman Empire](/source/Ottoman_Empire) and was a prominent feature of [Atatürk's reforms](/source/Atat%C3%BCrk's_reforms). [Secularism](/source/Secularism) ''(or [laiklik](/source/laiklik))'' became one of the "[Six Arrows](/source/Six_Arrows)" of Atatürk's program for remaking Turkey. Under his leadership, in 1922, the [caliphate](/source/caliphate) was abolished, and the secular power of religious authorities and functionaries was reduced and eventually eliminated. Religious foundations were nationalized. The influential and popular orders of the [dervish](/source/dervish) brotherhoods ([Tariqa](/source/Tariqa)) were also suppressed. In 1922, the new nationalist regime abolished the Ottoman sultanate, as well as the caliphate in 1924 - the religious office that Ottoman sultans had held for four centuries. Thus, for the first time in Islamic history, no ruler claimed spiritual leadership of Islam. Atatürk and his associates abolished certain religious practices and institutions and generally questioned the value of religion, preferring to place their trust in [science](/source/science). They regarded organized religion as an [anachronism](/source/anachronism) and contrasted it unfavorably with "civilization", which to them meant a [rationalist](/source/Rationalism), secular culture. Unlike in the West, the establishment of secularism in Turkey was not a gradual process of separation of mosque and state. In the Ottoman Empire, all residents, at least theoretically, had been subject to traditional religious law, and Sunni religious organizations had been part of the state structure. However, the state usually had authority over the [clergy](/source/clergy) and religious law (e.g. many Sultans are known to change [Şeyhülislams](/source/List_of_Sheikh-ul-Islams_of_the_Ottoman_Empire), who do not approve of state politics). When the reformers of the early 1920s opted for a secular state, they removed religion from the sphere of public policy and restricted it to exclusively that of [personal morals](/source/Morality), behavior, and faith. Although private observance of religious rituals could continue, religion and religious organization were excluded from public life. In addition to the abolition of the caliphate, new laws mandated the abolition of the office of [Şeyhülislam](/source/%C5%9Eeyh%C3%BClislam) and the religious [hierarchy](/source/hierarchy), the closing and confiscation of [Sufi](/source/Sufism) lodges, meeting places, and [monasteries](/source/Monastery) and the outlawing of their rituals and meetings, the establishment of government control over [vakıfs](/source/Waqf) which had been inalienable under [Sharia](/source/Sharia), the replacement of sharia with adapted European legal codes; the closing of religious schools; the abandonment of the [Islamic calendar](/source/Islamic_calendar) in favor of the [Gregorian calendar](/source/Gregorian_calendar) used in the West, and restrictions on public attire that had religious associations, with the [fez](/source/Fez_(clothing)) outlawed for men and the [veil](/source/veil) discouraged for women. [[File:Mihrab,_Şakirin_Mosque_(7487730340).jpg|thumb|alt=The interior of a modern mosque. The camera is focused on its mihrab.|[Şakirin Mosque](/source/%C5%9Eakirin_Mosque) in [Istanbul](/source/Istanbul). The mosque was designed by [Zeynep Fadıllıoğlu](/source/Zeynep_Fad%C4%B1ll%C4%B1o%C4%9Flu), the first woman to do so.{{cite journal |last1=Strickland |first1=Carol |title=Mosque modern |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/The-Culture/Arts/2009/0803/p17s01-algn.html |journal=Christian Science Monitor |date=3 August 2009 |access-date=23 September 2020 |archive-date=19 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201119105753/https://www.csmonitor.com/The-Culture/Arts/2009/0803/p17s01-algn.html |url-status=live }}]] Atatürk and his colleagues also attempted to "turkify" Islam through official encouragement of practices such as the usage of [Turkish](/source/Turkish_language) rather than [Arabic](/source/Arabic) at devotions, substituting the Turkish word [Tanrı](/source/Tanr%C4%B1) for the Arabic word [Allah](/source/Allah), and incorporating Turkish into daily calls to prayer. These changes in devotional practices caused widespread criticism among Muslims, which led to a return to the Arabic version of the call to prayer in 1950, after the opposition party [DP](/source/Democratic_Party_(Turkey%2C_historical)) won the elections. Of longer-lasting effect were the regime's measures of prohibiting religious education, restricting the building of new [mosque](/source/mosque)s, and transferring existing mosques to secular purposes - most notably the [Hagia Sophia](/source/Hagia_Sophia) (Justinian's sixth-century Christian [basilica](/source/basilica), which had been converted into a mosque by [Mehmet II](/source/Mehmet_II)), which was turned into a museum in 1935. Muftis and [imam](/source/imam)s were appointed by the government, and religious instruction was taken over by the [Ministry of National Education](/source/Ministry_of_National_Education_(Turkey)). As a result of these policies, the Turkish Republic was judged negatively by some sections of the Muslim world. The common expectation was that these policies of the 1920s and 1930s would diminish the role of religion in public, which, however, did not occur. As early as 1925, religious grievances were one of the principal causes of the [Şeyh Sait rebellion](/source/Sheikh_Said_Rebellion), an uprising in southeastern Turkey that may have claimed as many as 30,000 lives before being suppressed. Although Turkey was secularized at a legal level, religion remained a strong force. After 1950, some political leaders espoused support for programs and policies that appealed to the religiously inclined in an attempt to benefit from a lot of the population's attachment to religion. Such efforts were opposed by most of the state, who believed that secularism was an essential principle of [Kemalist Ideology](/source/Kemalist_Ideology). This gradually led to a polarization of the entire country, which became especially evident in the 1980s, as a new generation of religiously motivated local leaders emerged to challenge the dominance of the secularized political elite. ==== Multi-party period ==== {{Unreferenced section|date=August 2025}} [[File:20101213_Suleymaniye_Mosque_Istanbul_inside_vertical_Panorama.jpg|thumb|[Süleymaniye Mosque](/source/S%C3%BCleymaniye_Mosque), [Istanbul](/source/Istanbul).]] Following the loosening of authoritarian political control in 1946, a large number of people began to openly call for a return to traditional religious practices. During the 1950s, even certain political leaders found it expedient to join religious leaders in advocating more state respect for religion.{{Cite journal|last=Öztürk|first=Ahmet Erdi|date=2019-02-26|title=An alternative reading of religion and authoritarianism: the new logic between religion and state in the AKP's New Turkey|journal=Southeast European and Black Sea Studies|volume=19|pages=79–98|doi=10.1080/14683857.2019.1576370|s2cid=159047564|issn=1468-3857|url=http://repository.londonmet.ac.uk/5406/1/An-alternative-reading-of-religion-and-authoritarianism.pdf|access-date=4 June 2020|archive-date=22 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201122121007/http://repository.londonmet.ac.uk/5406/1/An-alternative-reading-of-religion-and-authoritarianism.pdf|url-status=live}} A more direct manifestation of the growing reaction against secularism was the revival of the Sufi brotherhoods. Not only did suppressed Sufi orders such as the [Kadiri](/source/Qadiriyya), [Mevlevi](/source/Mevlevi), [Nakşibendi](/source/Nak%C5%9Fibendi), [Khālidiyyā](/source/Khalidiyya) and [Al-Ṭarīqah al-Tijāniyyah](/source/Al-%E1%B9%ACar%C4%ABqah_al-Tij%C4%81niyyah) reemerge, but new movements were formed, including the [Nur](/source/Nursi) [Cemaat](/source/Nur_Movement)i, [Gülen movement](/source/G%C3%BClen_movement), [Sülaymānīyyā](/source/S%C3%BCleymanc%C4%B1), [Community of İskenderpaşa](/source/Community_of_%C4%B0skenderpa%C5%9Fa) and [İsmailağa](/source/%C4%B0smaila%C4%9Fa). The Tijāni became especially militant in confronting the state, damaging monuments to Atatürk to symbolize their opposition to his policy of secularization. This was, however, an isolated incident and only involved one particular [Sheikh](/source/Sheikh) of the order. Throughout the 1950s, there were numerous trials of Ticani and other Sufi leaders for anti-state activities. Simultaneously, some movements, notably the Süleymancı and Nurcular, cooperated with those politicians perceived as supportive of pro-Islamic policies. The Nurcular eventually advocated support for Turkey's [multi-party political system](/source/Multi-party_system), and one of its offshoots, the [Gülen movement](/source/G%C3%BClen_movement), had supported the [True Path Party](/source/True_Path_Party) while the [Işıkçılar](/source/H%C3%BCseyin_Hilmi_I%C5%9F%C4%B1k) and [Enver Ören](/source/Enver_%C3%96ren) had openly supported the [Motherland Party](/source/Motherland_Party_(Turkey)) since the mid-1980s. The demand for restoration of religious education in public schools began in the late 1940s. The government initially responded by authorizing religious instruction in state schools for those students whose parents requested it. Under the rule of the [Democrat Party](/source/Democrat_Party_(Turkey%2C_1946%E2%80%931961)) during the 1950s, religious education was made compulsory in secondary schools unless parents made a specific request to have their children excused. Religious education was made compulsory for all primary and secondary school children in 1982. [[File:ANKARA_KOCATEPE_CAMİİ.jpg|thumb|[Kocatepe Mosque](/source/Kocatepe_Mosque), [Ankara](/source/Ankara).]] The reintroduction of religion into the school curriculum raised the question of religious higher education. The seculars believed that Islam could be "reformed" if future leaders were trained in state-controlled seminaries. To further this goal, the government in 1949 established a faculty of divinity at [Ankara University](/source/Ankara_University) to train teachers of Islam and imams. In 1951 [the Democrat Party](/source/Democrat_Party_(Turkey%2C_historical)) government set up special secondary schools ([İmam Hatip school](/source/%C4%B0mam_Hatip_school)s) for the training of imams and preachers. The number of these schools expanded rapidly to over 250 during the 1970s, when the pro-Islam [National Salvation Party](/source/National_Salvation_Party) participated in coalition governments. Following the [1980 coup](/source/1980_Turkish_coup_d'%C3%A9tat), the military, although secular in orientation, viewed religion as an effective means to counter [socialist](/source/Socialism) ideas and thus authorized the construction of 90 more İmam Hatip high schools. During the 1970s and 1980s, Islam experienced [political rehabilitation](/source/political_rehabilitation) due to center-right secular leaders perceiving religion as a potential bulwark in their ideological struggle with center-left secular leaders. A small advocacy group that became extremely influential was the [Intellectuals' Hearth](/source/Intellectuals'_Hearth) ({{langx|tr|Aydınlar Ocağı}}), an organization that holds the beliefs that true Turkish culture is a synthesis of the Turks' pre-Islamic traditions and Islam. According to the Hearth, Islam not only constitutes an essential aspect of Turkish culture, but is a force that can be regulated by the state to help socialize the people to be obedient citizens acquiescent to the overall secular order. After the 1980 coup, many of the Hearth's proposals for restructuring schools, colleges, and state broadcasting were adopted. The result was a purge from these state institutions of more than 2,000 intellectuals perceived as espousing leftist ideas incompatible with the Hearth's vision of Turkey's national culture. [[File:Blue_Mosque_2.jpg|thumb|Interior of the [Sultan Ahmed Mosque](/source/Sultan_Ahmed_Mosque), Istanbul, built in 1616.]] The state's more tolerant attitude toward Islam encouraged the proliferation of private religious activities, including the construction of new mosques and [Qur'an](/source/Qur'an) schools in the cities, the establishment of Islamic centers for research on and conferences about Islam and its role in Turkey, and the establishment of religiously oriented professional and women's journals. The printing of newspapers, the publication of religious books, and the growth of innumerable religious projects ranging from health centers, child-care facilities, and youth hostels to financial institutions and consumer cooperatives flourished. When the government legalized private broadcasting after 1990, several Islamic radio stations were organized. In the summer of 1994, the first Islamic television station, [Kanal 7](/source/Kanal_7), began broadcasting, first in [Istanbul](/source/Istanbul) and then in [Ankara](/source/Ankara). Although the [tarikah](/source/Tariqa) have played a seminal role in Turkey's religious revival and in the mid-1990s still published, several of the country's most widely circulated religious journals and newspapers, a new phenomenon, ''[İslamcı Aydın](/source/%C4%B0slamc%C4%B1_Ayd%C4%B1n)'' (the Islamist intellectual), unaffiliated with the traditional Sufi orders, emerged during the 1980s. Prolific and popular writers such as [Ali Bulaç](/source/Ali_Bula%C3%A7), [Rasim Özdenören](/source/Rasim_%C3%96zden%C3%B6ren), and [İsmet Özel](/source/%C4%B0smet_%C3%96zel) drew upon their knowledge of Western philosophy, [Marxist](/source/Marxist) sociology, and radical Islamist political theory to advocate for a modern Islamic perspective that does not hesitate to criticize societal issues while simultaneously remaining faithful to the ethical values and spiritual dimensions of religion. [Islamist](/source/Islamism) intellectuals are harshly critical of Turkey's secular intellectuals, whom they fault for trying to do in Turkey what Western intellectuals did in Europe: substitute worldly [materialism](/source/materialism), in its [capitalist](/source/Capitalism) or socialist version, for religious values. By 1994, slogans promising that a return to Islam would cure economic ills and solve the problems of bureaucratic inefficiencies had enough general appeal to enable avowed religious candidates to win mayoral elections in [Istanbul](/source/Istanbul) and [Ankara](/source/Ankara). On 15 July 2016, a [coup d'état](/source/coup_d'%C3%A9tat) was attempted in Turkey against state institutions by a faction within the [Turkish Armed Forces](/source/Turkish_Armed_Forces) with connections to the Gülen movement, citing an erosion in secularism. ==== Issues ==== ===== Diyanet and secularism ===== [[File:Sabancı_Merkez_Camii_3_(34360910156).jpg|thumb|right|[Sabancı Merkez Camii](/source/Sabanc%C4%B1_Merkez_Camii), [Adana](/source/Adana), built in 1998, It was the largest [mosque](/source/mosque) in Turkey when it was built.]] The main religious administration called [Presidency of Religious Affairs](/source/Presidency_of_Religious_Affairs), or by its local shortened form, 'Diyanet'{{Cite web | url=http://www.diyanet.gov.tr | title=T.C. Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı | İman | İbadet | Namaz | Ahlak | access-date=22 November 2021 | archive-date=25 October 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151025153632/http://www.diyanet.gov.tr/tr/icerik/ibrahim-bedrettin-elmali/2395 | url-status=live }} manages 85,000 mosques and employs all of the imams in Turkey. This state agency, established by [Atatürk](/source/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk) in 1924, finances only [Sunni](/source/Sunni) Muslim worship.{{Cite web|url=https://www.csia-oxford.org/diyanet-presidency-religious-affairs|title=CSIA|access-date=11 November 2019|archive-date=22 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222043126/https://www.csia-oxford.org/diyanet-presidency-religious-affairs|url-status=live}} Other religions must ensure a financially self-sustaining running and they face administrative obstacles during operation.{{Cite journal|title = Turkey's Diyanet under AKP rule: from protector to imposer of state ideology?|journal = Southeast European and Black Sea Studies|volume = 16|issue = 4|pages = 619–635|last = Ahmet Erdi Öztürk|s2cid = 151448076|doi = 10.1080/14683857.2016.1233663|year = 2016|url = http://repository.londonmet.ac.uk/5402/1/Turkeys-Diyanet-under-AKP-rule-from-protector-to-imposer-of-state-ideology.pdf|access-date = 4 June 2020|archive-date = 6 May 2020|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200506210706/http://repository.londonmet.ac.uk/5402/1/Turkeys-Diyanet-under-AKP-rule-from-protector-to-imposer-of-state-ideology.pdf|url-status = live}} When collecting tax, all Turkish citizens are equal. The tax rate is not based on religion. However, through the Diyanet, Turkish citizens are not equal in the use of revenue.{{Cite journal|last1=Sözeri|first1=Semiha|last2=Öztürk|first2=Ahmet Erdi|date=September 2018|title=Diyanet as a Turkish Foreign Policy Tool: Evidence from the Netherlands and Bulgaria|journal=Politics and Religion|language=en|volume=11|issue=3|pages=624–648|doi=10.1017/S175504831700075X|s2cid=148657630|issn=1755-0483|url=http://repository.londonmet.ac.uk/5404/1/Diyanet_Ozturk-Sozeri.pdf|access-date=4 June 2020|archive-date=6 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506210735/http://repository.londonmet.ac.uk/5404/1/Diyanet_Ozturk-Sozeri.pdf|url-status=live}} ===== Headscarf controversy ===== {{main|Headscarf controversy in Turkey}} {| class="wikitable" border="1px black" style="float:right; margin-center:1em" |- ! colspan="3" style="background:#f99;" |Do you cover when going outside?{{Cite web |title=TR100 |url=https://interaktif.konda.com.tr/turkiye-100-kisi-olsaydi |access-date=2022-08-11 |website=interaktif.konda.com.tr |archive-date=25 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220625123924/https://interaktif.konda.com.tr/turkiye-100-kisi-olsaydi |url-status=live }} |-Answers | || 2011 || 2021 |- | No, I do not || 37% || 41% |- | Yes, I wear a headscarf || 53% || 48% |- | Yes, I wear a [türban](/source/t%C3%BCrban) || 9% || 10% |- | Yes, I wear a [çarşaf](/source/%C3%A7ar%C5%9Faf) || 1% || 1% |} Although intellectual debates on the role of Islam attracted widespread interest, they did not provoke the kind of controversy that erupted over the issue of appropriate attire for Muslim women. During the early 1980s, female college students who were determined to demonstrate their commitment to Islam began to cover their heads and necks with scarves and wear long, shape-concealing overcoats. The appearance of these women in the [citadel](/source/citadel)s of Turkish secularism shocked those men and women who tended to perceive such attire as a symbol of the Islamic traditionalism they rejected. Militant secularists persuaded the Higher Education Council to issue a regulation in 1987 forbidding female university students to cover their heads in class. Protests by thousands of religious students and some university professors forced several universities to waive enforcement of the dress code. The issue continued to be seriously divisive in the mid-1990s. Throughout the first half of the 1990s, highly educated, articulate but religiously pious women have appeared in public dressed in Islamic attire that conceals all but their faces and hands. Other women, especially in [Ankara](/source/Ankara), [Istanbul](/source/Istanbul), and [İzmir](/source/%C4%B0zmir), have demonstrated against such attire by wearing revealing fashions and Atatürk badges. The issue is discussed and debated in almost every type of forum – artistic, commercial, cultural, economic, political, and religious. For many citizens of Turkey, women's dress has become the issue that defines whether a Muslim is secularist or religious. In 2010, the Turkish Higher Educational council (YÖK) lifted the ban on headscarves at the universities. Since the start of his presidency, President Recep Tayyip Erdogan has drastically increased the amount of religious high schools across Turkey to support his plan on bringing up a more pious generation. However, this push on piousness in school children seems to have had an adverse effect, for there is anecdotal evidence of a notable number of Turkish students from religious high schools admitting their loss of faith in Islamic beliefs, which has caused substantial amount of discussion among politicians and religious clerics.{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-43981745|title=Losing their religion: The young Turks rejecting Islam|last=Girit|first=Selin|date=2018-05-10|access-date=2019-11-10|language=en-GB|archive-date=3 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403210646/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-43981745|url-status=live}} [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/turkey-hijab-headscarf-police-officers-uniform-approved-muslim-women-a7213861.html More recently in 2016, Turkey approved hijab as the part of the official police uniform]. For the first time, female officers will be able to cover their heads with a headscarf under their police caps. This act was pushed by President Recep Tayyip Erdogan's Islamist-rooted Justice and Development Party (AKP) that have been pushing for relaxed restrictions on the hijab. == Denominations == {{main|Islamic denominations}} {{further|Religion in Turkey}} {| border="3px solid" style="margin:0 auto; padding: 0; font-size: 90%; center:; :; :" |- |+ Situation of the [denominations of Islam](/source/denominations_of_Islam) in Turkey |- !bgcolor="#003366" align="center" width="30%"|Religions !bgcolor="#003366" align="center" width="10%"|Estimated population !bgcolor="#003366" align="center" width="10% |Expropriation
measures{{cite news|url=http://www.la-croix.com/Urbi-et-Orbi/Actualite/Monde/Le-gouvernement-turc-va-restituer-des-biens-saisis-a-des-minorites-religieuses-2011-08-29-704560|title=Le gouvernement turc va restituer des biens saisis à des minorités religieuses|newspaper=La Croix|date=29 August 2011|access-date=23 February 2017|via=www.la-croix.com|archive-date=7 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171007120136/https://www.la-croix.com/Urbi-et-Orbi/Actualite/Monde/Le-gouvernement-turc-va-restituer-des-biens-saisis-a-des-minorites-religieuses-2011-08-29-704560|url-status=live}} !bgcolor="#003366" align="center" width="50%"|Official recognition through the Constitution or international treaties !bgcolor="#003366" align="center" width="10%"|Government Financing of places of worship and religious staff |- !scope="row" style="background:#CCCCFF;text-align:left" | [Sunni](/source/Sunni) Islam - [Hanafi](/source/Hanafi) & [Shafi'i](/source/Shafi'i) | align="right"| more than 85%{{Cite web |date=2009-10-07 |title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/ |access-date=2022-08-17 |website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |language=en-US |archive-date=14 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220614051531/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/ |url-status=live }} | align="center"| No | align="center"| Yes through the Diyanet mentioned in the Constitution (art.136){{Cite web |url=http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/anayasa/anayasa_2011.pdf |title=Türki̇ye Büyük Mi̇llet Mecli̇si̇ |access-date=8 March 2013 |archive-date=8 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141208135008/http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/anayasa/anayasa_2011.pdf |url-status=live }} | align="center"| Yes through the Diyanet{{cite web |url=http://obtic.org/Dosyalar/Cahiers%20de%20l%27Obtic/CahiersObtic_2.pdf |title=Cahiers de L'obtic |publisher=Observatoire de recherche interdisciplinaire sur la Turquie contemporaine |date=December 2012 |access-date=2013-03-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002163826/http://obtic.org/Dosyalar/Cahiers%20de%20l%27Obtic/CahiersObtic_2.pdf |archive-date=2013-10-02 }} |- !scope="row" style="background:#CCCCFF;text-align:left" | [Shia](/source/Shia)&[Sufi](/source/Sufi) Islam - [Alevi](/source/Alevism)/[Bektashi](/source/Bektashi)Not recognized as an [Islamic](/source/Islamic) [fiqh](/source/fiqh) [madh'hab](/source/madh'hab) by ''the [Amman Message](/source/Amman_Message).'' | align="center"| around 10% | align="center"| YesThe World of the Alevis: Issues of Culture and Identity, Gloria L. Clarke | align="center"| Yes, through [Ministry of Culture and Tourism](/source/Ministry_of_Culture_and_Tourism_(Turkey)).{{cite web |title=ALEVİ - BEKTAŞİ KÜLTÜR VE CEMEVİ BAŞKANLIĞI |url=https://alevibektasi.ktb.gov.tr/ |website=TC Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı |access-date=24 April 2025}} | align="center"| Only by local municipalities.{{cite web |url=http://www.milliyet.com.tr/cemevi-ibadethane-kabul-edildi/ |title=cemevi ibadethane kabul edildi Haberleri ve cemevi ibadethane kabul edildi Gelişmeleri |publisher=Milliyet |date=2013-01-31 |access-date=2016-01-31 |archive-date=11 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160311175206/http://www.milliyet.com.tr/cemevi-ibadethane-kabul-edildi/ |url-status=live}} |- !scope="row" style="background:#CCCCFF;text-align:left" | [Shia](/source/Shia) Islam - [Ja'fari](/source/Ja'fari) | align="right"| ~1%
| align="center"| | align="center"| No{{cite web|url=http://ovipot.hypotheses.org/1348|title=Les minorités non musulmanes en Turquie : "certains rapports d'ONG parlent d'une logique d'attrition", observe Jean-Paul Burdy|date=2010 |doi=10.58079/smk9 |access-date=23 February 2017|archive-date=28 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171128183620/http://ovipot.hypotheses.org/1348|url-status=live |last1=Lisa Deheurles-Montmayeur }} | align="center"| No |- !scope="row" style="background:#CCCCFF;text-align:left" | [Shia](/source/Shia) Islam - [Alawites](/source/Alawites) | align="right"| ~1%{{Cite news |last=Spencer |first=Richard |date=2016-04-03 |title=Who are the Alawites? |language=en-GB |work=The Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/04/02/who-are-the-alawites/ |access-date=2022-08-14 |issn=0307-1235 |archive-date=10 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221010114444/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/04/02/who-are-the-alawites/ |url-status=live }} | align="center"| | align="center"| No | align="center"| No |- !scope="row" style="background:#CCCCFF;text-align:left" | [Non-denominational Muslim](/source/Non-denominational_Muslim) | align="right"| ~2% | align="center"| - | align="center"| - | align="center"| - |- |} ===Sunni Islam=== {{main|Sunni Islam}} {{Sunni Islam|collapsed=1}} The vast majority of the present-day Turkish people are [Muslim](/source/Muslim) and the [Sunni Islam](/source/Sunni_Islam) is the most populous Islamic sect, comprising about 90% of the Muslims in the country. The most popular school of law is the [Hanafite](/source/Hanafite) madh'hab of [Sunni Islam](/source/Sunni_Islam). The [Hanafi](/source/Hanafi) madhhab was the official [school of Islamic jurisprudence](/source/Fiqh) espoused by the [Ottoman Empire](/source/Ottoman_Empire){{Cite book|last=McLean|first=George F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4BXsV0_qhs4C&pg=PA104|title=Normative Ethics and Objective Reason|date=1996|publisher=CRVP|isbn=978-1-56518-022-2|language=en|access-date=20 August 2015|archive-date=24 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210824181822/https://books.google.com/books?id=4BXsV0_qhs4C&pg=PA104&lpg#v|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|title=Salafism Infiltrates Turkish Religious Discourse|url=https://www.mei.edu/publications/salafism-infiltrates-turkish-religious-discourse|access-date=2021-11-22|website=Middle East Institute|language=en|archive-date=11 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210911213512/https://www.mei.edu/publications/salafism-infiltrates-turkish-religious-discourse|url-status=live}} and a 2013 survey conducted by the Turkish Directorate of Religious Affairs indicates that 77.5% of Turkish Muslims identify themselves as [Hanafi](/source/Hanafi)s.Aydoğan Vatandaş, [http://www.todayszaman.com/op-ed_can-turkey-be-isils-next-stage_401719.html "Can Turkey be ISIL's next stage"], ''Today's Zaman'' {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151025113844/http://www.todayszaman.com/op-ed_can-turkey-be-isils-next-stage_401719.html |date=2015-10-25 }} October 16, 2015 Another common Sunni jurisprudence, [Shafi'i](/source/Shafi'i_school) is the dominant one in [Turkish Kurdistan](/source/Turkish_Kurdistan). Although the [Maturidi](/source/Maturidi) and [Ash'ari](/source/Ash'ari) [schools of Islamic theology](/source/schools_of_Islamic_theology) (which apply [Ilm al-Kalam](/source/Ilm_al-Kalam) or rational thought to understand the [Quran](/source/Quran) and the [hadith](/source/hadith)) have been the dominant creeds in Turkey due to their widespread acceptance and propagation since the beginning of the [Ottoman Empire](/source/Ottoman_Empire), the [Athari](/source/Athari) (literalist) creedHalverson, ''Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam'', 2010: 38–48 of the [Salafi movement](/source/Salafi_movement) has seen increasing acceptance. Compared to the Hanbali school of Islam, the Hanafi school of Islam takes a more liberal take on the religion, allowing for a more lenient interpretation of religious law.{{Cite news|url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/turkey/2019-01-10/turkeys-bid-religious-leadership|title=Turkey's Bid for Religious Leadership|last=Tol|first=Gonul|journal=Foreign Affairs: America and the World|date=2019-01-10|access-date=2019-11-10|language=en-US|issn=0015-7120|archive-date=10 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191110233842/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/turkey/2019-01-10/turkeys-bid-religious-leadership|url-status=live}}{{Shia Islam|collapsed=1}} ===Shia Islam=== {{main||Athnā‘ashariyyah|Theology of Twelvers}} [[File:01HSI1 (2099855672).jpg|thumb|[Ali ibn Abu Talib](/source/Ali_ibn_Abu_Talib) at right and [Husayn ibn Ali](/source/Husayn_ibn_Ali) at left in [Hagia Sophia](/source/Hagia_Sophia)]] The [Shia Muslim](/source/Shia_Islam) population of [Turkey](/source/Turkey) is composed of several schools -- the [Twelver](/source/Twelver) branch with [Ja'fari](/source/Ja'fari) [aqidah](/source/%CA%BFAq%C4%ABdah) and [fiqh](/source/Ja'fari_jurisprudence), [Batiniyya](/source/Batiniyya)-[Sufism](/source/Sufism) [aqidah](/source/%CA%BFAq%C4%ABdah) of [Maymūn’al-Qāddāhī](/source/%3Atr%3AMeym%C3%BBn_el-Kadd%C3%A2h) [fiqh](/source/fiqh) of the Alevīs, and Cillī [aqidah](/source/aqidah) of Maymūn ibn [Abu’l-Qāsim Sulaiman ibn Ahmad ibn at-Tabarānī](/source/Al-Tabarani) [fiqh](/source/fiqh) of the [Alawites](/source/Alawites)."Muhammad ibn Āliyy’ūl Cillī [aqidah](/source/aqidah)" of "Maymūn ibn [Abu’l-Qāsim Sulaiman ibn Ahmad ibn at-Tabarānī](/source/Al-Tabarani) [fiqh](/source/fiqh)" (Sūlaiman Affandy, ''Al-Bākūrat’ūs Sūlaiman’īyyah - [Family tree](/source/Family_tree) of the [Nusayri](/source/Nusayri) [Tariqat](/source/Tariqat),'' pp. 14–15, [Beirut](/source/Beirut), 1873.)Both ''Muhammad ibn Āliyy’ūl Cillī'' and ''Maymūn ibn [Abu’l-Qāsim’at-Tabarānī](/source/Al-Tabarani)'' were the [murid](/source/murid)s of ''"[Al-Khaṣībī](/source/Al-Kha%E1%B9%A3%C4%ABb%C4%AB)"'', the founder of the [Nusayri](/source/Ibn_Nusayr) [tariqa](/source/tariqa). Altogether Shia are thought to constitute approximately one tenth of the population of the country. ====Alevis==== {{main|Alevism|Bektashi}} {{further|Qizilbash|Batiniyyah|Alevi history}} {{Alevism|collapsed=1}} [[File:Şahkulu Sultan Dergahi Cemevi, ein sehr altes Gebetshaus.jpg|thumb|Interior of the historical ''[Şahkulu](/source/%C5%9Eahkulu) Sultan Dergahi Cemevi'' in [Kadıköy](/source/Kad%C4%B1k%C3%B6y), [Istanbul](/source/Istanbul).]] An estimate for the Turkish Alevi population varies from 3.5 million to 12 million.{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html |title=Religions |work=[CIA World Factbook](/source/CIA_World_Factbook) |access-date=9 July 2016 |archive-date=20 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181220203407/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html |url-status=dead }}{{cite web |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/ |title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population |publisher=Pew Research Center |date=7 October 2009 |access-date=9 July 2016 |archive-date=25 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225005131/http://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/ |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |title=TR100 |url=https://interaktif.konda.com.tr/turkiye-100-kisi-olsaydi |access-date=2022-08-14 |website=interaktif.konda.com.tr |archive-date=25 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220625123924/https://interaktif.konda.com.tr/turkiye-100-kisi-olsaydi |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |date=2021-04-15 |title=Cem Vakfı Başkanı İzzettin Doğan: Alevilerin oylarını verdiği kişi Mustafa Kemal Atatürk'tür {{!}} Independent Türkçe |url=https://www.indyturk.com/node/342306/r%C3%B6portaj/cem-vakf%C4%B1-ba%C5%9Fkan%C4%B1-i%CC%87zzettin-do%C4%9Fan-alevilerin-oylar%C4%B1n%C4%B1-verdi%C4%9Fi-ki%C5%9Fi-mustafa |access-date=2022-08-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415155341/https://www.indyturk.com/node/342306/r%C3%B6portaj/cem-vakf%C4%B1-ba%C5%9Fkan%C4%B1-i%CC%87zzettin-do%C4%9Fan-alevilerin-oylar%C4%B1n%C4%B1-verdi%C4%9Fi-ki%C5%9Fi-mustafa |archive-date=15 April 2021 }} Complicating the making of an accurate estimate of the population of the different Shi'i sects or even distinguishing between them and is that in the [Turkish language](/source/Turkish_language) the term ''[Aleviler](/source/Aleviler)'' rather than "[Shi'a](/source/Shi'a)" has been frequently used to refer to [Shi'a](/source/Shi'a) in general -- Alevi being the dominant [Shia](/source/Shia_Islam) sect in the country. Other difficulties are that censuses conducted by the Turkish government do not ask about religious denominations; the secular tendencies of the Alevi population and oppression by Sunni Islamists, which causes most Alevis to hide their religious identity. Based on the few reliable surveys that have been conducted, ~10% is thought to be an adequate estimate.{{Cite web |last=Seskir |first=Zeki |date=2020-06-24 |title="Türkiye'de 40 milyon Kürt 25 milyon Alevi olması" ya da "Türkiye Türklerindir" |url=https://medium.com/duzensiz/t%C3%BCrkiyede-40-milyon-k%C3%BCrt-25-milyon-alevi-olmas%C4%B1-ya-da-t%C3%BCrkiye-t%C3%BCrklerindir-44d32e90e06e |website=Medium |language=en }}{{Cite web |date=2009-10-07 |title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/ |access-date=2022-08-14 |website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |language=en-US |archive-date=14 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220614051531/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/ |url-status=live }} Some of their members (or sub-groups, especially those belonging to [Qizilbash](/source/Qizilbash) and [Hurufism](/source/Hurufism)) claim that [God](/source/God_in_Islam) takes abode in the bodies of the human-beings (''[ḥulūl](/source/Incarnation)''), believe in [metempsychosis](/source/metempsychosis) (''tanāsukh''),{{Cite book| publisher = Edinburgh University Press| isbn = 978-0-7486-1888-0| last = Halm| first = Heinz| title = Shi'ism| date = 2004-07-21| page = [https://archive.org/details/shiism0000halm/page/154 154]| title-link = Shi'ism}} Some of the Alevis criticize the course of [Islam](/source/Islam) as it is being practiced overwhelmingly by more than 99% of [Sunni](/source/Sunni) and [Shia](/source/Shia) population.[Yaşar Nuri Öztürk](/source/Ya%C5%9Far_Nuri_%C3%96zt%C3%BCrk), ''Kur'an'daki İslam.'' Regular daily [salat](/source/salat) and [fasting](/source/fasting) in the holy month of [Ramadan](/source/Ramadan) are not officially done by the [Qizilbash](/source/Qizilbash)s, [Hurufi](/source/Hurufi)s, and [Ishikist groups](/source/ishikism). These members of ''[Yazdânism](/source/Yazd%C3%A2nism)'' like ''[Ishikists](/source/ishikism)'' and ''[Yarsani](/source/Yarsani)s'' who portrayed themselves as ''[Alevi](/source/Alevi)s,'' are frequently denounced by ''the [Dedes](/source/Dedes).'' The term [Kızılbaş](/source/K%C4%B1z%C4%B1lba%C5%9F) [in the history](/source/Alevi_History) was used pejoratively for all [Shi'ites](/source/Shi'ites) in [Anatolia](/source/Anatolia). ====Ja'faris==== {{main|Ja'fari}} The followers of the [Ja'fari jurisprudence](/source/Ja'fari_jurisprudence) constitute the second sizable Shi'i community. It is historically the primary denomination of ethnic [Azerbaijani](/source/Azerbaijanis) people. Most of them live in the eastern provinces neighboring to [Azerbaijan](/source/Azerbaijan), more particularly in the [Iğdır Province](/source/I%C4%9Fd%C4%B1r_Province) and [Kars Province](/source/Kars_Province), but also larger cities in the west. It is estimated that Ja'faris make up 4% of the population of Turkey, ''i.e.'' about 3,300,000.{{Cite web |title=2022 Report on International Religious Freedom: Turkey (Türkiye) |url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/turkey/ |access-date=29 January 2024 |publisher=United States Department of State }} They have 70 mosques in Istanbul and some 300 throughout the country and receive no state funding for their mosques and imams as the [Presidency of Religious Affairs](/source/Presidency_of_Religious_Affairs) (Diyanet) is exclusively Sunni.{{Cite web|title=Turkish Shiites fear growing hate crimes - Al-Monitor: The Pulse of the Middle East|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2014/07/tremblay-turkish-shiites-secterian-hate-crime-isis-syria.html|access-date=2021-11-22|website=www.al-monitor.com|date=11 July 2014 |language=en|archive-date=22 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122132928/https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2014/07/tremblay-turkish-shiites-secterian-hate-crime-isis-syria.html|url-status=live}} ====Alawites==== {{main|Alawites in Turkey}} The [Alawite](/source/Alawite) community in [Turkey](/source/Turkey) has an estimated population of around 1 million{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/10/201210217225938535.html|title=Syria strife tests Turkish Alawites|first=Matthew|last=Cassel|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-date=1 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001222038/https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/10/201210217225938535.html|url-status=live}} the majority of which live in the [Province of Hatay](/source/Province_of_Hatay). There they make up nearly half of the total population,{{cite magazine|url=https://world.time.com/2012/09/10/the-alawite-towns-that-support-syrias-assad-in-turkey/|title=The Alawite Towns That Support Syria's Assad — in Turkey|magazine=Time|first=Steven|last=Sotloff|date=10 September 2012|access-date=23 February 2017|via=world.time.com|archive-date=11 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181111211314/http://world.time.com/2012/09/10/the-alawite-towns-that-support-syrias-assad-in-turkey/|url-status=live}} primarily in the districts of [Arsuz](/source/Arsuz),{{cite web|url=https://simitincilicia.wordpress.com/2012/09/30/weekend-in-arsuz/|title=A Weekend in Arsuz|work=simitincilicia|date=30 September 2012|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-date=7 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207031641/https://simitincilicia.wordpress.com/2012/09/30/weekend-in-arsuz/|url-status=live}} [Defne](/source/Defne) and [Samandağ](/source/Samanda%C4%9F), where [Alawites](/source/Alawites) constitute the majority and in [Iskenderun](/source/Iskenderun) and [Antakya](/source/Antakya) where they constitute a significant minority of the population. Larger Alawite communities can also be found in the [Çukurova](/source/%C3%87ukurova) region, mostly in and around the cities of [Adana](/source/Adana), [Tarsus](/source/Tarsus%2C_Mersin) and [Mersin](/source/Mersin).{{Cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/3857818|title=The Arabic speaking Alawis of the Çukurova: The transformation of a linguistic into a purely religious minority|journal=Christiane Bulut: Linguistic Minorities in Turkey and Turkic-Speaking Minorities of the Peripheries, Harrassowitz (Wiesbaden) Forthcoming|last1=Prochazka-Eisl|first1=Gisela|access-date=6 April 2018|archive-date=22 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122132945/https://www.academia.edu/3857818|url-status=live}} They are known as Arab Alevis by Turkish people. ===Sufism=== {{main|Tasawwuf|Ṭarīqah}} {{further|Mevlevi|Qadiri|Rifa`i|Naqshbandi|Khalidiyya}} {{Sufism|collapsed=1}} [[File:Whirlingdervishes.JPG|thumb|Turkish Sufi [whirling dervishes](/source/whirling_dervishes).]] Folk Islam in Turkey has derived many of its popular practices from [Sufism](/source/Sufism) which has good presence in Turkey and [Egypt](/source/Egypt). Particular Sufi [shaikh](/source/Sheikh)s – and occasionally other individuals reputed to be pious – were regarded after death as saints having special powers. Veneration of saints (both male and female) and pilgrimages to their shrines and graves represent an important aspect of popular Islam in the country. Folk Islam has continued to embrace such practices although the veneration of saints officially has been discouraged since the 1930s. Plaques posted in various sanctuaries forbid the lighting of candles, the offering of votive objects, and related devotional activities in these places. Modern day Sufi shaykhs with large adherents in Turkey include Shaykh Mehmet Efendi{{who|date=July 2013}} (residing in Istanbul) and [Mawlana Sheikh Nazim Al-Haqqani](/source/Mawlana_Sheikh_Nazim_Al-Haqqani) who resided in [Lefka](/source/Lefka), North Cyprus, until his death in May, 2014. ===Quranism=== {{main|Quranism|Yaşar Nuri Öztürk}} Those who do not accept the authority of [hadith](/source/hadith), known as [Quranists](/source/Quranists), Quraniyoon, or Ahl al-Quran, are also present in Turkey.Aisha Y. Musa, [http://www.19.org/2810/quranists/ The Qur'anists] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719104727/http://www.19.org/2810/quranists/ |date=2013-07-19 }}, 19.org, Retrieved 6 July 2013.{{Cite web|title=Turkish News - Latest News from Turkey|url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/|access-date=2021-11-22|website=Hürriyet Daily News|language=en|archive-date=16 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090716071716/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/|url-status=live}} In [Turkey](/source/Turkey), Quranist ideas became particularly noticeable, with portions of the youth either leaving Islam or converting to Quranism.Öztürk: ''Modern Döneme Özgü Bir Kur’an Tasavvuru''. 2010, S. 24. There has been significant Quranist scholarship in Turkey, with there being even Quranist theology professors in significant universities, including scholars like [Yaşar Nuri Öztürk](/source/Ya%C5%9Far_Nuri_%C3%96zt%C3%BCrk)Mustafa Akyol, ''Islam without Extremes: A Muslim Case for Liberty'', W.W. Norton & Company, 2011, p. 234 and [Caner Taslaman](/source/Caner_Taslaman).{{Cite web|title=Associates and Affiliates|url=http://www.19.org/organization/affiliates/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130712212620/http://www.19.org/organization/affiliates/|archive-date=2013-07-12|access-date=2013-07-14|publisher=19.org}} The [Turkish](/source/Turkish_people) [Directorate of Religious Affairs (Diyanet)](/source/Directorate_of_Religious_Affairs) regularly criticizes and insults Quranists, gives them no recognition and calls them kafirs (disbelievers).Patheos.com: „Quran, Hadiths or Both? Where Quranists and Traditional Islam Differ.“ [21.1.2020]. ==See also== {{Portal|Turkey|Islam}} *[Christianity in Turkey](/source/Christianity_in_Turkey) *[Religion in Turkey](/source/Religion_in_Turkey) *[Secularism in Turkey](/source/Secularism_in_Turkey) *[Minorities in Turkey](/source/Minorities_in_Turkey) *[Islam by country](/source/Islam_by_country) *[Turkish adhan](/source/Turkish_adhan) == Notes == {{notelist}} == References == {{Reflist}} == Further reading == {{commons category}} * Bein, Amit. ''[https://www.amazon.com/dp/0804773114 Ottoman Ulema, Turkish Republic: Agents of Change and Guardians of Tradition]'' (2011) Amazon.com * Karakas, Cemal (2007) [https://web.archive.org/web/20070926113219/http://www.hsfk.de/fileadmin/downloads/prif78.pdf "Turkey. Islam and Laicism Between the Interests of State, Politics and Society"]. [Peace Research Institute Frankfurt](/source/Peace_Research_Institute_Frankfurt) (PRIF), Germany, PRIF-Report No. 78/2007. * Smith, Thomas W. (2005) "Between Allah and Ataturk: Liberal Islam in Turkey", ''The International Journal of Human Rights'', Vol. 9, No. 3., pp. 307–325. * Yavuz, M. Hakan. ''Islamic Political Identity in Turkey'' (2003) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0195160851 Amazon.com] * Chopra, R.M., ''Sufism'', 2016, Anuradha Prakashan, New Delhi. {{ISBN|978-93-85083-52-5}}. *Yavuz, M. Hakan and Öztürk, Ahmet Erdi (2019), [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14683857.2019.1580828 "Turkish Secularism and Islam Under the Reign of Erdoğan"], ''Southeast and Black Sea Studies'', Vol. 19, NO. 1; https://doi.org/10.1080/14683857.2019.1580828 {{Demographics of Turkey}} {{Turkey topics}} {{Islam by country horizontal}} Category:Islam in Turkey Turkey --- Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Islam in Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Turkey) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Turkey?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.