# Iranian languages

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Branch of the Indo-Iranian languages in the Indo-European language family

This article is about the language family. For languages spoken in the modern country of Iran, see [Languages of Iran](/source/Languages_of_Iran). For the official language of Iran, see [Persian language](/source/Persian_language).

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Iranian Iranic Geographic distribution West Asia, Eastern Europe, Caucasus, Central Asia, and South Asia Ethnicity Iranian peoples Native speakers est. 200 million Linguistic classification Indo-European Indo-Iranian Iranian Proto-language Proto-Iranian Subdivisions Western Avestan † Eastern Language codes ISO 639-2 / 5 ira Linguasphere 58= (phylozone) Glottolog iran1269 Distribution of the Iranian languages in and around the Iranian plateau

The **Iranian languages**, or the **Iranic languages**,[1][2] are a branch of the [Indo-Iranian languages](/source/Indo-Iranian_languages) in the [Indo-European language family](/source/Indo-European_languages) that are spoken natively by the [Iranian peoples](/source/Iranian_peoples), mainly in the [Iranian Plateau](/source/Iranian_plateau).

The Iranian languages are grouped in three stages: Old Iranian (until 400 BCE), Middle Iranian (400 BCE – 900 CE) and New Iranian (since 900 CE). The two directly attested Old Iranian languages are [Old Persian](/source/Old_Persian) (from the [Achaemenid Empire](/source/Achaemenid_Empire)) and [Avestan](/source/Avestan) (the language of the [Avesta](/source/Avesta)). Of the Middle Iranian languages, the better understood and recorded ones are [Middle Persian](/source/Middle_Persian) (from the [Sasanian Empire](/source/Sasanian_Empire)), [Parthian](/source/Parthian_language) (from the [Parthian Empire](/source/Parthian_Empire)), and [Bactrian](/source/Bactrian_language) (from the [Kushan](/source/Kushan_Empire) and [Hephthalite](/source/Hephthalites) empires).

## Number of speakers

In 2005, *[Ethnologue](/source/Ethnologue)* estimated that there are 86 languages in the group.[3]

Top languages by number of native speakers Name speakers Persian 92 million[citation needed] Pashto 55 million[4] Kurdish 28 million[5] Balochi 5–8 million[6] Caspian 10 million[citation needed] Luri 5 million[citation needed] 150–200 million[7]

## Terminology and grouping

Part of a series on Indo-European topics Languages List of Indo-European languages Extant Albanoid Albanian Armenian Balto-Slavic Baltic Slavic Celtic Germanic Hellenic Greek Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Nuristani Italic Romance Extinct Anatolian Tocharian Paleo-Balkan Dacian Illyrian Liburnian Messapic Mysian Paeonian Phrygian Thracian Reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language Phonology: Sound laws, Accent, Ablaut Hypothetical Balkanic Daco-Thracian Graeco-Albanian Graeco-Armenian Graeco-Aryan Graeco-Phrygian Indo-Hittite Italo-Celtic Thraco-Illyrian Grammar Vocabulary Root Verbs Nouns Pronouns Numerals Particles Other Proto-Albanian Proto-Anatolian Proto-Armenian Proto-Germanic (Proto-Norse) Proto-Italo-Celtic (Proto-Celtic · Proto-Italic) Proto-Greek Proto-Balto-Slavic (Proto-Slavic · Proto-Baltic) Proto-Indo-Iranian (Proto-Indo-Aryan, Proto-Iranian, Proto-Nuristani) Philology Anitta text Hittite inscriptions Hieroglyphic Luwian Linear B Rigveda Avesta Homer Behistun Greek epigraphy Phrygian epigraphy Messapic epigraphy Latin epigraphy Gaulish epigraphy Runic epigraphy Ogham Gothic Bible Bible translations into Armenian Tocharian script Old Irish glosses Albanian Kanun Origins Homeland Proto-Indo-Europeans Society Religion Mainstream Kurgan hypothesis Indo-European migrations Eurasian nomads Alternative and fringe Anatolian hypothesis Armenian hypothesis Beech argument Indigenous Aryanism Baltic homeland Paleolithic continuity theory Archaeology Chalcolithic (Copper Age) Pontic Steppe Domestication of the horse Kurgan Kurgan stelae Kurgan culture Steppe cultures Bug–Dniester Sredny Stog Dnieper–Donets Samara Khvalynsk Yamnaya Mikhailovka culture Novotitarovskaya culture Caucasus Maykop East Asia Afanasievo Eastern Europe Usatove Cernavodă Cucuteni Northern Europe Corded ware Baden Middle Dnieper Bronze Age Pontic Steppe Chariot Yamnaya Catacomb Multi-cordoned ware Poltavka Srubnaya Northern/Eastern Steppe Abashevo culture Andronovo Sintashta Europe Globular Amphora Corded ware Bell Beaker Únětice Trzciniec Nordic Bronze Age Terramare Tumulus Urnfield Proto-Villanovan Lusatian Este South Asia Bishkent Vakhsh BMAC Ochre Coloured Pottery Copper Hoard Cemetery H Gandhara grave Iron Age Steppe Chernoles Europe Thraco-Cimmerian Hallstatt Latial Jastorf Caucasus Colchian Central Asia Yaz India Painted Grey Ware Northern Black Polished Ware Peoples and societies Bronze Age Anatolian peoples (Hittites) Armenians Mycenaean Greeks Indo-Iranians Iron Age Indo-Aryans Indo-Aryans Iranians Iranians Nuristanis Nuristanis East Asia Wusun Yuezhi Europe Celts Gauls Celtiberians Insular Celts Cimmerians Hellenic peoples Italic peoples Germanic peoples Paleo-Balkan/Anatolia Thracians Dacians Illyrians Paeonians Phrygians Scythians Middle Ages East Asia Tocharians Europe Albanians Balts Slavs Norsemen/Medieval Scandinavians Middle Ages Indo-Aryan Medieval India Iranian Greater Iran Religion and mythology Reconstructed Proto-Indo-European mythology Proto-Indo-Iranian religion Historical Vedic religion Ancient Iranian religion Historical Hittite Indo-Aryan Vedic Hinduism Buddhism Jainism Sikhism Iranian Persian Zoroastrianism Kurdish Yazidism Yarsanism Scythian Ossetian Others Armenian European Paleo-Balkan (Albanian · Illyrian · Thracian · Dacian) Greek Roman Celtic Irish Scottish Breton Welsh Cornish Germanic Anglo-Saxon Continental Norse Baltic Latvian Lithuanian Slavic Practices Fire rituals Horse sacrifice Sati Winter solstice/Yule Indo-European studies Scholars Marija Gimbutas J. P. Mallory Institutes Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European Publications Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture The Horse, the Wheel, and Language Journal of Indo-European Studies Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Category v t e

### Etymology

The term *[Iran](/source/Iran_(word))* derives directly from [Middle Persian](/source/Middle_Persian) *Ērān*, first attested in a third-century inscription at [Naqsh-e Rostam](/source/Naqsh-e_Rostam), with the accompanying [Parthian](/source/Parthian_language) inscription using the term *Aryān*, in reference to the [Iranian peoples](/source/Iranian_peoples).[8] The Middle-Iranian *ērān* and *aryān* are oblique plural forms of [gentilic](/source/Demonym) nouns *ēr-* (Middle Persian) and *ary-* (Parthian), both deriving from [Proto-Iranian language](/source/Proto-Iranian_language) **arya-* (meaning "[Aryan](/source/Arya_(Iran))", i.e. "of the Iranians").[8][9] In the Iranic languages spoken on the plateau, the gentilic is attested as a self-identifier, included in ancient inscriptions and the literature of the [Avesta](/source/Avesta),[10][note 1] and remains also in other Iranian ethnic names *[Alan](/source/Alans)* ([Iron Ossetic](/source/Iron_Ossetic_language): Ир *Ir*) and *[Iron](/source/Iron_people)* (Ирон).[9]

### Iranian vs. Iranic

When used as a linguistic term *Iranian* is applied to any language which descends from the ancestral [Proto-Iranian language](/source/Proto-Iranian_language).[11]

Some scholars such as [John R. Perry](/source/John_R._Perry_(orientalist)) prefer the term *Iranic* as the [anthropological](/source/Anthropology) name for the [linguistic](/source/Linguistics) family and ethnic groups of this category, and *Iranian* for anything about the modern country of Iran. He uses the same analogue as in differentiating German from [Germanic](/source/Germanic_languages), Finnish from [Finnic](/source/Finnic_languages), or differentiating Turkish and [Turkic](/source/Turkic_languages).[12]

This use of the term for the Iranian language family was introduced in 1836 by [Christian Lassen](/source/Christian_Lassen).[13] [Robert Needham Cust](/source/Robert_Needham_Cust) used the term *Irano-Aryan* in 1878,[14] and [Orientalists](/source/Orientalism) such as [George Abraham Grierson](/source/George_Abraham_Grierson) and [Max Müller](/source/Max_M%C3%BCller) contrasted *Irano-Aryan* ([Iranian](/source/Iranian_peoples)) and *Indo-Aryan* ([Indic](/source/Indo-Aryan_peoples)[note 2]). Some recent scholarship, primarily in German, has revived this convention.[15][16][17][18]

### Grouping

The Iranian languages are divided into the following branches:

- The [Western Iranian languages](/source/Western_Iranian_languages), subdivided into: - Southwestern, of which [Persian](/source/Persian_language) (including the [Dari](/source/Dari), [Tajik](/source/Tajik_language), and [Hazaragi](/source/Hazaragi) dialects) and [Luri](/source/Luri_language) are the dominant members; - Northwestern, of which the [Kurdish languages](/source/Kurdish_languages) are the dominant members.

- The [Eastern Iranian languages](/source/Eastern_Iranian_languages), subdivided into: - Southeastern, of which [Pashto](/source/Pashto) is the dominant member; - Northeastern, by far the smallest branch, of which [Ossetian](/source/Ossetian_language) is the dominant member.

According to modern scholarship, the [Avestan languages](/source/Avestan_language) are not considered to fall under these categories, and are instead sometimes classified as Central Iranian, since they diverged from [Proto-Iranian](/source/Proto-Iranian) before the east–west division rose to prominence. It has traditionally been viewed as Eastern Iranian; however, it lacks a large number of Eastern Iranian features and thus is only "Eastern Iranian" in the sense that it is not Western.[19]

## Proto-Iranian

Distribution of Iranic peoples in Central Asia during the Iron Age period.

The Iranian languages all descend from a common ancestor: [Proto-Iranian](/source/Proto-Iranian_language), which itself evolved from [Proto-Indo-Iranian](/source/Proto-Indo-Iranian_language). This ancestor language is speculated to have origins in [Central Asia](/source/Central_Asia), and the [Andronovo culture](/source/Andronovo_culture) of the [Bronze Age](/source/Bronze_Age) is suggested as a candidate for the common [Indo-Iranian culture](/source/Indo-Iranian_languages) around 2000 BCE.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

The language was situated precisely in the western part of Central Asia that borders present-day Russia and Kazakhstan. It was thus in relative proximity to the other [satem ethno-linguistic groups](/source/Centum_and_satem_languages) of the [Indo-European family](/source/Indo-European_family), such as [Thracian](/source/Thracian_language), [Balto-Slavic](/source/Balto-Slavic_languages) and others, and to common Indo-European's original homeland (more precisely, the [Pontic-Caspian Steppe](/source/Pontic-Caspian_Steppe) to the north of the Black Sea and the [Caucasus](/source/Caucasus)), according to the reconstructed linguistic relationships of common Indo-European.

Proto-Iranian thus dates to some time after the Proto-Indo-Iranian breakup, or the early-2nd millennium BCE, as the Old Iranian languages began to break off and evolve separately as the various Iranian tribes migrated and settled in vast areas of [southeastern Europe](/source/Southeast_Europe), the [Iranian Plateau](/source/Iranian_Plateau), and Central Asia.

Proto-Iranian innovations compared to Proto-Indo-Iranian include:[20] the turning of [sibilant](/source/Sibilant) [fricative](/source/Fricative) *s into non-sibilant fricative glottal *h; the voiced aspirated [plosives](/source/Plosive) *bʰ, *dʰ, *gʰ yielding to the voiced unaspirated plosives *b, *d, *g resp.; the [voiceless](/source/Voicelessness) unaspirated stops *p, *t, *k before another consonant changing into fricatives *f, *θ, *x resp.; voiceless aspirated stops *pʰ, *tʰ, *kʰ turning into fricatives *f, *θ, *x, resp.

## Old Iranian

The multitude of [Middle Iranian](#Middle_Iranian) languages and peoples indicate that great linguistic diversity must have existed among the ancient speakers of Iranian languages. Of that variety of languages/dialects, *direct* evidence of only two has survived. These are:

- [Avestan](/source/Avestan), the two languages/dialects of the [Avesta](/source/Avesta) (the [liturgical](/source/Liturgy) texts of [Zoroastrianism](/source/Zoroastrianism)).

- [Old Persian](/source/Old_Persian), the native language of a southwestern [Iranian people](/source/Iranian_peoples) known as [Persians](/source/Persians).[21]

*Indirectly* attested Old Iranian languages are discussed [below](#indirect_old).

Old Persian was an Old Iranian dialect as it was spoken in southwestern Iran (the modern-day province of [Fars](/source/Fars_province)) by the inhabitants of [Parsa](/source/Fars_province), Persia, or [Persis](/source/Persis) who also gave their name to their region and language. Genuine Old Persian is best attested in one of the three languages of the [Behistun](/source/Behistun) inscription, composed c. 520 BCE, and which is the last inscription (and only inscription of significant length) in which Old Persian is still grammatically correct. Later inscriptions are comparatively brief, and typically simply copies of words and phrases from earlier ones, often with grammatical errors, which suggests that by the 4th century BCE the transition from Old Persian to Middle Persian was already far advanced, but efforts were still being made to retain an "old" quality for official proclamations.

The other directly attested Old Iranian dialects are the two forms of [Avestan](/source/Avestan_language), which take their name from their use in the [Avesta](/source/Avesta), the [liturgical](/source/Liturgy) texts of indigenous Iranian religion that now goes by the name of [Zoroastrianism](/source/Zoroastrianism) but in the Avesta itself is simply known as *vohu daena* (later: *behdin*). The language of the Avesta is subdivided into two dialects, conventionally known as "Old (or 'Gathic') Avestan", and "Younger Avestan". These terms, which date to the 19th century, are slightly misleading since 'Younger Avestan' is not only much younger than 'Old Avestan', but also from a different geographic region. The Old Avestan dialect is very archaic, and at roughly the same stage of development as [Rigvedic Sanskrit](/source/Vedic_Sanskrit). On the other hand, Younger Avestan is at about the same linguistic stage as Old Persian, but by virtue of its use as a sacred language retained its "old" characteristics long after the Old Iranian languages had yielded to their Middle Iranian stage. Unlike Old Persian, which has Middle Persian as its known successor, Avestan has no clearly identifiable Middle Iranian stage (the effect of Middle Iranian is indistinguishable from effects due to other causes).

In addition to Old Persian and Avestan, which are the only *directly* attested Old Iranian languages, all Middle Iranian languages must have had a predecessor "Old Iranian" form of that language, and thus can all be said to have had an (at least hypothetical) "Old" form. Such hypothetical Old Iranian languages include [Old Parthian](/source/Parthian_language). Additionally, the existence of unattested languages can sometimes be inferred from the impact they had on neighbouring languages. Such transfer is known to have occurred for Old Persian, which has (what is called) a "[Median](/source/Median_language)" substrate in some of its vocabulary.[22] Also, foreign references to languages can also provide a hint to the existence of otherwise unattested languages, for example through toponyms/ethnonyms or in the recording of vocabulary, as [Herodotus](/source/Herodotus) did for what he called "[Scythian](/source/Scythian_languages)" and in one instance, [Median](/source/Median_language) (*σπάκα* "dog").

### Isoglosses

Conventionally, Iranian languages are grouped into "western" and "eastern" branches.[23] These terms have little meaning with respect to Old Avestan as that stage of the language may predate the settling of the Iranian peoples into western and eastern groups. The geographic terms also have little meaning when applied to Younger Avestan since it is not known where that dialect (or dialects) was spoken either. Certain is only that Avestan (all forms) and Old Persian are distinct, and since Old Persian is "western", and Avestan was not Old Persian, Avestan acquired a default assignment to "eastern". Further confusing the issue is the introduction of a western Iranian substrate in later Avestan compositions and redactions undertaken at the centers of imperial power in western Iran (either in the south-west in Persia, or in the north-west in Nisa/Parthia and Ecbatana/Media).

Two of the earliest dialectal divisions among Iranian indeed happen to not follow the later division into Western and Eastern blocks. These concern the fate of the Proto-Indo-Iranian first-series [palatal](/source/Palatal_consonant) consonants, *ć and *dź:[24]

- Avestan and most other Iranian languages have [deaffricated](/source/Deaffrication) and depalatalized these consonants, and have *ć > *s*, *dź > *z*.

- Old Persian, however, has fronted these consonants further: *ć > *θ*, *dź > *ð > *d*.

As a common intermediate stage, it is possible to reconstruct depalatalized affricates: *c, *dz. (This coincides with the state of affairs in the neighboring [Nuristani languages](/source/Nuristani_languages).) A further complication however concerns the consonant clusters *ćw and *dźw:

- Avestan and most other Iranian languages have shifted these clusters to *sp*, *zb*.

- In Old Persian, these clusters yield *s*, *z*, with loss of the glide *w, but *without* further fronting.

- The [Saka language](/source/Saka_language), attested in the Middle Iranian period, and its modern relative [Wakhi](/source/Wakhi_language) fail to fit into either group: in these, palatalization remains, and similar glide loss as in Old Persian occurs: *ćw > *š*, *dźw > *ž*.

A division of Iranian languages in at least three groups during the Old Iranian period is thus implied:

- Persid (Old Persian and its descendants)

- Sakan ([Saka](/source/Saka), [Wakhi](/source/Wakhi_language), and their Old Iranian ancestor)

- Central Iranian (all other Iranian languages)

It is possible that other distinct dialect groups were already in existence during this period. Good candidates are the hypothetical ancestor languages of [Alanian/Scytho-Sarmatian subgroup of Scythian](/source/Scythian_languages) in the far northwest; and the hypothetical "Old Parthian" (the Old Iranian ancestor of Parthian) in the near northwest, where original *dw > *b (paralleling the development of *ćw).

## Middle Iranian

What is known in Iranian linguistic history as the "Middle Iranian" era is thought to begin around the 4th century BCE lasting through the 9th century. Linguistically the Middle Iranian languages are conventionally classified into two main groups, [Western](/source/Western_Iranian) and [Eastern](/source/Eastern_Iranian).

The Western family includes [Parthian](/source/Parthian_language) ([Arsacid](/source/Parthia) Pahlavi) and [Middle Persian](/source/Middle_Persian), while [Bactrian](/source/Bactrian_language), [Sogdian](/source/Sogdian_language), [Khwarezmian](/source/Khwarezmian_language), [Saka](/source/Saka_language), and [Old Ossetic](/source/Old_Ossetic) ([Scytho](/source/Scythians)-[Sarmatian](/source/Sarmatians)) fall under the Eastern category. The two languages of the Western group were linguistically very close to each other, but quite distinct from their eastern counterparts. On the other hand, the Eastern group was an areal entity whose languages retained some similarity to Avestan. They were inscribed in various [Aramaic](/source/Aramaic)-derived alphabets which had ultimately evolved from the Achaemenid Imperial [Aramaic script](/source/Aramaic_script), though Bactrian was written using an adapted [Greek script](/source/Greek_alphabet).

Middle Persian (Pahlavi) was the official language under the [Sasanian](/source/Sassanid) dynasty in Iran. It was in use from the 3rd century [CE](/source/Common_Era) until the beginning of the 10th century. The script used for Middle Persian in this era underwent significant maturity. Middle Persian, Parthian, and Sogdian were also used as literary languages by the [Manichaeans](/source/Manichaean), whose texts also survive in various non-Iranian languages, from Latin to Chinese. Manichaean texts were written in a script closely akin to the [Syriac script](/source/Syriac_script).[25] The [Achomi](/source/Achomi_language) (Larestani/Khodmooni) language is considered a surviving remains of Pahlavi Middle Persian,[26][27][28][29][30][31][32] as well as [Luri](/source/Luri_language), with their respective dialects.

## New Iranian

See also: [Persian literature](/source/Persian_literature), [Pashto literature and poetry](/source/Pashto_literature_and_poetry), [Ossetian literature](/source/Ossetian_literature), [Kurdish literature](/source/Kurdish_literature), and [Tajik literature](/source/Tajik_literature)

Dark green: countries where Iranian languages are official.
Teal: countries where Iranian languages are official in a subdivision.

Following the [Muslim conquest of Persia](/source/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia), there were essential changes in the role of the different dialects. The old prestige form of [Middle Iranian](/source/Middle_Iranian), *Pahlavi*, which was associated with the western Sasanian provinces of [Spahan](/source/Spahan_(province)) and [Pars](/source/Pars_(Sasanian_province)), was replaced by a new variety as the official language of the court. In 875, the [Saffarid dynasty](/source/Saffarid_dynasty) was the first in a line of many dynasties to adopt the new prestige language officially.

[West Iranian varieties](/source/Western_Iranian_languages) from eastern regions may have had a significant impact on the development of the new standard, which served as the basis for a standardised [New Persian](/source/New_Persian). Medieval Iranian scholars such as [ibn al-Muqaffa'](/source/Ibn_al-Muqaffa') (8th century) and [ibn al-Nadim](/source/Ibn_al-Nadim) (10th century) associated the term *Dari* with the eastern [province of Khorasan](/source/Khorasan_province), *Pahlavi* for the dialects of the northwestern areas between the [province of Isfahan](/source/Isfahan_province) and [Azerbaijan](/source/Azerbaijan_(Iran)), and *Pârsi* to describe the [dialects of Fars](/source/Dialects_of_Fars) (Persia).

These scholars also noted that the unofficial language of the royalty was *[Khuzi](/source/Khuzi_language)*, associated with the western [province of Khuzestan](/source/Khuzestan_province); it was likely a late variety of the [Elamite language](/source/Elamite_language), a language isolate that previously was the official court language of [Elam](/source/Elam) in that region.

The Islamic conquest also brought with it the adoption of the [Arabic script](/source/Arabic_script) for writing Persian and much later, Kurdish, Pashto and Balochi. All three were adapted to the writing by the addition of a few letters. This development probably occurred sometime during the second half of the 8th century, when the old middle Persian script began dwindling in usage. The Arabic script remains in use in contemporary modern Persian. The [Tajik alphabet](/source/Tajik_alphabet), used to write the [Tajik language](/source/Tajik_language), was initially [Romanized](/source/Romanization) in the 1920s under the [Soviet nationalities policy](/source/Soviet_nationalities_policy). This was shifted to a [Cyrillic script](/source/Cyrillic_script) in the 1930s.

The geographical regions in which Iranian languages were spoken were pushed back in several areas by newly neighbouring languages. Arabic spread into some parts of Western Iran, and [Turkic languages](/source/Turkic_languages) spread through much of [Central Asia](/source/Central_Asia), displacing various [Eastern Iranian languages](/source/Eastern_Iranian_languages) such as [Sogdian](/source/Sogdian_language) and [Bactrian](/source/Bactrian_language) in what is today [Turkmenistan](/source/Turkmenistan), [Uzbekistan](/source/Uzbekistan), and [Tajikistan](/source/Tajikistan). In Eastern Europe, in what is now Ukraine, southern [European Russia](/source/European_Russia), and parts of the Balkans, the core region of the Eastern Iranian-speaking [Scythians](/source/Scythians), [Sarmatians](/source/Sarmatians), and [Alans](/source/Alans), had been decisively [Slavicised](/source/Slavicisation) by the various [Early Slavs](/source/Early_Slavs) of the region by the [6th century](/source/6th_century).[33][34][35][36] This resulted in the displacement and extinction of the once predominant [Scythian languages](/source/Scythian_languages) of the region. [Sogdian](/source/Sogdian_language)'s close relative, [Yaghnobi](/source/Yaghnobi_language), barely survives in a small area of the [Zarafshan Range](/source/Zarafshan_Range) east of [Samarkand](/source/Samarkand), [Wakhi](/source/Wakhi_language) is spoken by [nomadic pastoralists](/source/Nomadic_pastoralists) from Afghanistan to China, and [Saka](/source/Saka) survives as [Ossetic](/source/Ossetian_language) in [Ciscaucasia](/source/Ciscaucasia), which is the sole remnant of the once-predominant Scythian languages of the region. Minority Eastern Iranian languages survive in the [Pamir Mountains](/source/Pamir_Mountains); [Pashto](/source/Pashto) is the only widely-spoken Eastern Iranian language, with at least 90 million speakers.

## Comparison table

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English Zaza Persian Tati Talysh Gilaki Mazanderani Sorani Kurmanji Pashto Balochi Tat (Caucaus) Luri Shughni Middle Persian Parthian Old Persian Avestan Ossetian beautiful rınd, xasek zibā/xuš-čehr(e)/xoşgel xojir ghašang xujīrçī/xujīr xoşgel, xojir, xejir ciwan, nayab rind, delal, bedew, xweşik x̌kūlay, x̌āista dorr, soherâ, mah rang, sharr, juwān qəşəng, şihid qəşaŋ, xoşgel xushrui, xagh(fem.) xigh(masc.) hučihr, hužihr hužihr naiba xvaini, sraiia, srao- ræsughd blood goni xūn xevn xun xun xun xwên xwîn, xûn wīna hon xun xī(n) xun xōn gōxan vohuna, vaŋhutāt̰ tug bread nan, non nān nun nun nön nun nan nan ḍoḍəi, məṛəi, naɣan/nɣaen nān, nagan nun nu(n) gartha nān nān tāiiūiri, drao-naŋh (scared bread) dzul bring ardene āwurdan, biyār ("(you) bring!") vârden, biyordon varde hävərdən, härdən, ävərdən, bərdən biyârden hanîn, hawerdin, hênan anîn (rā)wṛəl âurten, yārag, ārag avardən o(v)erden, videu āwurdan, āwāy-, āwar-, bar- āwāy-, āwar-, bar- bara- bara, bar- xæssyn brother bıra barādar bərâr bira, boli bərär, bərâr berâr, beror bira bira wror brāt, brās birar Gaghe værod brād, brâdar brād, brādar brātar brātar- æfsymær come ameyene āmadan biyâmiyan ome həmän, ämön, hömän biyamona, enen, biyâmuen hatin, were, bew (Pehlewanî) hatin, were, rā tləl āhag, āyag, hatin amarən umae(n) yà āmadan, awar awar, čām āy-, āgam āgam- cæwyn cry bermayene gerīstan/gerīye bərma berame, bame burmə berme giryan, girîn, gîristin (Pehlewanî) girîn žəṛəl greewag, grehten girəstən gerevesen, gereva náu griy-, bram- barmâdan snuδ, kæwyn dark tari tārīk, tār ul, gur, târica, târek toki zuləmât, tärik tār, siyo, zolamât tarî/tarîk tarî skəṇ, skaṇ, tyara tār tariki tārīk torice tārīg/k tārīg, tārēn tārīk sāmahe, sāma tar daughter keyne, çêne/çêneke doxtar titiye, dətar kinə, kila lâku, kör (girl) dətər (daughter) kîjâ(girl), deter (daughter) kîj, kiç, kenîşk, düêt (Pehlewanî), dwêt (Pehlewanî) dot, keç lūr dohtir, duttag duxtər doxter rezin duxtar duxt, duxtar duxδar čyzg (Iron), kizgæ (Digor) day roce, roje, roze rūz revj, ruz ruj ruz, ruj ruz, ruj řoj, rûj (Pehlewanî) roj wrəd͡z (rwəd͡z) roç ruz ru ruz rōz raucah- raocah- bon do kerdene kardan kardan, kordan karde gudən, kudən, kördən hâkerden, hâkorden kirdin kirin kawəl kanag, kurtin saxtən kerde chideu kardan kartan kạrta- kәrәta- kænyn door ber, keyber, çêber dar darvâca bə bər dar, loş derge/derke, derga, qapî (Kelhorî) derî wər, dərwāza dar, gelo, darwāzag dər dər, dar dêve dar dar, bar duvara- dvara- dwar die merdene mordan bamarden marde murdən, mərdən bamerden mirdin mirin mrəl mireg, murten mürdən morde mideu murdan mạriya- mar- mælyn donkey her xar astar, xar hə, hər xər xar ker, gwêdirêj, xer (Pehlewanî) ker xər har, her, kar xər xər marcabe xar kaθβa xæræg eat werdene xordan / xurāk harden harde xördən, xöndən xerâk / baxârden xwardin xwarin xwāṛə, xurāk / xwaṛəl warag, warâk, wārten xardən harde xideu parwarz / xwâr, xwardīg parwarz / xwâr hareθra / CE-, at- xærinag egg hak, akk toxm, xāya ("testicle") merqâna, karxâ morqana, uyə murqönə, murqänə merqâne, tîm, balî hêk/hêlke, tum, xaye (Pehlewanî), xa (Kelhorî) hêk hagəi heyg, heyk, ā morg xaykərg xā'a tarmurx toxmag, xâyag taoxmag, xâyag taoxma- ajk earth erd zamīn zemin zamin zəmi, gəl, bunə zamîn, bene zemîn, zewî, ʿerz, erd erd, zevî d͡zməka (md͡zəka) zemin, degār xari zemi zimath zamīg zamīg zam- zãm, zam, zem zæxx evening şan begáh nomâzyar, nomâšon shav şänsər nemâşun êware, îware (Pehlewanî) êvar, şev māx̌ām (māš̥ām) begáh şangum evāra véga ēvārag êbêrag arəzaŋh izær eye çım čashm coš čaş,gelgan çum çəş, bəj çaw/çaş çav stərga cham, chem çüm tīya, çaş çem čašm čašm čaša- čašman- cæst father pi, pêr pedar, bābā piyar, piya, dada piya, lala, po pér pîyer, pîyar, per bawk, bab, babe, bawg (Pehlewanî) bav, bab plār pet, pes piyər bua tat pidar pid pitar pitar fyd fear ters tars, harās târs tars tərs taşe-vaşe, tars tirs tirs wēra (yara), bēra turs, terseg tərsi ters hoge tars tars tạrsa- tares- tas fiancé waşti nāmzād numzâ nomja nömzət numze desgîran,xwşavest dergistî čənghol [masculine], čənghəla [feminine] nāmzād nükürdə xîsmenz – – para-dāta (affianced) usag fine weş, hewl xoš, xūb, beh xojir, xar xoş xujīr, xurum xâr, xeş, xojir xoş xweş x̌a (š̥a), səm wash, hosh xuş, xas, xub xu bashand dārmag srīra xorz, dzæbæx finger engışte/gışte, bêçıke angošt anquš anqiştə ənguşt, əngüşt angus engust, pence,angus, pênce tilî, pêçî gwəta changol, mordâneg, lenkutk əngüşt kelek angiht angust aṇgušta ængwyldz fire adır ātaš, āzar taš otaş təş taş agir/awir, ahir,ayer agir wōr (ōr) âch, atesh, âs ataş taş, gor yoç âdur, âtaxsh ādur âç- ātre-/aēsma- art fish mase māhi mâyi moy mäyi mâhî masî masî kab (māhay) māhi, māhig mahi māhi moie māhig māsyāg masya kæsag go şiayene ro/şo šiyen, bišiyan şe şön burden, bašiyen çûn, řoştin, řoyiştin, çün (Pehlewanî) çûn tləl shoten raftən ro sà, tideu şow/row ay- ai- ay-, fra-vaz cæwyn God Homa/Huma/Oma Xodā, Izad, Yazdān, Baq Xədâ Xıdo Xuda Xedâ Yezdan, Xwedê, Xuda, Xodê, Xwa(y) Xwedê, Xweda, Xudê Xodāy (xʷəday) Xoda, Hwdâ Xuda xodā Xuthoi Xudā/Yazdān baga- baya- xwycaw good hewl, rınd, weş xub, nīkū, beh xâr, xojir çok xujīr, xurum xâr, xeş, xojir baş, çak, xas baş, rind x̌ə (š̥ə) zabr, sharr, jowain xub, xas xu bashand xūb, nêkog, beh vahu- vohu, vaŋhu- xorz grass vaş sabzeh, giyāh vâš alaf vâş vâş giya/gya giya, çêre wāx̌ə (wāš̥ə) rem, sabzag güyo sozi, çame woh giyâ giya viş urvarā kærdæg great gırd/gırs, pil bozorg pilla yol, yal, vaz, dıjd pilâ, pillə, pille gat, pilla gewre,mezin mezin, gir lōy, stər mastar, mazan,tuh kələ gap wazmin wuzurg, pīl, yal vazraka- mazaṇt̰, masita, stūi styr hand dest dast bâl dast dəs, bâl das, bāl dest, des dest lās dast dəs das thust dast dast dasta- zasta- k'ux / arm head ser sar kalla sə, sər kəlle, sər kalle, sar ser ser sər sar, sarag, saghar sər sar cile, cale sar kalli sairi sær heart zerri/zerre del dəl dıl dīl, dəl, qlf del, zel, zil dil/dił/dir(Erbil)/zil dil zṛə dil, hatyr dül del dile, zorth dil dil zaraŋh, zarəδiia, aηhuš zærdæ horse estor/ostor/astor asb asb, astar asp əsb, əsp asp, as asp/hesp/esp, hês(t)ir hesp ās [male], aspa [female] asp əs asb vorge asp, stōr asp, stōr aspa aspa- bæx house key/çê xāne kiya ka sərə, xöne sere, kime, xene mał, xanû, xanig, ghat xanî, mal kor ges, dawâr, log xunə huna chide xânag demāna-, nmāna- xædzar hungry vêşan/veyşan gorosne, goşne vašnâ, vešir, gesnâ vahşian vəşnä, viştâ veşnâ, veşnâsâr birsî, wirsî (Pehlewanî) birçî, birsî (behdînî) lwəǵa (lwəẓ̌a) shudig, shud gisnə gosna maghzönch gursag, shuy veşnâg ṣ̌uδ language (also tongue) zıwan, zon, zuan, zuon, juan, jüan zabān zobun, zəvân zivon zəvön, zuvön, zuvän zivun, zebun, tok ziman, zuwan ziman žəba zewān, zobān zuhun zevu zive zuwān izβān hazâna- hizvā-, zafana (mouth) ævzag laugh huyayene xande xurəsen, xandastan sıre purxə, xənde/ xəndəsən rîk, baxendesten, xanne kenîn/pêkenîn, kenîn,xende,xene kenîn xandəl/xənda hendag, xandag xəndə xana shinteu xande, xand karta Syaoθnāvareza- xudyn life cuye, weşiye zendegi, jan zindәgi jimon zīndəgī, zīvəş zindegî, jan jiyan, jîn jiyan žwənd zendegih, zind həyat zeŋei zindage, umre zīndagīh, zīwišnīh žīwahr, žīw- gaēm, gaya- card man mêrdek, camêrd/cüamêrd mard mardak, miarda merd mərd, mərdönə mardî mêrd, pîyaw, cuwamêr mêr, camêr səṛay, mēṛə merd mərd piyā chorice, mardina mard mard martiya- mašīm, mašya adæjmag moon aşme, menge (for month) mâh, mâng, mânk mâng mang, owşum mâng, məng ma, munek, mong, rojâ mang, heyv meh, heyv spuǵməi (spožməi) máh ma māh mêst māh māh mâh- måŋha- mæj mother may, mar mâdar mâr, mâya, nana moa, ma, ina mâr, mär mâr, nenâ dayik, dayig dayik, dê mor mât, mâs may dā(ya), dāle(ka) nan mâdar dayek mâtar mātar- mad mouth fek dahân duxun, dâ:ân gəv dəhən dâhun, lâmîze, loşe dem dev xula (xʷəla) dap duhun, luše dam gêve dahân, rumb zafan, zafarə, åŋhānō, åñh dzyx name name nâm num nom nöm num naw, nêw nav nūm nâm num num nöme nâm nâman nãman nom night şew shab šö, šav şav şö, şöv, şəb şow, şu şew şev špa šap, shaw şöü şo hab shab xšap- xšap-, naxti æxsæv open (v) akerdene bâz-kardan, va-kardan vâz-kardan okarde vlätən, väzän, vâ-gudən vâ-hekârden kirdinewe, wazkirdin (Kelhorî) vekirin prānistəl pāch, pabozag vakardən vākerde(n) ët chideu abâz-kardan, višādag būxtaka- būxta- gom kænyn peace haşti/aşti âshti, ârâmeš, ârâmî, sâzish dinj aşiş əşt âştî, esket aştî, aramî aştî, aramî rōɣa, t͡sōkāləi ârâm salaməti, dinci āş(t)i salöm âštih, râmīšn râm, râmīšn šiyâti- rāma- fidyddzinad pig xoz/xonz, xınzır xūk xu, xuyi, xug xug xuk xî beraz,goraz beraz soḍər, xənd͡zir (Arabic), xug khug, huk xug xuk xug xūk hū, varāza (boar) xwy place ca jâh/gâh yâga vira jâ, jigâ, jigə jâ, gâ, kolâ cê(cêga), ga, şwên, şwîn (Pehlewanî) cih, geh d͡zāy ja, jaygah, hend cigə, cə jā joi gâh gâh gâθu- gātu-, gātav- ran read wendene xândan baxânden hande, xwande xöndən, xönəsən baxenden, baxundesten xwendin/xwêndin, xwenistin xwendin lwastəl, kōtəl wánag, wānten xundən vane(n) heideu xwândan paiti-pǝrǝs kæsyn say vatene goftan, gap(-zadan) vâten, baguten vote gutən, guftən baowten, boten, bagoten gutin, witin gotin wayəl gushag, guashten guftirən, gaf saxtən gute(n) lövdeu guftan, gōw-, wâxtan gōw- gaub- vac, mrū- dzuryn sister waye xâhar/xwâhar xâke, xâv, xâxor, xuâr hova xâxur, xâxər xâxer, xâxor, xoar xweh, xweşk, xoşk, xuşk, xoyşk xwîşk xōr (xʷōr) gwhâr xuvar xuar yàx, yàxbìç xwahar xvaŋhar- xo small qıc/qıyt, wırd/werdi kuchak, kam, xurd, rîz qijel, ruk hırd kuçhī, kujī, kuştə peçik, biçuk, xerd giçke, qicik, hûr, biçûk, büçik (Kelhorî) biçûk, hûr, qicik kūčnay, waṛ(ū)kay gwand, hurd küçük, küşkin, kişgələ, kəm koçek zulice kam, rangas kam kamna- kasu, kamna- chysyl son lac, laj pesar, pur pur, zâ zoə, zurə vəçə, rikə, pəsər, rəy peser/rîkâ law/kuř kur, law, pis zoy possag, baç kuk kor puç pur, pusar puhr puça pūθra- fyrt soul roh, gan ravân, jân rəvân con ruh, jön ro, jân can, giyan, rewan, revan reh, can sā rawân can jöne rūwân, jyân rūwân, jyân urvan- ud spring wesar/usar bahâr vâ:âr əvəsor, bahar vəhâr, bâhâr vehâr, behâr behar, wehar bihar, behar spərlay bārgāh vasal behār, vehār bahor wahâr vâhara- vaŋhar tall berz boland / bârz pilla barz, bılınd burz, bələnd belen, belend bilind/berz bilind/berz lwəṛ, ǰəg borz, bwrz bülünd beleŋ beland buland, borz bârež bərəzaṇt̰ bærzond ten des dah da da dä da, datâ deh/de deh ləs dah də da thiste dah datha dasa dæs three hirê/hiri se so, se se, he su, sə se, setâ sê sê drē sey sə se arai sê hrē çi- θri- ærtæ village dewe deh, wis döh, da di mällə, məhällə, kəläyə dih, male, kolâ, kande gund, dêhat, dê, awayî gund kəlay dehāt, helk, kallag, dê di de qishloq wiž dahyu- vîs-, dahyu- vîs qæw want waştene xâstan begovastan, jovastan piye xäsən, xästən bexâsten, bexâsti xwastin, wîstin, twastin (Pehlewanî) xwestin ɣ(ʷ)ux̌təl / ɣ(ʷ)uxš̥təl loath, loteten xastən, vayistən hāse forteu xwâstan ūna, ainišti fændyn water awe/awk, owe, ou âb âv, ö ov, wat(orandian dialect) ow, âv ow, ou, u aw av obə/ubə âp ou ow haç âb/aw aw âpi avō- don when key key key keyna kén, kəy ke, kemin, geder key, kengî(Hewlêrî) kengê, kîngê kəla kadi, ked key, çüvəxti ke çavaxt kay ka cim- kæd wind va bâd vâ vo vâ vâ ba, wa (Pehlewanî) ba siləi gwáth var bād huz wâd wa vāta- dymgæ / wad wolf verg gorg varg varg vərg verg, verk gurg, gur lewə, šarmux̌ (šarmuš̥) gurk gürg gorg urge/urj gurg varka- vehrka birægh woman cıni/ceni zan zeyniye, zenak jen, jiyan zən, zənək, zunönə zenā jin, afret, zindage,gyian jin jənəi, njləi (lit. Girl) x̌əd͡za/š̥əd͡za jan, jinik zən zena ghenice/ghinice, caxoi zan žan gǝnā, γnā, ǰaini-, sylgojmag / us year serre sâl sâl sor, sal sâl sâl sal/sał sal kāl sâl sal sāl sol sâl θard ýāre, sarәd az yes / no ya, heya, ê / nê, ney, ni baleh, ârē, hā / na, née ahan / na ha / ne, na əhâ/nä, nâ are, ehe / nâ, no bełê, a, erê / ne, nexêr erê, belê, a / na Hao, ao, wō / na, ya ere, hān / na həri, hə / nə a, ā / na ön / nai, nå ōhāy / ne hâ / ney yâ / nay, mâ yā / noit, mā o / næ yesterday vızêr diruz azira, zira, diru zir, zinə dîru dîruz, aruz dwênê, dwêke duho parun zí deydi diru biyor dêrûž diya(ka) zyō znon English Zaza Persian Tati Talyshi Gilaki Mazandarani Sorani Kurmanji Pashto Balochi Tat Luri Shughni Middle Persian Parthian Old Persian Avestan Ossetian

## Notes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** In the Avesta, the *airiia-* are members of the ethnic group of the Avesta-reciters themselves, in contradistinction to the *anairiia-* (the "[non-Arya](/source/Aneran)"). The word also appears four times in Old Persian: One is in the [Behistun Inscription](/source/Behistun_Inscription), where *ariya-* is the name of a language (DB 4.89). The other three instances occur in [Darius the Great](/source/Darius_the_Great)'s inscription at [Naqsh-e Rostam](/source/Naqsh-e_Rostam) (DNa 14–15), in Darius I's inscription at Susa (DSe 13–14), and in the inscription of [Xerxes I](/source/Xerxes_I) at [Persepolis](/source/Persepolis) (XPh 12–13). In these, the two Achaemenid dynasties describe themselves as *pārsa pārsahyā puça ariya ariyaciça* "a Persian, son of a Persian, an Ariya, of Ariya origin."—The phrase with *ciça* ("origin, descendance") assures that *ariya* is an ethnic name wider in meaning than *pārsa* and not a simple adjectival epithet.[10]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** In modern and colloquial context, the term "Indic" refers more generally to the languages of the [Indian subcontinent](/source/Indian_subcontinent), thus also including non-Aryan language families like [Dravidian](/source/Dravidian_languages) and [Munda](/source/Munda_languages). See e.g. Reynolds, Mike; Verma, Mahendra (2007). ["Indic languages"](https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/language-in-the-british-isles/indic-languages/8343FABC094E91986DBD68A492FFEA1B). In Britain, David (ed.). *Language in the British Isles*. Cambridge: [Cambridge University Press](/source/Cambridge_University_Press). pp. 293–307. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-79488-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-79488-6). Retrieved 2021-10-04.

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-BechertBernini1990_1-0)** Johannes Bechert; Giuliano Bernini; Claude Buridant (1990). [*Toward a Typology of European Languages*](https://books.google.com/books?id=BemPapPEBYAC). Walter de Gruyter. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-11-012108-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-012108-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Windfuhr1979_2-0)** Gernot Windfuhr (1979). [*Persian Grammar: History and State of Its Study*](https://books.google.com/books?id=0g8n9mmnjKgC). Walter de Gruyter. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-279-7774-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-279-7774-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-SIL_3-0)** Gordon, Raymond G. Jr., ed. (2005). ["Report for Iranian languages"](http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=IR). *Ethnologue: Languages of the World* (Fifteenth ed.). Dallas: SIL International.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** [https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ps/](https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ps/)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWindfuhr2012587_5-0)** [Windfuhr 2012](#CITEREFWindfuhr2012), p. 587.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWindfuhr2012634_6-0)** [Windfuhr 2012](#CITEREFWindfuhr2012), p. 634.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWindfuhr20121_7-0)** [Windfuhr 2012](#CITEREFWindfuhr2012), p. 1.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-MacKenzie_8-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-MacKenzie_8-1) MacKenzie, David Niel (1998). ["Ērān, Ērānšahr"](https://web.archive.org/web/20170313095654/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/eran-eransah). *Encyclopedia Iranica*. Vol. 8. Costa Mesa: Mazda. Archived from [the original](http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/eran-eransah) on 13 March 2017.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Schmitt_Aryans1_9-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Schmitt_Aryans1_9-1) Schmitt, Rüdiger (1987), ["Aryans"](http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aryans), *Encyclopedia Iranica*, vol. 2, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, pp. 684–687

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Bailey_Arya_10-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Bailey_Arya_10-1) [Bailey, Harold Walter](/source/Harold_Walter_Bailey) (1987). ["Arya"](https://web.archive.org/web/20160303194904/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arya-an-ethnic-epithet). *Encyclopedia Iranica*. Vol. 2. New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 681–683. Archived from [the original](http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arya-an-ethnic-epithet) on 3 March 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Skjærvø_2006_12-0)** ([Skjærvø 2006](#CITEREFSkjærvø2006))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** John R. Perry (Summer–Autumn 1998). "A Review of the 'Encyclopaedia Iranica'". *Iranian Studies*. **31** (3/4): 517–525.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** Lassen, Christian. 1936. Die altpersischen Keil-Inschriften von Persepolis. Entzifferung des Alphabets und Erklärung des Inhalts. Bonn: Weber. S. 182. This was followed by [Wilhelm Geiger](/source/Wilhelm_Geiger) in his *Grundriss der Iranischen Philologie* (1895). [Friedrich von Spiegel](/source/Friedrich_von_Spiegel) (1859), *Avesta*, Engelmann (p. vii) used the spelling *Eranian*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** Cust, Robert Needham. 1878. *A sketch of the modern languages of the East Indies.* London: Trübner.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** [Dani, Ahmad Hasan](/source/Ahmad_Hasan_Dani). 1989. *History of northern areas of Pakistan.* Historical studies (Pakistan) series. National Institute of Historical and Cultural Research. "We distinguish between the Aryan languages of Iran, or Irano-Aryan, and the Aryan languages of India, or Indo-Aryan. For the sake of brevity, Iranian is commonly used instead of Irano-Aryan".

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** [Lazard, Gilbert](/source/Gilbert_Lazard). 1977. *Preface* in: Oranskij, Iosif M. *Les langues iraniennes*. Traduit par Joyce Blau.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** Schmitt, Rüdiger. 1994. *Sprachzeugnisse alt- und mitteliranischer Sprachen in Afghanistan* in: *Indogermanica et Caucasica. Festschrift für Karl Horst Schmidt zum 65. Geburtstag.* Bielmeier, Robert und Reinhard Stempel (Hrg.). De Gruyter. S. 168–196.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** Lazard, Gilbert. 1998. Actancy. Empirical approaches to language typology. Mouton de Gruyter. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [3-11-015670-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-11-015670-9), [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-11-015670-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-015670-6)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** [Encyclopaedia Iranica: EASTERN IRANIAN LANGUAGES. By Nicholas Sims-Williams](http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/eastern-iranian-languages)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** [Michael Witzel](/source/Michael_Witzel) (2001): Autochthonous Aryans? The evidence from Old Indian and Iranian texts. Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies 7(3): 1–115.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** Roland G. Kent: "Old Persion: Grammar Texts Lexicon". Part I, Chapter I: The Linguistic Setting of Old Persian. American Oriental Society, 1953.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-EI-IL-vi_24-0)** ([Skjærvø 2006](#CITEREFSkjærvø2006)) vi(2). Documentation.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Iranica_25-0)** Nicholas Sims-Williams, Iranica, under entry: Eastern Iranian languages

1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** Windfuhr, Gernot (2009). "Dialectology and Topics". *The Iranian Languages*. [Routledge](/source/Routledge). pp. 18–21.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** Mary Boyce. 1975. *A Reader in Manichaean Middle Persian and Parthian*, p. 14.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:6_28-0)** Talei, Maryam; Rovshan, Belghis (2024-10-24). ["Semantic Network in Lari Language"](https://zaban.guilan.ac.ir/article_8091.html?lang=en). *Persian Language and Iranian Dialects*. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.22124/plid.2024.27553.1673](https://doi.org/10.22124%2Fplid.2024.27553.1673). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2476-6585](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2476-6585). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20241128033018/https://zaban.guilan.ac.ir/article_8091.html?lang=en) from the original on 2024-11-28. This descriptive-analytical research examines sense relations between the lexemes of the Lari language, the continuation of the [Middle Persian](/source/Middle_Persian) and one of the endangered Iranian languages spoken in Lar, Fars province

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:7_29-0)** ["Western Iranian languages History"](https://www.destinationiran.com/western-iranian-languages.htm). *Destination Iran*. 2024-06-16. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20241128034127/https://www.destinationiran.com/western-iranian-languages.htm) from the original on 2024-11-28. Retrieved 2024-11-28. Achomi or Khodmooni (Larestani) is a southwestern Iranian language spoken in southern Fars province and the Ajam (non-arab) population in Persian Gulf countries such as UAE, Bahrain, and Kuwait. It is a descendant of Middle Persian and has several dialects including Lari, Evazi, Khoni, Bastaki, and more.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:8_30-0)** Taherkhani, Neda; Ourang, Muhammed (2013). ["A Study of Derivational Morphemes in Lari & Tati as Two Endangered Iranian Languages: An Analytical Contrastive Examination with Persian"](https://www.jofamericanscience.org/journals/am-sci/am0911s/008_21547am0911s_38_45.pdf) (PDF). *Journal of American Science*. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1545-1003](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1545-1003). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20241130234815/https://www.jofamericanscience.org/journals/am-sci/am0911s/008_21547am0911s_38_45.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2024-11-30. Retrieved 2024-11-28. Lari is of the SW branch of Middle Iranian languages, Pahlavi, in the Middle period of Persian Language Evolution and consists of nine dialects, which are prominently different in pronunciation (Geravand, 2010). Being a branch of Pahlavi language, Lari has several common features with it as its mother language. The ergative structure (the difference between the conjugation of transitive and intransitive verbs) existing in Lari can be mentioned as such an example. The speech community of this language includes Fars province, Hormozgan province and some of the Arabic-speaking countries like the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, and Oman (Khonji, 2010, p. 15).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:1_31-0)** ["ICEHM: International Centre of Economics, Humanities and Management"](https://web.archive.org/web/20210429055708/http://icehm.org/siteadmin/upload/4853ED0115115.pdf) (PDF). *icehm.org*. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.15242/icehm.ed0115115](https://doi.org/10.15242%2Ficehm.ed0115115). Archived from [the original](http://icehm.org/siteadmin/upload/4853ED0115115.pdf) (PDF) on 2021-04-29. Retrieved 2020-12-10.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-nesreen_32-0)** گويش مردم اوز. نسرين انصاف پور و محمد رفيع ضيايى 1396

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:35_33-0)** Wikipedia, Source (2013). [*Southwestern Iranian Languages: Persian Dialects and Varieties, Persian Language, Tajik Language, Dari, Persianate Society, Tajik Alphabet, Old Persia*](https://books.google.com/books?id=eLL6nQEACAAJ). General Books. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781230641287](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781230641287).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:22_34-0)** Moridi, Behzad (2009). ["The Dialects of Lar (The State of Research)"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/25703812). *Iran & the Caucasus*. **13** (2): 335–340. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1163/157338410X12625876281389](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F157338410X12625876281389). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1609-8498](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1609-8498). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [25703812](https://www.jstor.org/stable/25703812). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220103155930/https://www.jstor.org/stable/25703812) from the original on 2022-01-03. Retrieved 2020-12-10.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-The_Sarmatians,_600_BC-AD_450_35-0)** Brzezinski, Richard; Mielczarek, Mariusz (2002). *The Sarmatians, 600 BC-AD 450*. Osprey Publishing. p. 39. (..) Indeed, it is now accepted that the Sarmatians merged in with pre-Slavic populations.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Taylor_&_Francis_36-0)** Adams, Douglas Q. (1997). *Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture*. Taylor & Francis. p. 523. (..) In their Ukrainian and Polish homeland the Slavs were intermixed and at times overlain by Germanic speakers (the Goths) and by Iranian speakers (Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans) in a shifting array of tribal and national configurations.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** [Atkinson, Dorothy](/source/Dorothy_Atkinson_(historian)); et al. (1977). [*Women in Russia*](https://archive.org/details/womeninrussia0000unse/page/3). Stanford University Press. p. [3](https://archive.org/details/womeninrussia0000unse/page/3). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780804709101](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780804709101). (..) Ancient accounts link the Amazons with the Scythians and the Sarmatians, who successively dominated the south of Russia for a millennium extending back to the seventh century B.C. The descendants of these peoples were absorbed by the Slavs who came to be known as Russians.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Slovene_Studies_38-0)** *Slovene Studies*. Vol. 9–11. Society for Slovene Studies. 1987. p. 36. (..) For example, the ancient Scythians, Sarmatians (amongst others), and many other attested but now extinct peoples were assimilated in the course of history by Proto-Slavs.

## Bibliography

- [Bailey, H. W.](/source/Bailey%2C_H._W.) (1979). *Dictionary of Khotan Saka*. Cambridge University Press. 1979. 1st Paperback edition 2010. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-14250-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-14250-2).

- Schmitt, Rüdiger, ed. (1989). *Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum* (in German). Wiesbaden: Reichert. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-88226-413-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-88226-413-5).

- Sims-Williams, Nicholas (1996). "Iranian languages". *Encyclopedia Iranica*. Vol. 7. Costa Mesa: Mazda. pp. 238–245.

- Yarshater, Ehsan, ed. (1996). ["Iran"](http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran). *Encyclopedia Iranica*. Vol. 7. Costa Mesa: Mazda.

- Frye, Richard N. (1996). ["Peoples of Iran"](http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-v1-peoples-survey). *Encyclopedia Iranica*. Vol. 7. Costa Mesa: Mazda.

- Windfuhr, Gernot L. (1995). ["Cases in Iranian languages and dialects"](http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vii1-non-iranian-languages-overview-). *Encyclopedia Iranica*. Vol. 5. Costa Mesa: Mazda. pp. 25–37.

- Windfuhr, Gernot (2012). [*The Iranian languages*](http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780700711314/). Routledge Taylor and Francis Group.

- Lazard, Gilbert (1996). ["Dari"](http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/dari). *Encyclopedia Iranica*. Vol. 7. Costa Mesa: Mazda.

- Henning, Walter B. (1954). ["The Ancient language of Azarbaijan"](http://www.azargoshnasp.net/languages/Azari/henningazari/henningazari.htm). *Transactions of the Philological Society*. **53** (1): 157–177. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1467-968X.1954.tb00282.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-968X.1954.tb00282.x).[*[dead link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot)*]

- Rezakhani, Khodadad (2001). ["The Iranian Language Family"](https://web.archive.org/web/20041009124244/http://www.iranologie.com/history/ilf.html). Archived from [the original](http://www.iranologie.com/history/ilf.html) on 2004-10-09.

- Skjærvø, Prods Oktor (2006). ["Iran, vi. Iranian languages and scripts"](http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi-iranian-languages-and-scripts). *[Encyclopædia Iranica](/source/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Iranica)*. Vol. 13.

- Delshad, Farshid (2010). [*Georgica et Irano-Semitica*](http://www.db-thueringen.de/servlets/DerivateServlet/Derivate-3610/Diss.pdf) (PDF). [Ars Poetica](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ars_Poetica_(series)&action=edit&redlink=1). [Deutscher Wissenschaftsverlag DWV](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deutscher_Wissenschaftsverlag_DWV&action=edit&redlink=1). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-86888-004-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-86888-004-5).

- Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (2006). *The Oxford introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European world*. Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-929668-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-929668-2).

- Toroghdar, Zia (2018). "From Astara to Fuman: Comparison words from dialects of different languages Talysh and Tatic". *Farhang-e Ilia*. pp. 38–172.

## Further reading

- Sokolova, V. S. "New information on the phonetics of Iranic languages." Trudy Instituta jazykoznanija NN SSR (Moskva) 1 (1952): 178–192.

- Jügel, Thomas. "[Word-order variation in Middle Iranic: Persian, Parthian, Bactrian, and Sogdian](https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=Q0R6EAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA39&dq=Iranic&ots=TXzYBfFe3F&sig=VYhp0bLQhXlPwdWCToKSb1eGEqA&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Iranic&f=false)." Word order variation: Semitic, Turkic, and Indo-European languages in contact, Studia Typologica [STTYP] 31 (2022): 39–62.

## External links

- [Areal developments in the history of Iranic: West vs. East](https://ia801207.us.archive.org/15/items/dokumen.tips_areal-developments-in-the-history-of-iranic-west-vs-east/dokumen.tips_areal-developments-in-the-history-of-iranic-west-vs-east.pdf) Martin Kummel, Department of Indo-European linguistics, [University of Jena](/source/University_of_Jena)

- [Society for Iranian Linguistics](https://web.archive.org/web/20110123210035/http://www.iranianlinguistics.org/)

- [Kurdish and other Iranic Languages](http://www.kurdishacademy.org/?q=node/153)

- [Iranian EFL Journal](http://www.iranian-efl-journal.com) ([Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190122021909/http://www.iranian-efl-journal.com/) 2019-01-22 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine))

- [Iranian language tree](http://www.bues.ru/iranskie_yaziki/) in Russian, identical with above classification.

- [Old Iranian Online](https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/aveol) by Scott L. Harvey and Jonathan Slocum, free online lessons at the [Linguistics Research Center](https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/lrc) at the [University of Texas at Austin](/source/University_of_Texas_at_Austin)

v t e Indo-European languages (list) Albanoid Albanian Messapic Dardanian? Illyrian? Anatolian Hittite Lydian Palaic Luwic Carian Luwian Lycian Milyan Pisidian Sidetic Kalasmaic? Balto-Slavic Baltic Dnieper-Oka Golyad East Baltic West Baltic Slavic East Slavic South Slavic West Slavic Celtic Hispano-Celtic Celtiberian Gallaecian Continental Celtic Insular Celtic Germanic East Germanic North Germanic West Germanic Hellenic Ancient Macedonian Greek Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Nuristani Badeshi (unclassified) Italic Latino-Faliscan Romance Osco-Umbrian Siculian Belgic? Tocharian Tocharian A Tocharian B Tocharian C Others Armenian Unclassified Dacian Dardanian Elymian Getaean Liburnian Ligurian Lusitanian Moesian Mysian Paeonian Phrygian Thracian Venetic Wusun Philistine? Sorothaptic? Proto-languages Proto-Indo-European Proto-Albanian Proto-Anatolian Proto-Armenian Proto-Balto-Slavic Proto-Baltic Proto-Slavic Proto-Celtic Proto-Germanic Proto-Norse Proto-Hellenic Proto-Indo-Iranian Proto-Indo-Aryan Proto-Iranian Proto-Nuristani Proto-Italic Proto-Romance Proto-Tocharian Italics indicate extinct languages

v t e Iranian languages History Proto-Iranian Old Iranian Middle Iranian New Iranian Eastern Pamir Ishkashimi Khufi Munji Rushani Sanglechi Sarghulami Shughni Bartangi Khufi Oroshori Sarikoli Vanji Wakhi Yazghulami Yidgha Scythian/Northern Eastern Khwarezmian Saka Wakhi Sogdian Yaghnobi Western Alanic Ossetian Digor Iron Jassic Cimmerian Pontic Scythian Others Bactrian Parachi Pashto Central Northern Southern Wanetsi Ormuri Western North Adharic Old Adhari † Gorani Gurani Shabaki Tatic Talysh Alviri-Vidari Ashtiani Eshtehardi Daylami † (South Alborz Gozarkhani Harzandi Kabatei Kajali Karan Karingani Kilit † Kho'ini Koresh-e Rostam Maraghei Razajerdi Shahrudi Takestani Upper Taromi Vafsi Zaza Southern Zaza Northern Zaza Balochic Southern-Western Balochi Makrani Koroshi Rakhshani Eastern Balochi Caspian Gorgani † Gilaki Western Gilaki Eastern Gilaki Galeshi Mazandarani-Shahmirzadi Central Iran Kermanic Kavir Nuclear Central-Kermanic Gazi Judeo-Esfahani Judeo-Hamedani-Borujerdi Judeo-Kermani Natanzi Khunsari Nayini Sivandi Soi Abuzaydabadi Judeo-Kashani Zoroastrian Yazdi Komisenian-Semnani Komisenian Sangisari Lasgerdi Sorkhei Aftari Semnani Biyabuneki) Laki-Kurdish Kurdish Central Kurdish Northern Kurdish Southern Kurdish Laki South Farsic-Caucasian Tatic Caucasian Tat Judeo-Tat Armeno-Tat Farsic Eastern Farsic Aimaq Dari Dehwari Hazaragi Pahlavani Tajik Bukharian Western Farsic Persian Old Persian † Middle Persian † Sistani Iranian Basseri Esfahani Kermanshahi Khorasani Kuwaiti Tehrani Judeo-Persian Pahlavani Khuzestani Persian Fars dialects Judeo-Shirazi Davani Luric-Dezfulic Luri Bakhtiari Northern Luri Southern Luri Mamasani Dezfuli–Shushtari Dezfuli Shushtari Old Kazeruni † Others Bashkardi Garmsiri Khargi Kumzari Larestani (Achomi) Others Avestan Badeshi (unclassified) † indicate extinct or historical languages. Languages between parentheses are varieties of the language on their left.

v t e Iranian peoples Ethnic groups Achomis Aimaqs Balochs Baloch tribes Bashkardis Dehwaris Farsiwan Gilaks Kumzaris Kurds Kurdish tribes Yazidis Lurs Bakhtiaris Shehnis Feyli Lurs Hadavand Southern Lurs Mamasanis Mazanderanis Ossetians Asuds Digors Irons Kudars Jaszs Pamiris Chinese Tajiks Shughnis Badzhuis Oroshoris Wakhis Yidgha–Munji Pashtuns Pashtun tribes Persians Banderis Basseries Sistanis Semnanis Shabaks Tajiks Talyshs Tats of the Caucasus Tats of Iran Yaghnobis Zazas Related ethnic groups Ajam of Bahrain 'Ajam of Kuwait Iranians in the United Arab Emirates Iranians in Qatar Armeno-Tats Bukharan Jews Hazaras Persian Jews Shihuh Ancient peoples Ancient Iranian peoples Arya Origin Indo-Iranians Proto-Indo-Europeans Languages Iranian languages Iranian religions Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism Ancient Iranian religion Assianism Bábism Baháʼí Faith Khurramites Manichaeism Mazdakism Mazdaznan Scythian Yarsanism Yazidism Zoroastrianism

v t e Persian language History Proto-Indo-European (c. 3000 BCE) Proto-Indo-Iranian (c. 2000 BCE) Proto-Iranian (c. 1500 BCE) Old Persian (c. 525–300 BCE) Middle Persian (c. 300 BCE – 800 CE) New Persian (from 800) Language families Indo-Iranian languages Iranian languages Western Iranian languages Dialects and varieties Standard Persian Iranian Afghan Tajik Hazaragi Aimaq Kuwaiti Persian Tat Judeo-Persian Judeo-Tat (Juhuri) Bukhori Sistani Dehwari Language features Vocabulary Nouns Verbs Phonology Grammar Persian grammar Ezāfe Tajik grammar Writing system Old Persian cuneiform Pahlavi scripts Persian alphabet Persian calligraphy Tajik alphabet Romanized Persian alphabet Persian Braille Literature Persian literature Middle Persian literature Tajik literature Organizations Academy of Persian Language and Literature Academy of Sciences of Afghanistan Rudaki Institute of Language and Literature Other topics List of English words of Persian origin List of French loanwords in Persian List of countries and territories where Persian is an official language Persian language in South Asia

Authority control databases International GND National United States France BnF data Czech Republic Latvia Israel Other Yale LUX

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