# Intersectionality

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Theory of discrimination

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An intersectional analysis considers a collection of factors that affect a social individual in combination, rather than considering each factor in isolation, as illustrated here using a [Venn diagram](/source/Venn_diagram).

**Intersectionality** is an [analytical framework](/source/Analytic_frame) for understanding how groups' and individuals' [social and political identities](/source/Social_identity) result in unique combinations of [discrimination](/source/Discrimination) and [privilege](/source/Social_privilege). Examples of these intersecting and overlapping factors include [gender](/source/Gender), [caste](/source/Caste), [sex](/source/Sex), [race](/source/Race_(human_categorization)), [ethnicity](/source/Ethnicity), [class](/source/Social_class), [sexuality](/source/Sexuality), [religion](/source/Religion), [disability](/source/Disability), [physical appearance](/source/Physical_appearance), and [age](/source/Ageing).[1] These factors can lead to both [empowerment](/source/Empowerment) and [oppression](/source/Oppression).[2][3]

Intersectionality arose in reaction to both [white feminism](/source/White_feminism) and the then male-dominated [Black liberation](/source/Black_liberation) movement, citing the "interlocking oppressions" of [racism](/source/Racism), [sexism](/source/Sexism), and [heteronormativity](/source/Heteronormativity). It broadens the scope of the [first](/source/First-wave_feminism) and [second](/source/Second-wave_feminism) [waves of feminism](/source/Waves_of_feminism), which largely focused on the experiences of women who were [white](/source/White_women), [cisgender](/source/Cisgender), and [middle-class](/source/Middle-class),[4] to include the different experiences of [women of color](/source/Women_of_color), [poor women](/source/Poverty_and_gender), [immigrant women](/source/Immigrant_women), and other groups, and aims to separate itself from white feminism by acknowledging women's differing experiences and identities.[5]

The term *intersectionality* was coined by [Kimberlé Crenshaw](/source/Kimberl%C3%A9_Crenshaw) in 1989.[6]: 385 She describes how interlocking systems of [power](/source/Power_(social_and_political)) affect those who are most [marginalized in society](/source/Social_exclusion).[6] Activists and academics use the framework to promote [social](/source/Social_equity) and [political egalitarianism](/source/Political_egalitarianism).[5] Intersectionality opposes analytical systems that treat each axis of oppression in isolation. In this framework, for instance, discrimination against [Black women](/source/Black_women) cannot be explained as a simple combination of [misogyny](/source/Misogyny) and [racism](/source/Racism), but as something more complicated.[7] While many readers understand intersectionality as the overlapping of multiple social identities (e.g., race, gender, and class), the original intent was to provide an internal framework for analyzing systems of oppression and privilege that interlock, and to support putting theory into practice for social justice rather than simply cataloguing individual identities.[8]

Intersectionality has heavily influenced modern feminism and gender studies.[9] Its proponents suggest that it promotes a more nuanced and complex approach to addressing power and oppression, rather than offering simplistic answers.[10][9] Its critics suggest that the concept is too broad or complex,[11] tends to reduce individuals to specific demographic factors,[11][12] is used as an ideological tool,[13][12] and is difficult to apply in research contexts.[14][15][16] Scholars of postcolonial and transnational feminist studies have also debated the global application of intersectionality.[17]

## Key concepts

### Interlocking matrix of oppression

[Patricia Hill Collins](/source/Patricia_Hill_Collins), author of *Intersectionality as Critical Social Theory* (2019),[18] refers to the various intersections of social inequality as "vectors of oppression and privilege" that together form a [matrix of domination](/source/Matrix_of_domination). These concepts describe how people's experiences of privilege and marginalization are shaped not just by individual differences in isolation (e.g., sexual orientation, class, race, age, etc.), but also by the effect of overlaps and interactions between these differences. The impact of a particular factor, such as race, can vary based on the presence or absence of other factors, such as gender or class.[19]: 204

### Multiple discrimination

Intersectionality at a Dyke March in Hamburg, Germany, 2020

In the [European Union](/source/European_Union) (EU) and UK, "multiple discrimination" refers to discrimination which encompasses more than one social classification (e.g., gender, race, class, religion, sexuality, etc.). These categories, which were previously considered in isolation as defining in their own right, are now increasingly approached as different facets of a person's identity, considered as a multidimensional whole.[20]

### Standpoint theory

[Standpoint theory](/source/Standpoint_theory) has been described by Patricia Collins and [Dorothy E. Smith](/source/Dorothy_E._Smith). A standpoint is an individual's world perspective. Standpoint theory suggests that societal knowledge is subjective, being situated within an individual's specific geographic location and the social conditions under which it was produced.[21]: 392

## History

External videos Women of the World Festival 2016 Kimberlé Crenshaw – On Intersectionality via Southbank Centre on YouTube[22]

[Black feminist](/source/Black_feminist) scholar [Kimberlé Crenshaw](/source/Kimberl%C3%A9_Crenshaw) introduced the concept of intersectionality in a pair of essays published in 1989 and 1991 in the field of legal studies.[23][24][25][6] Intersectionality originated in [critical race studies](/source/Critical_race_studies) and considers the way different forms of oppression (such as racism, sexism, [classism](/source/Classism), [homophobia](/source/Homophobia), and so on) can combine and interact to produce multifaceted systems of oppression and privilege that shape the experiences of individuals. Crenshaw used intersectionality to demonstrate how these intersecting systems of oppression disadvantaged minorities in the workplace and society.[24][26]

Although Crenshaw introduced the term Intersectionality in 1989, recent scholars emphasize that intersectionality is not a static framework but one that has continued to evolve both before and after its namesake. In a 2023 review of the concept's development, T. Batista argued that intersectionality has undergone significant reinterpretation over time as researchers apply it across new geopolitical, legal, and social contexts. The article notes that while Crenshaw's original formulation emerged from Black feminist legal theory to illustrate how racism and sexism operate simultaneously, contemporary scholars increasingly stress the need to maintain a focus on structures of power rather than reducing the concept to overlapping identities.[27] This ongoing academic debate highlights both the durability of Crenshaw's foundational insights and the expanding range of issues to which intersectionality is now applied.[27]

### Precursors to intersectionality

The historical exclusion of Black women from the feminist movement in the United States resulted in many Black 19th- and 20th-century feminists—including [Sojourner Truth](/source/Sojourner_Truth), [Anna J. Cooper](/source/Anna_J._Cooper), [Maria W. Stewart](/source/Maria_W._Stewart), [Ida B. Wells](/source/Ida_B._Wells), and others—challenging their historical exclusion from earlier feminist movements, which were primarily led by white middle-class women who suggested that women were a homogeneous category who shared the same life experiences.[28][6][29]

In her 1851 "[Ain't I a Woman?](/source/Ain't_I_a_Woman%3F)" speech, Sojourner Truth spoke from her racialized position as a formerly enslaved woman to critique essentialist notions of [femininity](/source/Femininity).[30] She highlighted the differences between the treatment of white and Black women in society, saying that white women were often regarded as emotional and delicate, while Black women were stereotyped as brutish and subjected to both gendered and racialized abuse. These observations were largely dismissed by many white feminists of the time, who prioritized the suffrage movement over addressing the intersecting oppressions faced by Black women.[31]

Early writers and intellectuals such as Cooper, Stewart, Wells, [Stuart Hall](/source/Stuart_Hall_(cultural_theorist)), and Nira Yuval-Davis also emphasized the interconnected nature of racial and gender oppressions, prefiguring intersectionality.[6][29] In her 1892 essay titled "The Colored Woman's Office", Cooper identified Black women as crucial agents of social change, emphasizing their unique understanding of multiple forms of oppression.[32][6] In her book *A Voice from the South* (1892), Cooper emphasized the importance of considering the "whole race" by focusing on the lived experiences of Black women. Cooper said that their oppression was just not racial or gender-based but a complex combination of the two.[33][6]

[W. E. B. Du Bois](/source/W._E._B._Du_Bois) theorized that the intersectional paradigms of race, class, and nation might explain specific aspects of the Black [political economy](/source/Political_economy). [Patricia Hill Collins](/source/Patricia_Hill_Collins) writes: "Du Bois saw race, class, and nation not primarily as personal identity categories but as social hierarchies that shaped African-American access to status, poverty, and power."[34] Du Bois nevertheless omitted gender from his theory and considered it more of a personal identity category.[6] In 1947, [Pauli Murray](/source/Pauli_Murray) used the phrase "Jane Crow" to describe the compounded challenges faced by Black women in the [Jim Crow South](/source/Jim_Crow_South).[35]

### Second wave feminism

[Patricia Hill Collins](/source/Patricia_Hill_Collins) describes the many proponents of Black, [Asian American](/source/Asian_American_feminism), Latina, [Indigenous](/source/Indigenous_feminism), and [Chicana feminism](/source/Chicana_feminism) active in North America between the 1960s and 1980s as instrumental in the development of intersectionality.[29] In the 1970s and 1980s, a number of non-Western feminists of color also articulated ideas similar to intersectionality, such as [Awa Thiam](/source/Awa_Thiam), [Chandra Talpade Mohanty](/source/Chandra_Talpade_Mohanty), [Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak](/source/Gayatri_Chakravorty_Spivak), [Chela Sandoval](/source/Chela_Sandoval), and others.[36]

In 1974, a group of Black feminists organized the [Combahee River Collective](/source/Combahee_River_Collective) in [Boston, Massachusetts](/source/Boston%2C_Massachusetts), in response to what they felt was an alienation from both white feminism and the male-dominated [Black liberation movement](/source/Black_liberation_movement), citing the "interlocking oppressions" of racism, sexism and [heteronormativity](/source/Heteronormativity).[37] The collective developed the concept of "simultaneity": the simultaneous influences of race, class, gender, and sexuality, which informed the members' lives and their resistance to oppression.[38][39] The Combahee River Collective advanced an understanding of African-American experiences that challenged analyses emerging from Black and male-centered social movements, as well as those from mainstream cisgender, white, middle-class, heterosexual feminists.[40]

In *[DeGraffenreid v. General Motors](/source/DeGraffenreid_v._General_Motors)* (1976), Emma DeGraffenreid and four other Black female auto workers alleged compound [employment discrimination](/source/Employment_discrimination) as Black women resulting from [General Motors](/source/General_Motors)' seniority-based system of layoffs. The courts weighed the allegations of race and gender discrimination separately, finding that the employment of African-American men in the factory disproved racial discrimination, and the employment of white women in the offices disproved [gender discrimination](/source/Gender_discrimination). The court declined to consider compound discrimination, and dismissed the case.[41][42] Crenshaw said that in cases such as this, the courts have tended to ignore Black women's unique experiences by treating them as *only* women or *only* Black.[12][25]: 141–143

In 1978, [Senegalese](/source/Senegal) writer Awa Thiam wrote of the "threefold oppression" of racism, sexism, and class oppression which impacted African women:[36]

The Black woman of Africa suffers threefold oppression: by virtue of her sex, she is dominated by man in a patriarchal society; by virtue of her class she is at the mercy of capitalist exploitation; by virtue of her race she suffers from the appropriation of her country by colonial or neo-colonial powers. Sexism, racism, class division; three plagues.[36]

By the 1980s, as [second-wave feminism](/source/Second-wave_feminism) began to recede, scholars of color including [Audre Lorde](/source/Audre_Lorde), [Gloria E. Anzaldúa](/source/Gloria_E._Anzald%C3%BAa) and [Angela Davis](/source/Angela_Davis) brought their lived experiences into academic discussion, shaping what would become known as "intersectionality" within race, class, and gender studies in U.S. academia.[29][43] Scholar [bell hooks](/source/Bell_hooks), in her groundbreaking work *[Ain't I a Woman? Black Women and Feminism](/source/Ain't_I_a_Woman%3F_(book))* (1981), described the exclusion of Black women's experiences from mainstream feminist narratives and underscored the importance of addressing race, gender, and class as intersecting systems of oppression.[44] For hooks, the emergence of intersectionality "challenged the notion that 'gender' was the primary factor determining a woman's fate".[45] Inspired by Lorde, [Afro-German](/source/Afro-German) women also began to explore issues of overlapping oppression in Germany.[46]

Also in 1981, [Cherríe Moraga](/source/Cherr%C3%ADe_Moraga) and [Gloria Anzaldúa](/source/Gloria_Anzald%C3%BAa) published *[This Bridge Called My Back](/source/This_Bridge_Called_My_Back): Writings by Radical Women of Color*, an anthology centering the experiences of women of color, which challenges [white feminists](/source/White_feminist) who made claims to solidarity based on [sisterhood](/source/Sisterhood_Is_Powerful), calling for greater recognition of their multiple identities.[47] Among other things, works in the anthology call for greater attention to race-related subjectivities in feminism, and ultimately laid the foundation for [third wave feminism](/source/Third_wave_feminism).[48]

In 1988, Deborah K. King published the article "Multiple Jeopardy, Multiple Consciousness: The Context of a Black Feminist Ideology". In it, King addresses what soon became the foundation for intersectionality, saying, "Black women have long recognized the special circumstances of our lives in the United States: the commonalities that we share with all women, as well as the bonds that connect us to the men of our race".[49]

### *Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex*

In 1989, [Kimberlé Crenshaw](/source/Kimberl%C3%A9_Crenshaw) coined the term *intersectionality* as a way to help explain the oppression of [African-American women](/source/African-American_women) in her essay *Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Anti-discrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics*.[6][25] Crenshaw's term has risen to the forefront of national conversations about racial justice, [identity politics](/source/Identity_politics), and policing—and over the years has helped shape legal discussions.[50][42] In her work, Crenshaw discusses [Black feminism](/source/Black_feminism), arguing that the experience of being a Black woman cannot be understood in terms independent of either being Black or a woman. Rather, it must include interactions between the two identities, which, she adds, should frequently reinforce one another.[51]

In order to demonstrate that women of color have different experiences from white women, Crenshaw explores [domestic violence](/source/Domestic_violence) and [rape](/source/Rape) committed by men, which for women of color consist of a combination of both racism and sexism. She says that because the discourses designed to address either race or sex do not consider both at the same time, women of color are marginalized within both of them as a result.[24] The chapter "*Sexualities, social justice, and sexual justice*" by Jeff Hearn, Sofia Aboim and Tamara Shefer[52] also directly connects to Crenshaw's concept of intersectionality. It is explained how Crenshaw argues that systems of power constantly ignore the way race and gender intersect. This produces unique forms of marginalization for women of colour. Similarly, the passage also critiques global sexual justice efforts for reproducing racialize and gendered hierarchies, specifically when [Global Northern](/source/Global_North) actors frame poor, Black women living in the [Global South](/source/Global_South) as "helpless victims". Both cases touch upon how marginalized groups are spoken *about*, rather than *with*.

Crenshaw also delves into several legal cases that exhibit the concept of political intersectionality and how anti-discrimination law has been historically limited, such as *[DeGraffenreid v. General Motors](/source/DeGraffenreid_v._General_Motors)*, *Moore v Hughes Helicopter Inc.*, and *Payne v Travenol*. There are two commonalities, amongst others, between these cases: firstly, each respective court's inability to fully understand the multidimensionality of the plaintiff's intersecting identities, and the limited ability that the plaintiffs had to argue their case due to restrictions created by the very legislation that exists in opposition to discrimination, such as [Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964](/source/Title_VII_of_the_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964).[25]

## Development

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The concept of[53] intersectionality was intended to illuminate dynamics that have often been overlooked by feminist theory and movements.[54][55][56] Racial inequality was largely ignored by first-wave feminism, which was primarily concerned with achieving political equality between white men and white women,[57]: 59–60 and second-wave feminism, which sought to dismantle sexism relating to the perceived domestic purpose of women.[58] [Third-wave feminism](/source/Third-wave_feminism)—which emerged shortly after the term *intersectionality* was coined—attempted to address the lack of attention given to race, class, sexual orientation, and gender identity in early feminist movements.[57]: 72–73

The term became more widely used in the 1990s, particularly following further development of Crenshaw's work by sociologist [Patricia Hill Collins](/source/Patricia_Hill_Collins). Collins says Crenshaw's term replaced her own previous coinage "Black feminist thought", and "increased the general applicability of her theory from African American women to all women".[59]: 61 Collins sought to create frameworks to think about intersectionality, rather than expanding on the theory itself. She identified three main branches of study within intersectionality: one dealing with the background, ideas, issues, conflicts, and debates within intersectionality; another that seeks to apply intersectionality as an analytical strategy to examine how various [social institutions](/source/Social_institutions) might perpetuate social inequality; and one that uses intersectionality to bring social change through [social justice](/source/Social_justice) initiatives.[29][60][61]

Though intersectionality began with the exploration of the interplay between sexist and racist oppression, with classist and homophobic/biphobic oppression sometimes included, the theory has since expanded to cover other forms of oppression.[62] Additionally, intersectionality has been used to address the differences between women of color even regarding shared experiences such as racism. For example, [Asian American](/source/Asian_American) women have reported intersectional experiences that set them apart from other women of color as well as Asian men.[63] [Gloria Wekker](/source/Gloria_Wekker) says the Chicana feminist work of Gloria E. Anzaldúa is important because "existent categories for identity are strikingly not dealt with in separate or mutually exclusive terms, but are always referred to in relation to one another".[43]

### Caste

In South Asia, [Dalit](/source/Dalit) feminists have drawn on intersectional analysis to emphasize the compounded marginalization faced by Dalit women, who experience both caste-based and gender-based discrimination. Scholars such as [Thenmozhi Soundararajan](/source/Thenmozhi_Soundararajan) argue in their works like *The Trauma of Caste* that mainstream feminist frameworks often neglect these intersecting oppressions, calling for a more nuanced analysis that recognizes caste as a central axis of inequality.[64]

### Class

Collins has used a [Marxist feminist](/source/Marxist_feminist) approach to apply intersectional principles to study Black women's poverty and what she calls the "work/family nexus". In her 2000 article "Black Political Economy", she suggests the intersections of [consumer racism](/source/Consumer_racism), gender hierarchies, and disadvantages in the labor market can be centered on Black women's unique experiences—such as the suppression of Black women's economic mobility due to inheritance and [anti-miscegenation laws](/source/Anti-miscegenation_laws).[65][66]: 506 [Chiara Bottici](/source/Chiara_Bottici) has also incorporated elements of [anarcha-feminism](/source/Anarcha-feminism) to counter criticisms that intersectionality is incomplete or fails to recognize the specificity of women's oppression, saying "that there is something *specific* about the oppression of women and that in order to fight it you have to fight *all* other forms of oppression."[67]

### Colonialism

In Latin America, [Maria Lugones](/source/Maria_Lugones) introduced the concept of the "coloniality of gender" to explore how colonial histories intersect across race, gender, and class, creating unique forms of oppression for Indigenous and Afro-descendant women. Her work reveals the imposition of Eurocentric gender norms during colonial rule, which marginalized non-Western gender identities and social structures.[68] [Mara Viveros Vigoya](/source/Mara_Viveros_Vigoya) also provides a Latin American perspective which considers the need to address colonialism as part of an intersectional approach.[69]

## Forms

In "Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence Against Women of Color", Kimberlé Crenshaw outlines three forms of intersectionality to describe the violence women experience: structural, political, and representational.[24] These frameworks are still used today.[70][26]

### Structural intersectionality

Structural intersectionality considers how people are marginalized by the combined effects of different overlapping and reinforcing forms of systemic, institutional, and structural inequality.[70][71][26]: 797[24]: 1245 Crenshaw uses this approach to analyze the structural classism, racism, and sexism that combine to make women of color more vulnerable to domestic violence and rape, as well as how a failure to recognise the overlapping of these structures has resulted in inadequate interventions for such women.[72][26]: 797

In 2020, Alesha Durfee used the structural intersectional approach to examine the inability of "multiply marginalized" people, such as women of color, to file for, obtain, serve, and enforce protective orders in domestic violence situations, and suggested that the systems in place replicated wider social inequalities. Durfee said the basis for such inequalities was "policies and procedures based on inappropriate assumptions about individuals" that do not account for the complexity of their lived experiences.[73] In 2021, a group of researchers using a structural intersectional approach found that the impact of overlapping structural racism, sexism, and income inequality in U.S. healthcare varied considerably across the country but was most consistently associated with poor health in Black women.[71]

### Political intersectionality

Political intersectionality considers how activist or political movements can marginalize people with multiple intersecting identities by focusing on "allegedly universal, single-axis approaches" which either exclude them or else ignore or downplay the complexities of their experiences.[26]: 800[70] Black feminists such as Crenshaw and Deborah K. King have used political intersectionality to explore the separation of race- and gender-based discourse within the anti-racist and feminist movements, which requires women of color to prioritise their interests as either "people of color" or "women", rather than reflecting that they are both.[24][49] This framework has since been applied to consider other intersections, such as class, sexuality, and disability.[72][70]

Sameena Azhar et al. have argued that [Asian Americans](/source/Asian_American) are subject to myths that they "do not experience racialized, sexualized, and gendered [microaggressions](/source/Microaggressions)". They suggest these attitudes serve to socially and politically delegitimize Asian Americans' experiences of racism. They suggest that stereotypes of Asian Americans that frame their sexuality "in ways that maintain the social and political dominance of white men" affect Asian American men and women differently. For example, Asian American women were often perceived as romantically desirable and overly sexualized, while their male counterparts were perceived as asexual.[74][61]

### Representational intersectionality

Representational intersectionality is the study of how intersecting identities (e.g., race, gender, class, sexuality) are depicted in cultural narratives and media, and how this creates or reinforces overlapping forms of marginalization.[70] Crenshaw used this framework to analyze how stereotypical portrayals of women of color in popular culture often perpetuate harm against them.[24] Subsequent analysis of representation in popular culture has also used an international approach.[75][76]

Analyzing film and television, [bell hooks](/source/Bell_hooks) suggests women of color are frequently portrayed as hyper-sexualized, "sassy", or docile tropes—such as the "fiery Latina', "submissive Asian", "[angry Black woman](/source/Angry_Black_woman)"— which erase the full complexity of their intersecting identities, perpetuate oppressive societal attitudes and norms (such as sexism, racism, and classism), and even lead to violence against women of color.[75] According to Mari J. Matsuda and others, these tropes also appear in advertising and marketing campaigns, which often portray women of color in "exotic" or "hyper-feminine" terms and thereby reinforce stereotypes of them as commodities or objects of consumption.[76][*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]

In their analysis of news media, including over two million articles published by [Fox News](/source/Fox_News) and *[The New York Times](/source/The_New_York_Times)* between 2000–2022, Elliot Ash and others found that news stories involving [women of color](/source/Women_of_color), [LGBTQ](/source/LGBTQ)+ people, and other minority groups often used sensational or stereotypical lenses, ignoring socioeconomic contexts or broader [structural inequalities](/source/Structural_inequalities), and effectively "flattening" the narrative of complex identities. They especially noted tropes of criminality, cleanliness, and invasion about immigrants, single parents, and [trans](/source/Transgender) people, which they found had shaped broader perceptions of marginalized communities.[77] In the context of [domestic violence](/source/Domestic_violence), Timothy Laurie and Hannah Stark also observe disparities in representations of victims and offenders: "[cisgendered](/source/Cisgendered), white, middle-class women are most often regarded as victims responding to an oppressive gender order, and [women of colour](/source/Women_of_colour), Indigenous women, and working-class women are more likely to be regarded as potential criminals."[78]

### Other forms

#### Strategic intersectionality

This section relies largely or entirely on a single source. Please help improve this article by citing more sources. Find sources: "Intersectionality" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2025)

Marie-Claire Belleau has called for "strategic intersectionality" in order to foster cooperation between feminisms of different ethnicities.[79]: 51 She refers to different *nat-cult* (national-cultural) groups that produce different types of feminisms. Using the [Québécois](/source/Culture_of_Quebec) nat-cult as an example, Belleau says that many nat-cult groups contain infinite sub-identities within themselves, saying that there are endless ways in which different feminisms can cooperate by using strategic intersectionality, and that these partnerships can help bridge gaps between "dominant and marginal" groups.[79]: 54 Belleau argues that, through strategic intersectionality, differences between nat-cult feminisms are neither essentialist nor universal, but should be understood as resulting from socio-cultural contexts. Furthermore, the performances of these nat-cult feminisms are also not essentialist. Instead, they are strategies.[79]

#### Transnational intersectionality

[Postcolonial feminists](/source/Postcolonial_feminists) and [transnational feminists](/source/Transnational_feminism) have criticized intersectionality as a concept emanating from WEIRD (Western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic)[80] societies that unduly universalizes women's experiences.[81][82] Postcolonial feminists have worked to revise Western conceptualizations of intersectionality that assume all women experience the same type of gender and racial oppression.[81][83] [Shelly Grabe](/source/Shelly_Grabe) coined the term *transnational intersectionality* to represent a more comprehensive conceptualization of intersectionality. Grabe wrote, "Transnational intersectionality places importance on the intersections among gender, ethnicity, sexuality, economic exploitation, and other social hierarchies in the context of empire building or imperialist policies characterized by historical and emergent [global capitalism](/source/Global_capitalism)."[84]

Both Postcolonial and transnational feminists advocate attending to "complex and intersecting oppressions and multiple forms of resistance".[81][83] Vrushali Patil argues that intersectionality ought to recognize transborder constructions of racial and cultural hierarchies. About the effect of the state on identity formation, Patil says: "If we continue to neglect cross-border dynamics and fail to problematize the nation and its emergence via transnational processes, our analyses will remain tethered to the spatialities and temporalities of colonial modernity."[85]

Expanding on these global and decolonial perspectives, philosopher Charles W. Mills has argued that Western political philosophy has historically excluded race and colonialism from its moral frameworks, calling for a "decolonization" of liberal thought to address global systems of domination.[86] Similarly, contributors to Gary Craig's *Handbook on Global Social Justice* emphasize that intersectional approaches must account for worldwide structures of inequality such as colonial history, race, and class, in order to achieve substantive and inclusive justice.[87] Elaborating on this line of thought, Marc Aziz Michael has shown, relying on dominant female STEM enrolment and proficiency data in the Arab world, that even when intersectional axes of thought are included in Western thinking, they are typically perceived as a stacking of oppressions, rather than crossroads of freedom and resistance.[88]

Chandra Mohanty discusses alliances between women worldwide as an example of intersectionality in a global context. She rejects the Western feminist theory, especially when it writes about global women of color, and is generally associated with "third world women". She argues that "third world women" are often thought of as a homogeneous entity, when, in fact, their experience of oppression is informed by their geography, history, and culture. When Western feminists write about women in the global South in this way, they dismiss the inherent, intersecting identities that shape feminism in the global South. Mohanty questions the performance of intersectionality and relationality of power structures within the US and colonialism, and how to work across identities with this history of colonial power structures.[89]

This is elaborated on by Christine Bose, who discusses a global use of intersectionality that works to remove associations of specific inequalities with specific institutions while showing that these systems generate intersectional effects. She uses this approach to develop a framework that can analyze gender inequalities across different nations and differentiates this from an approach (the one that Mohanty was referring to) which, one, paints national-level inequalities as the same and, two, differentiates only between the global North and South. This is manifested through the intersection of global dynamics, such as economics, migration, or violence, with regional dynamics, such as histories of the nation or gendered inequalities in education and property.[90]

The application of transnational intersectionality to the [Israeli-Palestinian conflict](/source/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_conflict) has been promoted and criticized. Feminist groups have supported ["Boycott, Divest, Sanction"](/source/Boycott%2C_Divestment_and_Sanctions) (BDS) resolutions based on intersectionality perspectives.[91] In 2015, the [National Women's Studies Association](/source/National_Women's_Studies_Association) promoted a resolution saying "discussions about a transnational, anti-imperialist, intersectional, feminist response" are relevant to BDS, centering "intersectional analysis on the links between interlocking systems of domination and foreground the transnational movements that are determined to dismantle them."[92]

However, others challenge the transnational use of intersectionality, arguing that it is a political framework rather than a neutral analytical tool.[93] In 2016, *[Inside Higher Ed](/source/Inside_Higher_Ed)* columnist [Cary Nelson](/source/Cary_Nelson) wrote that injustices "occur in different parts of the world in different contexts under different political systems," while any "intersection often occurs only in the mind of the beholder or in a political manifesto."[94] In 2019, sociologist Karin Stögner wrote that intersectionality is "more than an analytical concept that helps capture social reality in its complexity; it is also a political program," suggesting it contributes to a "delegitimization of Israel" as "one of the last bastions of imperialism and colonialism."[95]

## Europe

Evidence suggests that within Europe there is a divide between [white](/source/White-collar_worker) and [blue collar workers](/source/Blue-collar_worker), and their levels of political engagement, white collar men demonstrated the highest levels of political engagement while on the opposite side of the spectrum falls blue collar women.[96] Women in Europe are observed to generally have less political confidence, especially those who were not able to achieve higher levels of education and/or work blue collar jobs.[96]

One aspect relevant to European intersectionality has to do with the migration status of an individual. European migrants come from across the globe from various different circumstances that may or may not have forced them to flee their homes due to arranged marriages or internal conflict.[97] These situations by nature make these individuals vulnerable because they are in an unfamiliar place and do not generally have a lot of resources to support themselves. Exact numbers differ year by year, as there is a significant number of unaccompanied children migrants.[97] This is on top of reports of [racism](/source/Racism), [islamophobia](/source/Islamophobia) and general anti-migrant sentiment at almost every level of European society.[98]

Studies in Europe that have used intersectionality as a guiding framework have contributed to a better understanding of [gender based violence](/source/Gender_based_violence), showing that it does not occur in isolation and that its underlying patterns can be anticipated and addressed.[99] Gender based violence does not affect all groups equally. Certain populations are more susceptible due not only to their individual circumstances but also to broader societal and institutional factors.[99]

## Applications

The examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this section, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new section, as appropriate. (March 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Intersectionality has been applied in many fields from politics,[100][101] education[54][32][102] healthcare,[103][104] and employment, to economics.[105] Scholars of intersectionality have also advocated for its use more widely.[26][106] Little good-quality quantitative research has been done to support or undermine the practical uses of intersectionality, owing to misapplication of theoretical concepts and problems in methodology.[14] Intersectionality is frequently used in feminist and sociological research to analyze how overlapping identities such as race, gender, class, and sexuality shape experiences of discrimination and privilege in society.[107]

### Domestic violence

See also: [Violence against people with disabilities](/source/Violence_against_people_with_disabilities)

Women with disabilities encounter more frequent [domestic violence](/source/Domestic_violence) with a greater number of abusers. Health care workers and personal care attendants perpetrate abuse in these circumstances, and women with disabilities have fewer options for escaping the abusive situation.[108] There is a "silence" principle concerning the intersectionality of women and disability, which maintains an overall social denial of the prevalence of abuse among the disabled and leads to this abuse being frequently ignored when encountered.[109] This can exacerbate limited autonomy and social isolation of disabled individuals, and place women with disabilities in situations where further or more frequent abuse can occur.[108]

### Education

Intersectionality in education involves considering multiple elements of people's identities to increase accessibility, such as language, learning style, and disabilities. Laura Gonzales and Janine Butler say that an intersectional approach can help decrease the impact of disadvantages in the learning environment.[110] For example, the research by Gonzales and Butler found benefits from incorporating bilingual delivery, adjustments for disability, and inclusion of marginalized subjects in their writing assignments.[110] Authors Collin Lamout Craig and Staci Maree suggest there are also benefits for intersectionality in aiding acknowledgment and understanding in academia.[111]

Within the institution of education, Sandra Jones' research on working-class women in academia takes into consideration meritocracy within all social strata, but argues that it is complicated by race and the external forces that oppress.[102]

### Employment

Intersectional approaches to employment may be implemented in different ways in different organizations. Within the UK charity sector, Ashlee Christoffersen identified five different conceptualizations of intersectionality. "Generic intersectionality" was observed in policy areas, where intersectionality was conceptualized as developing policies to be in everyone's universal interest rather than being targeted to particular groups. "Pan equality" was a concern for issues that affected most marginalised groups. "Multi-strand intersectionality" attempted to consider different groups when making a decision, but rarely viewed the groups as overlapping or focused on issues for a particular group. "Diversity within" is considered one main form of identity, such as gender, as most important, while occasionally considering other aspects of identity, with these different forms of identity sometimes seen as detracting from the main identity. "Intersections of equality strands" considered the intersection of identities, but no form of identity was seen as more relevant. In this approach, it was sometimes felt that if one dealt with the most marginalized identity, the system would tend to work for all people. Christoffersen referred to some of these meanings given to intersectionality as "additive" where inequalities are thought of as being added to and subtracted from one another.[112]

In the United States, studies of the labor market suggest there are economic inequalities due to the intersections of race and gender, including for African American women.[66]: 506–507 In a book by Esther Chow and others, the authors write: "The impact of patriarchy and traditional assumptions about gender and families are evident in the lives of Chinese migrant workers, sex workers and their clients in South Korea, and Indian widows, but also Ukrainian migrants and Australian men of the new global middle class."[113]

### Healthcare

Intersectionality has been used as a critical framework in healthcare, such as in addressing issues of reproductive justice, where the intersection of race, class, and gender shapes access to healthcare and family planning resources for women of color. An intersectional lens reveals a disproportionate rate of maternal mortality among Black women in the United States. Black women experience a significantly higher rate of pregnancy-related deaths, despite controlling for insurance status, income, and education. Research has linked these disparities to structural racism and implicit bias within the healthcare system. Healthcare providers have been shown to cause an underestimation of Black patients' pain and inadequate or delayed treatment, specifically in maternal care and pain management.[114][115]

People of color, in general, often experience differential treatment in the healthcare system. For example, in the period immediately after [9/11](/source/9%2F11), researchers noted [low birth weights](/source/Low_birth_weight) and other poor birth outcomes among Muslim and Arab Americans, a result they connected to the increased racial and religious discrimination of the time.[116] Some researchers have also argued that immigration policies can affect health outcomes through mechanisms such as [stress](/source/Stress_(biology)#Overview), restrictions on access to health care, and the [social determinants of health](/source/Social_determinants_of_health).[104]

[Social determinants of health](/source/Social_determinants_of_health), such as food security, access to clean air and water, housing stability, and employment conditions, can also have significant impacts on health outcomes,[117] particularly for marginalized communities.[118] Environmental racism,[119] a form of systemic racism where communities of color disproportionately bear the burden of environmental hazards, contributes to elevated rates of asthma, cancer, and other chronic illnesses. Rising temperatures and natural disasters as a result of climate change also disproportionately impact populations with limited economic resources and restricted access to healthcare.

Historical medical exploitation continues to inform health disparities today. The [Tuskegee Syphilis Study](/source/Tuskegee_Syphilis_Study), in which Black men were denied treatment for syphilis without their consent or knowledge, and the forced sterilization of Indigenous and Latina women, driven by the eugenics movement,[120] racial and colonial control, and targeting through welfare and public health programs,[121] are all examples of systemic medical abuse. These events have contributed to longstanding distrust in healthcare institutions among marginalized communities. Additionally, medical research has historically excluded people of color, women, and disabled individuals[122] from clinical trials, resulting in gaps in knowledge about how various treatments affect these populations. This underrepresentation persists in many areas of research and contributes to unequal health outcomes today.

### Immigration

The [African American Policy Forum](/source/African_American_Policy_Forum) (AAPF) has advocated for an intersectional approach to immigration policy, considering factors such as race, marriage, and gender. The AAPF says that immigrant women's lives are often threatened by abusive spouses who are already citizens, and yet such women cannot divorce their spouses for two years if they seek permanent resident status. According to the AAPF, the law currently includes "no exceptions for battered women who often faced the risk of serious injury and death on the one hand, or deportation on the other".[123]

### Psychology

Main articles: [Biases](/source/Biases) and [Heuristics in judgment and decision-making](/source/Heuristics_in_judgment_and_decision-making)

Researchers in psychology have incorporated intersection effects since the 1950s.[124] These intersection effects were based on studying the lenses of biases, heuristics, stereotypes, and judgments. Psychologists have extended research in psychological biases to the areas of cognitive and motivational psychology. What is found is that every human mind has its own biases in judgment and decision-making that tend to preserve the status quo by avoiding change and attention to ideas that exist outside one's personal realm of perception.[124] Psychological interaction effects span a range of variables, although person-by-situation effects are the most examined category. As a result, psychologists do not construe the interaction effect of demographics such as gender and race as either more noteworthy or less noteworthy than any other interaction effect. In addition, oppression can be regarded as a subjective construct when viewed as an absolute hierarchy.

Even if an objective definition of oppression were reached, person-by-situation effects would make it difficult to deem certain persons or categories of persons as uniformly oppressed. For instance, Black men are stereotypically perceived as criminals, which makes it much more difficult for them to get hired for a job than a white man. However, gay Black men are perceived as harmless, which increases their chances of getting employed and receiving bonuses, even though gay males are also socially disadvantaged. The stereotype of gay men as harmless helps Black men transcend their reputation for criminality.[72] Several psychological studies have likewise shown that possessing multiple oppressed or marginalized identities has effects that are not necessarily additive, or even multiplicative, but rather, interactive in complex ways.[125][126]

One of the main issues that affects the research of intersectionality is the construct problem. Constructs are what scientists use to build blocks of understanding within their field of study.[127] It is important because it gives us something to measure. As mentioned previously, it is incredibly difficult to define oppression and, specifically, the feeling of being oppressed and the ways that different kinds of oppression may interact as a construct.[128] As psychology grows and changes its ability to define constructs, this research will likely improve.[128]

### Remediation

To provide sufficient preventive, redressive, and deterrent remedies, judges in courts and others working in [conflict resolution](/source/Conflict_resolution) mechanisms take into account intersectional dimensions.[129]

### Social work

In the field of [social work](/source/Social_work), proponents of intersectionality hold that unless service providers take intersectionality into account, they will be of less use for various segments of the population, such as those reporting domestic violence or disabled victims of abuse. According to intersectional theory, the practice of [domestic violence](/source/Domestic_violence) counselors in the [United States](/source/United_States) urging all women to report their abusers to police is of little use to [women of color](/source/Women_of_color) due to the history of racially motivated [police brutality](/source/Police_brutality), and those counselors should adapt their counseling for women of color.[130]

### Other fields

Intersectionality has also been used in [critical animal studies](/source/Critical_animal_studies) and [ecofeminist](/source/Ecofeminist) literature, particularly in considering how our treatment of animals and the natural environment affects people.[131][132][133] For example, factory farming can be understood not just as an issue of animal welfare but also as an issue of [environmental justice](/source/Environmental_justice), workers' rights, and public health which may disproportionately impact marginalized communities and peoples.[133]

## Responses

### Academic

A crowd of people in a [Black Lives Matter](/source/Black_Lives_Matter) protest in 2015. The main focus is four Black women, one holding a sign.

Many feminists have positively engaged with the idea of intersectionality. Black feminists, in particular, suggest that an understanding of intersectionality is a vital element of gaining political and social equity and improving the societal structures that oppress individuals.[134] [Beverly Guy-Sheftall](/source/Beverly_Guy-Sheftall) says, "Black women experience a special kind of oppression and suffering in this country which is racist, sexist, and classist because of their dual race and gender identity and their limited access to economic resources".[135] Stephanie A. Shields says that each part of someone's identity "serve as organizing features of social relations, mutually constitute, reinforce, and naturalize one another". Shields says that one aspect cannot exist individually, rather it "takes its meaning as a category in relation to another category."[136]

Some scholars suggest intersectionality is often weaponized against other forms of feminism.[13][11] Barbara Tomlinson, of the Department of Feminist Studies at [University of California, Santa Barbara](/source/University_of_California%2C_Santa_Barbara), has been critical of the applications of intersectional theory to attack other ways of feminist thinking.[13] Downing says intersectionality, seen through the framework of [Andrea Dworkin](/source/Andrea_Dworkin)'s class-based [radical feminism](/source/Radical_feminism), focuses too much on group identities and interests over individuality, leading to simplistic analysis and inaccurate assumptions about how a person's values and attitudes are determined.[11] [Iris Marion Young](/source/Iris_Marion_Young) suggests that differences must be acknowledged in order to find unifying social justice issues that create coalitions that aid in changing society for the better.[137] More specifically, this relates to the ideals of the [National Council of Negro Women](/source/National_Council_of_Negro_Women) (NCNW).[138]

Scholar Jennifer Nash says that, using an [Afropessimist](/source/Afro-pessimism_(United_States)) framework, intersectionality may flatten the unique experiences of Blackness and gender by treating different forms of identity as equivalent.[139][*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*] Nash also criticizes the superficial use of intersectionality by some institutions without addressing systematic inequalities.[139][*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]

### Utility

Among scholars, proponents of intersectionality cite its broad applicability and embrace of nuance, while its critics say it is overly complex or too broad.[10][6][9] Sociologist [Kathy Davis](/source/Kathy_Davis_(sociologist)) says intersectionality's broad applicability and consideration of multiple factors makes it a useful critical tool: "It encourages complexity, stimulates creativity, and avoids premature closure, tantalizing feminist scholars to raise new questions and explore uncharted territory."[10]

Rekia Jibrin and Sara Salem suggest that because intersectional theory creates a unified but complex idea of anti-oppression politics, this creates difficulties achieving [praxis](/source/Praxis_(process)) and results in significant ambiguity in how the framework should be applied.[9] As it is based in [standpoint theory](/source/Standpoint_theory), Lisa Downing says the focus on subjective experiences can lead to contradictions and the inability to identify common causes of oppression.[11]

[Brittney Cooper](/source/Brittney_Cooper) says that "intersectionality does not deserve our religious devotion" but that "as a conceptual and analytic tool for thinking about operations of power, intersectionality remains one of the most useful and expansive paradigms we have".[6] In responding to critics of intersectionality who find it to be incomplete, or argue that it fails to recognize the specificity of women's oppression, [Chiara Bottici](/source/Chiara_Bottici) says that "there is something *specific* about the oppression of women and that in order to fight it you have to fight "*all* other forms of oppression".[140] [Cheryl Townsend Gilkes](/source/Cheryl_Townsend_Gilkes) and Joy James say there is value in focusing on the experiences of Black women.[34]

Patricia Hill Collins also argues that without [critical social theory](/source/Critical_theory), intersectionality falls flat. She argues that the mission of intersectionality currently within academia is too broad as a theoretical project, leading to its meaning being diluted both by the left and the right.[141] As a result, intersectionality needs to take a position as a critical social theory in order to further it as a discipline and as a theory that can be utilized to dismantle systematic oppression.[142]

### Research

Many recent academics, such as [Leslie McCall](/source/Leslie_McCall), have argued that the introduction of the intersectionality theory was vital to sociology and that before the development of the theory, there was little research that specifically addressed the experiences of people who are subjected to multiple forms of oppression within society.[54]

There have been recent attempts to apply the intersectionality theory to research that involves disability, gender, and poverty. For example, Jacqueline Moodley and Lauren Graham[143] focused on the intersection of disabled, impoverished, South African men and women to find what effect different combinations of the characteristics and identities had on outcomes of education, income, and employment. Also, researchers have used data from the National Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, EEOC, and [Americans with Disabilities Act](/source/Americans_with_Disabilities_Act) (ADA) Research Project to explore the interactions among disability, gender, age, race, and employer characteristics and it connection to the outcome of workplace harassment.[144]

Others suggest that generating [testable predictions](/source/Hypothesis) from intersectionality theory can be complex.[145][14] Liam Kofi Bright, Daniel Malinsky, and Morgan Thompson suggest a framework of [graphical causal modeling](/source/Causal_graph) to provide "[empirically testable interpretations](/source/Graphical_model) of intersectional theory" to address such concerns.[15]

An analysis of academic articles published through December 2019 found that there are no widely adopted quantitative methods to investigate research questions informed by intersectionality and provided recommendations on analytic best practices for future research.[16] An analysis of academic articles published through May 2020 found that intersectionality is frequently misunderstood when bridging theory into quantitative methodology.[14]

### Political

Critics of intersectionality also say that it is used as a tool of [neoliberalism](/source/Neoliberalism). Cooper says: "To suggest as Puar does that intersectionality is a tool of a neoliberal agenda rather than a tool that works against it is a line of thinking that should be vigilantly guarded against."[6] Jibrin and Salem suggest that, while intersectionality has radical origins, its ambiguities mean it has been embraced by neoliberal feminists, undermining its radical nature:[9]

Given the empirical examples presented, we are convinced that the rise of class domination in what we know as the neoliberal university creates the conditions for concepts like intersectionality to become diluted and commodified. By depoliticizing intersectionality neoliberal market regimes empty radical struggle of structural critiques and translate them into palatable (unthreatening) narratives of social justice, multiculturalisms.[9]

Conservatives such as American conservative commentator [Ben Shapiro](/source/Ben_Shapiro) suggest that intersectionality creates a "hierarchy of victimhood", where individuals are categorized as "members of a victim class by virtue of membership in a particular group".[12]

On the international political scale, intersectional lenses have not been applied to the topic of human right laws. Gauthier de Beco found using an intersectional lens that people with disabilities that belong to racial or ethnic, gender, and age minorities lack suitable human rights.[146]

### Others

Philosopher [Tommy J. Curry](/source/Tommy_J._Curry) published several works suggesting intersectional feminism implicitly adopts, and thereby perpetuates, harmful stereotypes of Black men.[147] Curry says Crenshaw's intersectional model depends on second-wave feminist ideas, imported from subculture of violence theorists who argue that Black masculinity is compensatory and sexually predatory. In so doing, Curry says that the intersectional feminist concept of "[Double Jeopardy](/source/Double_Jeopardy%3A_To_Be_Black_and_Female)" is fundamentally mistaken because intersectionality is over-determined by feminist politics. Curry also says that Crenshaw's conclusions in *Mapping the Margins* rely on gender essentialism that erases Black male victims of intimate partner violence, sexual assault, and lethal violence.[148]

## See also

- [Class discrimination](/source/Class_discrimination)

- [Class reductionism](/source/Class_reductionism)

- [Cross-cutting cleavage](/source/Cross-cutting_cleavage) – Accord between otherwise divided groups

- [Disability justice](/source/Disability_justice)

- [Implicit stereotype](/source/Implicit_stereotype)

- [Kyriarchy](/source/Kyriarchy)

- [Matrix of domination](/source/Matrix_of_domination)

- [Misogynoir](/source/Misogynoir)

- [Oppression Olympics](/source/Oppression_Olympics)

- [Polylogism](/source/Polylogism)

- [Progressive stack](/source/Progressive_stack)

- [Syndemic](/source/Syndemic)

- [Womanism](/source/Womanism)

## References

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Davis_2008_10-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Davis_2008_10-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Davis_2008_10-2) Davis, Kathy (2008). "Intersectionality as buzzword: A sociology of science perspective on what makes a feminist theory successful". *Feminist Theory*. **9**: 67–85. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/1464700108086364](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1464700108086364). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [145295170](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145295170).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Downing2018_11-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Downing2018_11-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Downing2018_11-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Downing2018_11-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Downing2018_11-4) Downing, Lisa (2018). ["The body politic: Gender, the right wing and 'identity category violations'"](http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/53670526/Downing_August_Pre_Pub_Body_politic_article.pdf) (PDF). *French Cultural Studies*. **29** (4): 367–377. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/0957155818791075](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0957155818791075). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [165115259](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:165115259).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Coaston_2019_12-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Coaston_2019_12-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Coaston_2019_12-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Coaston_2019_12-3) Coaston, Jane (28 May 2019). ["The intersectionality wars"](https://www.vox.com/the-highlight/2019/5/20/18542843/intersectionality-conservatism-law-race-gender-discrimination). *Vox*.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-intersectionality993_13-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-intersectionality993_13-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-intersectionality993_13-2) Tomlinson, Barbara (2013). "To Tell the Truth and Not Get Trapped: Desire, Distance, and Intersectionality at the Scene of Argument". *Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society*. **38** (4): 993–1017. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/669571](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F669571). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [144641071](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144641071).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Bauer2021_14-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Bauer2021_14-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Bauer2021_14-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Bauer2021_14-3) Bauer, Greta R.; Churchill, Siobhan M.; Mahendran, Mayuri; Walwyn, Chantel; Lizotte, Daniel; Villa-Rueda, Alma Angelica (June 2021). ["Intersectionality in quantitative research: A systematic review of its emergence and applications of theory and methods"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8095182). *SSM - Population Health*. **14** 100798. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.ssmph.2021.100798](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ssmph.2021.100798). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [8095182](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8095182). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [33997247](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33997247).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Bright_2015_15-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Bright_2015_15-1) Bright, Liam Kofi; Malinsky, Daniel; Thompson, Morgan (2015). "Causally Interpreting Intersectionality Theory". *Philosophy of Science*. **83** (1): 60–81. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/684173](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F684173). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [53695694](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53695694).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Guan_2021_16-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Guan_2021_16-1) Guan, Alice; Thomas, Marilyn; Vittinghoff, Eric; Bowleg, Lisa; Mangurian, Christina; Wesson, Paul (December 2021). ["An investigation of quantitative methods for assessing intersectionality in health research: A systematic review"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8626832). *SSM - Population Health*. **16** 100977. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.ssmph.2021.100977](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ssmph.2021.100977). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [8626832](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8626832). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [34869821](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34869821).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** Peretz, Tal (November 2021). ["Locally specific matrices of domination: Towards a global theory of Intersectionalities"](https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0277539521001035). *Women's Studies International Forum*. **89** 102540. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.wsif.2021.102540](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.wsif.2021.102540).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-j830_18-0)** Hill Collins, Patricia (2019). *Intersectionality as critical social theory*. Durham: Duke University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4780-0646-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4780-0646-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Ritzer_2013_19-0)** [Ritzer, George](/source/George_Ritzer); Stepinisky, Jeffrey (2013). *Contemporary sociological theory and its classical roots: the basics* (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 204–207. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-07-802678-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-802678-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Schiek_2011_20-0)** Schiek, Dagmar; [Lawson, Anna](/source/Anna_Lawson) (2011). *European Union Non-discrimination Law and Intersectionality: Investigating the Triangle of Racial, Gender and Disability Discrimination*. Ashgate. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7546-7980-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-7980-6).[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Mann_1997_21-0)** Mann, Susan A.; Kelley, Lori R. (1997). "Standing at the crossroads of modernist thought: Collins, Smith, and the new feminist epistemologies". *[Gender & Society](/source/Gender_%26_Society)*. **11** (4): 391–408. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/089124397011004002](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F089124397011004002). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [55757598](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55757598).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Crenshaw_2016b_22-0)** Crenshaw, Kimberlé (14 March 2016). [*Kimberlé Crenshaw – On Intersectionality – keynote – WOW 2016*](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-DW4HLgYPlA) (Video). [Southbank Centre](/source/Southbank_Centre) via YouTube. Retrieved 31 May 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Duran_2020_23-0)** Duran, Antonio; Jones, Susan R. (2020). "Intersectionality". In Casey, Zachary A. (ed.). *Encyclopedia of Critical Whiteness Studies in Education*. Brill. pp. 310–320. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1163/9789004444836_041](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004444836_041). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-44483-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-44483-6). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [242630915](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:242630915).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Crenshaw_1991_24-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Crenshaw_1991_24-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Crenshaw_1991_24-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Crenshaw_1991_24-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Crenshaw_1991_24-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Crenshaw_1991_24-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-Crenshaw_1991_24-6) Crenshaw, Kimberle (1991). "Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color". *Stanford Law Review*. **43** (6): 1241–1299. [CiteSeerX](/source/CiteSeerX_(identifier)) [10.1.1.695.5934](https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.695.5934). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/1229039](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1229039). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [1229039](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1229039). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [24661090](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:24661090). Reprinted in: Crenshaw, Kimberlé; Gotanda, Neil; Peller, Gary; Thomas, Kendall, eds. (1995). [*Critical Race Theory: The Key Writings that Formed the Movement*](https://archive.org/details/critica_xxx_1995_00_1144/page/357/mode/1up?view=theater). New York: The New Press. pp. 357–384. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-56584-271-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56584-271-7).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Crenshaw_1989_25-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Crenshaw_1989_25-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Crenshaw_1989_25-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Crenshaw_1989_25-3) Crenshaw, Kimberlé (1989). ["Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: a black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics"](http://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/uclf/vol1989/iss1/8). *University of Chicago Legal Forum*. **1989** (1): 139–167. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0892-5593](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0892-5593). [Full text at Archive.org](https://archive.org/details/DemarginalizingTheIntersectionOfRaceAndSexABlackFeminis/mode/1up?view=theater)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Cho_2013_26-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Cho_2013_26-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Cho_2013_26-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Cho_2013_26-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Cho_2013_26-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Cho_2013_26-5) Cho, Sumi; Crenshaw, Kimberlé Williams; McCall, Leslie (2013). "Toward a Field of Intersectionality Studies: Theory, Applications, and Praxis". *Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society*. **38** (4): 785–810. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/669608](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F669608). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0097-9740](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0097-9740).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-tb_27-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-tb_27-1) Bastia, T. (2023). ["Reflections on intersectionality: A journey from 1989 to today"](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0966369X.2022.2126826). *Gender, Place, and Culture*. **30** (3): 460–483. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/0966369X.2022.2126826](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0966369X.2022.2126826).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Davis_1983_28-0)** [Davis, Angela Y.](/source/Angela_Davis) (1983). *Women, Race & Class*. New York: Vintage Books. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-394-71351-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-71351-9).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Collins_2015_29-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Collins_2015_29-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Collins_2015_29-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Collins_2015_29-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Collins_2015_29-4) Collins, Patricia Hill (2015). ["Intersectionality's definitional dilemmas"](https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-soc-073014-112142). *[Annual Review of Sociology](/source/Annual_Review_of_Sociology)*. **41**: 1–20. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1146/annurev-soc-073014-112142](https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-soc-073014-112142). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [145739525](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145739525).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Brah_30-0)** Brah, Avtar; Phoenix, Ann (15 January 2013). ["Ain't I A Woman? Revisiting Intersectionality"](https://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol5/iss3/8/). *Journal of International Women's Studies*. **5** (3): 75–86.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Truth_31-0)** Truth, Sojourner (2001). "'Speech at the Woman's Rights Convention, Akron, Ohio' (1851)". In Ritchie, Joy; Ronald, Kate (eds.). *Available Means: An Anthology Of Women's Rhetoric(s)*. University of Pittsburgh Press. pp. 144–146. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/j.ctt5hjqnj.28](https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctt5hjqnj.28). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8229-7975-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-7975-3). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [j.ctt5hjqnj.28](https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt5hjqnj.28).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Cooper_1892_32-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Cooper_1892_32-1) Cooper, Anna Julia (2016) [1892]. "The colored woman's office". In Lemert, Charles (ed.). *Social theory: the multicultural, global, and classic readings* (6th ed.). Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8133-5044-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-5044-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Cooper_South_33-0)** Cooper, Anna Julia (2018) [1st pub. 1892]. *A Voice from the South*. Aldine Printing House. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-598-55637-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-598-55637-0).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollins200044_34-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollins200044_34-1) [Collins 2000](#CITEREFCollins2000), p. 44.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-35)** Azaransky, Sarah (2013). "Jane Crow: Pauli Murray's Intersections and Antidiscrimination Law". *Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion*. **29** (1): 155–160. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2979/jfemistudreli.29.1.155](https://doi.org/10.2979%2Fjfemistudreli.29.1.155). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [10.2979/jfemistudreli.29.1.155](https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/jfemistudreli.29.1.155). [Gale](/source/Gale_(publisher)) [A333448072](https://go.gale.com/ps/anonymous?id=GALE%7CA333448072).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Mays_2018_36-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Mays_2018_36-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Mays_2018_36-2) Mays, V. M.; Ghavami, N. (2018). "History, Aspirations, and Transformations of Intersectionality: Focusing on Gender". In Travis, C. B.; White, J. W.; Rutherford, A.; Williams, W. S.; Cook, S. L.; Wyche, K. F. (eds.). *APA Handbook of the Psychology of Women: History, Theory, and Battlegrounds*. American Psychological Association. pp. 541–566. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1037/0000059-028](https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0000059-028).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** ["The Roots of Intersectionality | University of Rochester School of Nursing"](https://son.rochester.edu/newsroom/2022/intersectionality.html). *son.rochester.edu*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Wiegman_38-0)** Wiegman, Robyn (2012). ["Critical kinship (universal aspirations and intersectional judgements)"](https://archive.org/details/objectlessons00wieg/page/244/mode/1up). In Wiegman, Robyn (ed.). *Object lessons*. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press. p. 244. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1515/9780822394945](https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9780822394945). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8223-5160-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-5160-3). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [242615176](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:242615176). Citing: Hull, Gloria T.; Bell-Scott, Patricia; Smith, Barbara (1982). [*All the women are White, all the blacks are men, but some of us are brave: black women's studies*](https://archive.org/details/allwomenarewhite00hull/mode/1up). Old Westbury, N.Y.: [Feminist Press](/source/Feminist_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-912670-92-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-912670-92-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Johnson_2017_39-0)** Johnson, Amanda Walker (2017). "Resituating the Crossroads: Theoretical Innovations in Black Feminist Ethnography". *Souls*. **19** (4): 401–415. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/10999949.2018.1434350](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10999949.2018.1434350). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [149590053](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149590053).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Norman_2007_40-0)** Norman, Brian (2007). "'We' in Redux: The Combahee River Collective's *black Feminist Statement*". *[differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies](/source/Differences%3A_A_Journal_of_Feminist_Cultural_Studies)*. **18** (2): 104. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1215/10407391-2007-004](https://doi.org/10.1215%2F10407391-2007-004).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-HoSang_41-0)** HoSang, Daniel M. (2020). ["Intersectionality"](https://keywords.nyupress.org/american-cultural-studies/essay/intersectionality/). In Burgett, Bruce; Hendler, Glenn (eds.). *Keywords for American cultural studies* (3rd ed.). New York University Press. pp. 142–144. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.18574/9781479867455-038](https://doi.org/10.18574%2F9781479867455-038) (inactive 1 July 2025). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4798-6745-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4798-6745-5).{{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_July_2025))

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Adewunmi_42-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Adewunmi_42-1) Adewunmi, Bim (2 April 2014). ["Kimberlé Crenshaw on intersectionality: 'I wanted to come up with an everyday metaphor that anyone could use'"](https://web.archive.org/web/20180518120135/https://www.newstatesman.com/lifestyle/2014/04/kimberl-crenshaw-intersectionality-i-wanted-come-everyday-metaphor-anyone-could). *[New Statesman](/source/New_Statesman)*. Archived from [the original](http://www.newstatesman.com/lifestyle/2014/04/kimberl-crenshaw-intersectionality-i-wanted-come-everyday-metaphor-anyone-could) on 18 May 2018.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Buikema_2009_43-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Buikema_2009_43-1) Buikema, Rosemarie; van der Tuin, Iris, eds. (2009). *Doing Gender in Media, Art and Culture: A Comprehensive Guide to Gender Studies*. London: Routeledge. pp. 63–65. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-415-49383-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-49383-3).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-44)** hooks, bell (2014). *Ain't I a Woman: Black Women and Feminism* (2nd ed.). Routledge (published 14 October 2014). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-138-82151-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-82151-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-hooks_2014_45-0)** hooks, bell (2014) [1984]. *Feminist Theory: from margin to center* (3rd ed.). New York: Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-138-82166-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-82166-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-46)** Roig, Emilia (6 March 2018). ["Intersectionality in Europe: a depoliticized concept?"](https://voelkerrechtsblog.org/intersectionality-in-europe-a-depoliticized-concept/). *Völkerrechtsblog*. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.17176/20180306-142929](https://doi.org/10.17176%2F20180306-142929).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-47)** Moraga, Cherríe; Anzaldúa, Gloria (11 February 2015). [*This Bridge Called My Back, Fourth Edition: Writings by Radical Women of Color*](https://books.google.com/books?id=0j2fBgAAQBAJ). SUNY Press. p. xxii. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4384-5438-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-5438-2). Nisha Agarwal (11 January 2010). ["This Bridge Called My Back: A Retro Look at Women of Color and Power"](http://www.huffingtonpost.com/nisha-agarwal/this-bridge-called-my-bac_b_418196.html). *[The Huffington Post](/source/The_Huffington_Post)*. Retrieved 13 January 2010.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-48)** Aenerud, Rebecca "[Thinking Again: *This Bridge Called My Back* and the Challenge to Whiteness](https://books.google.com/books?id=yCORLQBk1XYC&dq=%22this+Bridge+Called+My+Back+and+the+Challenge+to+Whiteness%22&pg=PA69)" in AnaLouise Keating; Gloria E. Anzaldúa (2002). *This Bridge We Call Home: Radical Visions for Transformation*. p. 71.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-King1988_49-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-King1988_49-1) King, Deborah K. (1988). "Multiple Jeopardy, Multiple Consciousness: The Context of a Black Feminist Ideology". *Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society*. **14** (1): 42–72. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/494491](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F494491). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [143446946](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143446946).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Two_Decades_50-0)** ["Kimberlé Crenshaw on Intersectionality, More than Two Decades Later"](https://www.law.columbia.edu/news/archive/kimberle-crenshaw-intersectionality-more-two-decades-later). Columbia Law School. 8 June 2017. Retrieved 14 May 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Thomas_2004_51-0)** Thomas, Sheila; Crenshaw, Kimberlé (Spring 2004). ["Intersectionality: the double bind of race and gender"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120118111551/http://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/publishing/perspectives_magazine/women_perspectives_Spring2004CrenshawPSP.authcheckdam.pdf) (PDF). *Perspectives Magazine*. [American Bar Association](/source/American_Bar_Association). p. 2. Archived from [the original](http://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/publishing/perspectives_magazine/women_perspectives_Spring2004CrenshawPSP.authcheckdam.pdf) (PDF) on 18 January 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-52)** Hearn, Jeff; Aboim, Sofia; Shefer, Tamara (2018). ["Sexualities, Social Justice and Sexual Justice"](https://books.google.com/books?id=eIdlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA228). In Craig, Gary (ed.). *Handbook on Global Social Justice*. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 238–240. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-78643-142-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78643-142-4) – via Google Books.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-65)** Hill Collins, Patricia (2002). *Black Feminist Thought* (0 ed.). Routledge. pp. 45–46. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4324/9780203900055](https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780203900055). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-135-96014-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-96014-8).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Browne_&_Misra_2003_66-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Browne_&_Misra_2003_66-1) Browne, Irene; Misra, Joya (2003). "The Intersection of Gender and Race in the Labor Market". *Annual Review of Sociology*. **29** (1): 487–513. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2003ARSoc..29..487B](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003ARSoc..29..487B). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100016](https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.soc.29.010202.100016). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [30036977](https://www.jstor.org/stable/30036977).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-67)** [Bottici, Chiara](/source/Chiara_Bottici) (2017). "Bodies in Plural: Towards an Anarcha-feminist Manifesto". *[Thesis Eleven](/source/Thesis_Eleven)*. **142** (1): 95. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/0725513617727793](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0725513617727793). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [148911963](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:148911963).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-68)** Lugones, María (2007). "Heterosexualism and the Colonial / Modern Gender System". *Hypatia*. **22** (1): 186–209. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0887-5367](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0887-5367). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [4640051](https://www.jstor.org/stable/4640051).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-69)** Viveros Vigoya, Mara (2016). ["La interseccionalidad: una aproximación situada a la dominación"](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.df.2016.09.005) [Intersectionality: a situated approach to domination]. *Debate Feminista* (in Spanish). **52**: 1–17. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.df.2016.09.005](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.df.2016.09.005). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0188-9478](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0188-9478). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [44735227](https://www.jstor.org/stable/44735227).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Evans2022_70-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Evans2022_70-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Evans2022_70-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Evans2022_70-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Evans2022_70-4) Evans, Elizabeth (2022). ["Political intersectionality and disability activism: Approaching and understanding difference and unity"](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F00380261221111231). *The Sociological Review*. **70** (5): 986–1004. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/00380261221111231](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F00380261221111231). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0038-0261](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0038-0261). *This article incorporates text from this source, which is available under the [CC BY 4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) license.*

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Homan_2021_71-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Homan_2021_71-1) Homan, Patricia; Brown, Tyson H.; King, Brittany (2021). ["Structural Intersectionality as a New Direction for Health Disparities Research"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8628816). *Journal of Health and Social Behavior*. **62** (3): 350–370. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/00221465211032947](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F00221465211032947). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0022-1465](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-1465). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [8628816](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8628816). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [34355603](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34355603).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Pedulla2014_72-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Pedulla2014_72-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Pedulla2014_72-2) Pedulla, David S. (2014). "The Positive Consequences of Negative Stereotypes: Race, Sexual Orientation, and the Job Application Process". *Social Psychology Quarterly*. **77** (1): 75–94. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/0190272513506229](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0190272513506229). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [144311164](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144311164).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-73)** Durfee, Alesha (2021). "The Use of Structural Intersectionality as a Method to Analyze How the Domestic Violence Civil Protective Order Process Replicates Inequality". *Violence Against Women*. **27** (5): 639–665. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/1077801220958495](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1077801220958495). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1077-8012](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1077-8012). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [32965175](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32965175).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Azhar_2021_74-0)** Azhar, Sameena; Alvarez, Antonia R. G.; Farina, Anne S. J.; Klumpner, Susan (2021). "'You're So Exotic Looking': An Intersectional Analysis of Asian American and Pacific Islander Stereotypes". *Affilia*. **36** (3): 282–301. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/08861099211001460](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F08861099211001460). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0886-1099](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0886-1099). Coupled with these racialized stereotypes regarding the assumed higher education and wealth of APIs are coexisting stereotypes regarding their gender and sexuality. In [the] American context, Asian women are often portrayed in overtly sexualized ways as the objects of desire for men, particularly white men (Sue et al., 2007). Conversely, Asian men are portrayed as effeminate, emasculated, weak, and sexually undesirable. [...] API sexuality is again shaped in ways that maintain the social and political dominance of white men.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:0_75-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:0_75-1) hooks, bell (2007). *Black looks: race and representation* (Nachdr. ed.). Boston, Mass: South End Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-89608-433-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89608-433-9).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Matsuda1993_76-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Matsuda1993_76-1) Matsuda, Mari J.; Lawrence, Charles R. III; Delgado, Richard; Crenshaw, Kimberlé (2019). *Words that wound: critical race theory, assaultive speech, and the First Amendment*. New York London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-367-31404-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-367-31404-0).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-78)** Laurie, Timothy; Stark, Hannah (2025). ["Coercive Control in Queer Relationships: Reframing Gender and Violence in Carmen Maria Machado's In the Dream House"](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14484528.2025.2536275). *Life Writing*. **22** (4): 845–861. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/14484528.2025.2536275](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14484528.2025.2536275).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Belleau_2007_79-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Belleau_2007_79-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Belleau_2007_79-2) Belleau, Marie-Claire (2007). "L'intersectionalité: Feminisms in a divided world; Québec-Canada". In Orr, Deborah; et al. (eds.). *Feminist Politics: identity, difference, and agency*. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 51–62. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7425-4778-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-4778-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-WEIRD_2010_80-0)** Henrich, J.; Heine, S. J.; Norenzayan, A. (2010). ["The weirdest people in the world?"](https://www2.psych.ubc.ca/~henrich/pdfs/WeirdPeople.pdf) (PDF). *Behavioral and Brain Sciences*. **33** (2–3): 61–83. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/S0140525X0999152X](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0140525X0999152X). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[11858/00-001M-0000-0013-26A1-6](https://hdl.handle.net/11858%2F00-001M-0000-0013-26A1-6). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [20550733](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20550733). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [220918842](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220918842).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Herr2014_81-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Herr2014_81-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Herr2014_81-2) Herr, Ranjoo Seodu (2014). "Reclaiming Third World Feminism". *Meridians*. **12** (1): 1–30. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2979/meridians.12.1.1](https://doi.org/10.2979%2Fmeridians.12.1.1). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [145668809](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145668809).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-KurtisAdams2015_82-0)** Kurtis, T.; Adams, G. (2015). ["Decolonizing liberation: Toward a transnational feminist psychology"](https://doi.org/10.5964%2Fjspp.v3i1.326). *Journal of Social and Political Psychology*. **3** (2): 388–413. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.5964/jspp.v3i1.326](https://doi.org/10.5964%2Fjspp.v3i1.326). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[1808/21823](https://hdl.handle.net/1808%2F21823). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [3178747](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3178747).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Transnational_Psychology_83-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Transnational_Psychology_83-1) Collins, Lynn H.; Machizawa, Sayaka; Rice, Joy K. (2019). *Transnational Psychology of Women: Expanding International and Intersectional Approaches* (1st ed.). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4338-3069-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4338-3069-3).[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Grabe2012_84-0)** Grabe, Shelly; Else-Quest, Nicole M. (22 May 2012). "The Role of Transnational Feminism in Psychology: Complementary Visions". *Psychology of Women Quarterly*. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/0361684312442164](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0361684312442164). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [53585351](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53585351).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Vrushali_85-0)** Patil, Vrushali (2013). "From Patriarchy to Intersectionality: A Transnational Feminist Assessment of How Far We've Really Come". *Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society*. **38** (4): 847–867. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/669560](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F669560). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [10.1086/669560](https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/669560). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [144680534](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144680534).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-86)** Mills, Charles W. (2015). "Decolonizing Western Political Philosophy". *New Political Science*. **37** (1): 1–24. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/07393148.2014.995402](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F07393148.2014.995402) (inactive 23 November 2025).{{[cite journal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_journal)}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2025 ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2025))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-87)** Craig, Gary, ed. (2018). *Handbook on Global Social Justice*. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 238–240. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-78643-142-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78643-142-4).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-Mohanty_1984_89-0)** Mohanty, Chandra Talpade (1984). "Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses". *Boundary 2*. 12/13: 333–358. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/302821](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F302821). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [302821](https://www.jstor.org/stable/302821). [INIST](/source/Institut_de_l'information_scientifique_et_technique) [11910852](https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=11910852).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Bose_2012_90-0)** Bose, Christine E. (February 2012). "Intersectionality and Global Gender Inequality". *Gender & Society*. **26** (1): 67–72. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/0891243211426722](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0891243211426722). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [145233506](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145233506).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-95)** Stoegner, Karin (1 January 2019). ["New Challenges in Feminism. Intersectionality, Critical Theory, and Antizionism"](https://www.academia.edu/38490243/New_Challenges_in_Feminism_Intersectionality_Critical_Theory_and_Antizionism). *Alvin H. Rosenfeld (ed.): Anti-Zionism and Antisemitism. The Dynamics of Delegitimization. Indiana University Press 2019*.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-intand_96-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-intand_96-1) Grasso, Maria; Giugni, Marco (December 2025). ["Intersectionality and inequalities in political participation in Europe: how do gender, class and age relate to political exclusion?"](https://link.springer.com/10.1057/s41295-025-00423-w). *Comparative European Politics*. **23** (6): 830–855. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1057/s41295-025-00423-w](https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fs41295-025-00423-w). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1472-4790](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1472-4790).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-Carastathis_137-0)** Carastathis, Anna (2016). Leong, Karen J.; Smith, Andrea (eds.). *Intersectionality: Origins, Contestations, Horizons*. University of Nebraska Press. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/j.ctt1fzhfz8](https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctt1fzhfz8). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8032-8555-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-8555-2). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [j.ctt1fzhfz8](https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1fzhfz8).[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Mueller_1954_138-0)** Mueller, Ruth Caston (1954). "The National Council of Negro Women, Inc". *Negro History Bulletin*. **18** (2): 27–31. [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [44175227](https://www.jstor.org/stable/44175227).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Nash_2018_139-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Nash_2018_139-1) Nash, Jennifer C. (6 December 2018). *Black Feminism Reimagined: After Intersectionality*. Duke University Press. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/j.ctv111jhd0](https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctv111jhd0). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4780-0225-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4780-0225-3). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [j.ctv111jhd0](https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv111jhd0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-140)** [Bottici, Chiara](/source/Chiara_Bottici) (2017). "Bodies in Plural: Towards an Anarcha-feminist Manifesto". *[Thesis Eleven](/source/Thesis_Eleven)*. **142** (1): 95. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/0725513617727793](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0725513617727793). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [148911963](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:148911963).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-141)** Collins, Patricia Hill (23 August 2019). *Intersectionality as Critical Social Theory*. Duke University Press. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/j.ctv11hpkdj](https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctv11hpkdj). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4780-0709-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4780-0709-8). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [j.ctv11hpkdj](https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv11hpkdj).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-142)** Collins, Patricia Hill (23 August 2019). *Intersectionality as Critical Social Theory*. Duke University Press. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/j.ctv11hpkdj](https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctv11hpkdj). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4780-0709-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4780-0709-8). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [j.ctv11hpkdj](https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv11hpkdj).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-143)** Moodley, Jacqueline; and Graham, Lauren (2015). "The importance of intersectionality in disability and gender studies". *Agenda*. **29** (2): 24–33. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/10130950.2015.1041802](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10130950.2015.1041802). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1013-0950](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1013-0950).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-144)** Shaw, Linda R.; Chan, Fong; McMahon, Brian T. (2012). "Intersectionality and Disability Harassment: The Interactive Effects of Disability, Race, Age, and Gender". *Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin*. **55** (2): 82–91. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/0034355211431167](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0034355211431167). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0034-3552](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0034-3552).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-145)** Bowleg, Lisa (1 September 2008). "When Black + Lesbian + Woman ≠ Black Lesbian Woman: The Methodological Challenges of Qualitative and Quantitative Intersectionality Research". *Sex Roles*. **59** (5): 312–325. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/s11199-008-9400-z](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11199-008-9400-z). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1573-2762](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-2762). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [49303030](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:49303030).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-146)** de Beco, Gauthier (27 May 2020). ["Intersectionality and disability in international human rights law"](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13642987.2019.1661241). *The International Journal of Human Rights*. **24** (5): 593–614. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/13642987.2019.1661241](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13642987.2019.1661241). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1364-2987](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1364-2987).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-147)** Tommy J. Curry (2021). "Decolonizing the Intersection: Black Male Studies as a Critique of Intersectionality's Indebtedness to Subculture of Violence Theory". In Robert Beshara (ed.). *Critical Psychology Praxis: Psychosocial Non-Alignment to Modernity/Coloniality*. New York: Routledge. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4324/9781003119678-11](https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003119678-11). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-003-11967-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-003-11967-8). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [234091480](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:234091480).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-148)** Curry, Tommy (2018). *The Man-Not: Race, Class, Genre, and the Dilemmas of Black Manhood*. Temple University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4399-1486-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4399-1486-1).

## Further reading

- Carastathis, Anna (2013). ["Basements and Intersections"](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259550036). *Hypatia*. **28** (4): 698–715. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/hypa.12044](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fhypa.12044). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0887-5367](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0887-5367). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [24542081](https://www.jstor.org/stable/24542081). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [143824123](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143824123) – via ResearchGate.

- Carastathis, Anna (2014). ["The Concept of Intersectionality in Feminist Theory"](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263725959). *Philosophy Compass*. **9** (5): 304–314. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/phc3.12129](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fphc3.12129) – via ResearchGate.

- Collins, Patricia Hill (1990). ["Defining Black Feminist Thought"](https://web.archive.org/web/20061211050851/http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/Organizations/healthnet/WoC/feminisms/collins2.html). Women of Color Web. Archived from [the original](http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/Organizations/healthnet/WoC/feminisms/collins2.html) on 11 December 2006.

- Bernroider, Lucie; Born, Anthony; Kulz, Christy; Gang, Sung, eds. (2025). *Intersectionality and the City: Exploring Violence and Inequality in Urban Space*. [Taylor & Francis](/source/Taylor_%26_Francis). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4324/9781003529729](https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003529729). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-003-52972-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-003-52972-9).

- Collins, Patricia Hill; Bilge, Sirma (2020). *Intersectionality* (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-5095-3967-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5095-3967-3).

- Hankivsky, Olena (2014). [*Intersectionality 101*](https://web.archive.org/web/20170423171506/https://www.sfu.ca/iirp/documents/resources/101_Final.pdf) (PDF). Vancouver, B.C.: Institute for Intersectionality Research & Policy, Simon Fraser University. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-86491-355-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86491-355-5). Archived from the original on 23 April 2017.

## External links

- Quotations related to [Intersectionality](https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Intersectionality) at Wikiquote

- The dictionary definition of [*intersectionality*](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/intersectionality) at Wiktionary

- ["Justice Rising: moving intersectionally in the age of post-everything"](https://www.lse.ac.uk/lse-player?id=2360) (podcast). Public Lectures and Events. London School of Economics. 26 March 2014.

v t e Discrimination Forms Institutional Reverse Structural Statistical Systemic Taste-based Attributes Physical Age Anti-left handedness Color / Chroma Anti-albinism Skin color Disability Genetic disorder Looks Hair texture Mental disorder Anti-autism Race / Ethnicity Reverse Scientific racism Sex Anti-intersex Reverse Sexual orientation Species Size Height Social Caste Class Economic Language Dialect Nationality or citizenship Rank Viewpoint Social Arophobia Acephobia Adultism Against men Anti-altruistic Anti-drug addicts Anti-homelessness Anti-intellectualism Anti-Masonry Anti-Otaku Aporophobia Audism Biphobia Elitism Endophobia Ephebiphobia Health mental in poverty Fatphobia Gayphobia Gerontophobia Heterosexism Discrimination against lesbians HIV/AIDS stigma Hypergamy Homophobia In-group Leprosy stigma Misandry Misogyny Misogynoir Nepotism Outgroup Perpetual foreigner Pregnancy Regional Sectarianism Supremacism Anglo-Saxonism Aryanism Black Hutu Chauvinism Han Hoklo Taiwanese Female Human Nordicism Male Ultranationalism White Transphobia Non-binary Transmisogyny Trans men Vegaphobia Xenophilia Xenophobia Religious Religious exemption Persecution of non-believers Atheism In Islam Apostasy Religious police Jizya Religious persecution In China Exclusivism AROPL Baháʼí Faith Buddhism Christianity Persecution Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy Coptic Christianity Jehovah's Witnesses LDS or Mormon Protestantism Tewahedo Orthodoxy post–Cold War era Falun Gong Hinduism Persecution Untouchability Islam Persecution Ahmadiyya Shi'ism Sufism Sunnism minority Muslim Judaism Persecution Neopaganism Rastafari Serers Sikhism Yazidism Zoroastrianism Race / Ethnicity Afghan Pashtun Hazara African Fulani Igbo Serers Yoruba Albanian Arab Armenian Asian France South Africa United States Assyrian Austrian Azerbaijani Black people African American China South Africa Bengali Brazilian Catalan Chechen Chinese Han people Colombian Croat Dutch English Eritrean Estonian Ethiopian Amhara Oromo Filipino French Finnish Georgian German Greek Haitian Hispanic Hungarian Indian Indonesian Indigenous people Australia Canada United States Iranian Irish Italian Japanese Jewish Eliminationist New Religious Anti-Yiddish Zionist Kazakh Khmer Korean Kurdish Lithuanian Malay Māori Mexican Middle Eastern Mongolian Montenegrin Moroccan Nigerian Pakistani Palestinian Peruvian Polish Portuguese Quebec Romani Romanian Russian Scottish Serb Slavic Somali Spanish Swedish Taiwanese Tatar Thai Tibetan Turkish Ukrainian Uyghur Venezuelan Vietnamese Welsh White people Nationality American Australian Brazilian British Canadian Chilean Inter-Korean North South Manifestations Algorithmic bias Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups Blood libel Bullying Cancel culture Capital punishment for homosexuality Carnism Compulsory sterilization Corrective rape Counter-jihad Cultural genocide Defamation Democide Dog whistle Domicide Economic Education Academic In curricula Sexism Eliminationism Eliminationist antisemitism Employment Enemy of the people Environmental racism Ethnic cleansing Ethnic conflict Ethnic hatred Ethnic joke Ethnocide Excellence Gender-based dress codes Cosmetics policy High heel policy Forced conversion Freak show Gay bashing Gendercide Transgender genocide Transfemicide Genital modification and mutilation Circumcision Female genital mutilation Intersex medical interventions Genocide examples Glass ceiling Hate crime Disability hate crime Violence against LGBTQ people Violence against transgender people Hate group Hate speech Institutional discrimination Institutional racism Homeless dumping Housing Hypergamy Age disparity Indian rolling International inequality Kill Haole Day Lavender Scare LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory Linguicide Lynching Media bias Minority stress Moral exclusion Mortgage Native American mascots Occupational Apartheid Inequality Injustice Segregation Opposition to immigration Paper genocide Persecution Pogrom Political Political repression Ideological repression Purge Racialization Religious persecution Religious terrorism Religious violence Religious war Scapegoating Selective enforcement Selective prosecution Sentencing disparity Sexual harassment Sex-selective abortion Slut-shaming Structural abuse Structural discrimination Structural evil Structural inequality Structural violence Tourismphobia Untermensch Trans bashing Victimisation Violence against women White flight White genocide conspiracy theory Wife selling Witch hunt Discriminatory policies Algorithmic wage discrimination Age of candidacy Apartheid in South Africa in Israel Blood purity Blood quantum Breadwinner model Conscription and sexism Disabilities Catholic Disparate impact Fagging Gender pay gap Gender roles Protecting Women's Private Spaces Act Gerontocracy Gerrymandering Ghetto benches Internment Jewish quota Jewish disabilities Opposition to LGBTQ rights MSM blood donation restrictions No kid zone Numerus clausus (as religious or racial quota) One-drop rule Racial quota Racial steering Redlining Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting) Segregation age racial Jim Crow laws Nuremberg Laws Segregation academy religious sexual in Islam Social exclusion Sodomy law State atheism State religion Transphobia Persecution of transgender people under the second Trump administration V-coding Ugly law Voter suppression White Australia policy Countermeasures Affirmative action Anti-discrimination law Anti-racism Audit study Autistic rights movement Gender-blind Blind audition Constitutional colorblindness Cross-sex friendship Cultural assimilation Cultural pluralism Diversity, equity, and inclusion Diversity training Empowerment Fat acceptance movement Feminism Fighting Discrimination Golden Rule Hate speech laws by country Human rights Intersex human rights Korenizatsiia LGBTQ rights Mad pride Music in the movement against apartheid Racial integration Reappropriation Rock Against Sexism Self-determination Social integration Stop Murder Music Toleration Transgender rights movement Universal suffrage Women's rights Related topics Allophilia Amatonormativity Bias Capital punishment for homosexuality Cisnormativity Civil liberties Criminalization of homosexuality Dehumanization Disease of despair Ethnic penalty Figleaf Heteronormativity Historical eugenics Internalized oppression Intersectionality Lesbian erasure Masculism Nazi concentration camp badge Oikophobia Oppression Police brutality Polyculturalism Power distance Prejudice Prisoner abuse Racial bias in criminal news in the United States Racism by country Racial color blindness Religious intolerance Second-generation gender bias Snobbery Social equity Social exclusion Social model of disability Social privilege Christian male white Social stigma Speciesism Stereotype The talk Triple oppression Category Commons

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Intersectionality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersectionality) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersectionality?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.