# Integrative level

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Set of phenomena emerging from pre-existing phenomena

An **integrative level**, or **level of organization**, is a set of phenomena [emerging](/source/Emergence) from pre-existing phenomena of a lower level. The levels concept is an intellectual framework for structuring reality. It arranges all entities, structures, and processes in the universe, or in a certain [field of study](/source/Field_of_study), into a hierarchy, typically based on how complex their organization is. When arranged this way, each entity is three things at the same time: It is made up of parts from the previous level below. It is a whole in its own right. And it is a part of the whole that is on the next level above. Typical examples include [life](/source/Life) emerging from non-living substances, and [consciousness](/source/Consciousness) emerging from [nervous systems](/source/Nervous_system).

## Levels

The main levels usually acknowledged are those of [matter](/source/Matter), [life](/source/Life), [mind](/source/Mind), and [society](/source/Society). These are called *strata* in philosopher [Nicolai Hartmann](/source/Nicolai_Hartmann)'s [ontology](/source/Ontology). Levels can be further analyzed into more specific *layers*, such as those of particles, atoms, molecules, and rocks forming the material stratum, or those of cells, organisms, populations, and ecosystems forming the life stratum.

The sequence of levels is often described as one of increasing [complexity](/source/Complexity), although it is not clear whether this is always true: for example, [parasitism](/source/Parasitism) emerges on pre-existing organisms, although parasites are often simpler than their originating forms.

## Philosophies

Ideas connected to integrative levels can be found in the works of both [materialist](/source/Materialism) philosophers and [anti-materialist](/source/Idealism) ones. Some philosophers and scientists have argued against certain ideas about levels of organization (see [§ Arguments against levels of organization](#Arguments_against_levels_of_organization)).

## See also

- [Antireductionism](/source/Antireductionism) – Concept in philosophy and psychology

- [Big History](/source/Big_History) – Education strategy or academic discipline

- [Biological organisation](/source/Biological_organisation) – Hierarchy of complex structures and systems within biological sciences

- [Bottom-up and top-down design](/source/Bottom-up_and_top-down_design) – Strategies for composition and decompositionPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

- [Boundary problem (spatial analysis)](/source/Boundary_problem_(spatial_analysis)) – Geographical problem of calculating properties near edges of areas

- [Hierarchy theory](/source/Hierarchy_theory) – Means of studying complex ecological systems

- [Level of analysis](/source/Level_of_analysis) – Location, size, or scale of a research target

- [Levels of analysis (David Marr)](/source/David_Marr_(psychologist)#Levels_of_analysis) – British neuroscientist and psychologistPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

- [Mereology](/source/Mereology) – Study of parts and the wholes they form

- [Mereotopology](/source/Mereotopology) – Branch of metaphysics

- [Model of hierarchical complexity](/source/Model_of_hierarchical_complexity) – Framework for scoring a behavior's complexity

- [Modifiable areal unit problem](/source/Modifiable_areal_unit_problem) – Source of statistical bias

- [Nicolai Hartmann](/source/Nicolai_Hartmann) – German philosopher (1882–1950)

- [Scale of analysis](/source/Scale_(analytical_tool))

- [Spatial scale](/source/Spatial_scale)

- [Structuralism (biology)](/source/Structuralism_(biology)) – Attempt to explain evolution by forces other than natural selection

- [The central science](/source/The_central_science) – Term often associated with chemistry

- [Tree of knowledge system](/source/Tree_of_knowledge_system) – Map of history from Big Bang to present

- [Unity of science](/source/Unity_of_science) – Theory in the philosophy of science

- [Vitalism](/source/Vitalism) – Belief about living organisms

## References

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- [Novikoff, Alex B.](/source/Alex_B._Novikoff) (March 1945). "The concept of integrative levels and biology". *[Science](/source/Science_(journal))*. **101** (2618): 209–215. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1945Sci...101..209N](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1945Sci...101..209N). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1126/science.101.2618.209](https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.101.2618.209). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [1672950](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1672950). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [17814095](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17814095).

- [Hartmann, Nicolai](/source/Nicolai_Hartmann) (1952) [1949]. [*New ways of ontology*](https://archive.org/details/newwaysofontolog00hart) [*Neue Wege der Ontologie*]. Translated by Kuhn, Reinhard C. Chicago: H. Regnery Co. [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [888650](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/888650).

- [Feibleman, James K.](/source/James_Feibleman) (May 1954). "Theory of integrative levels". *[The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science](/source/The_British_Journal_for_the_Philosophy_of_Science)*. **5** (17): 59–66. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/bjps/V.17.59](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbjps%2FV.17.59). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [685952](https://www.jstor.org/stable/685952).

- [Boulding, Kenneth Ewart](/source/Kenneth_E._Boulding) (April 1956). ["General systems theory: the skeleton of science"](http://www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/general_systems_theory_-_the_skeleton_of_science.pdf) (PDF). *[Management Science](/source/Management_Science_(journal))*. **2** (3): 197–208. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1287/mnsc.2.3.197](https://doi.org/10.1287%2Fmnsc.2.3.197). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2627132](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2627132).

- [Sellars, Roy Wood](/source/Roy_Wood_Sellars) (September 1959). "Levels of causality: the emergence of guidance and reason in nature". *[Philosophy and Phenomenological Research](/source/Philosophy_and_Phenomenological_Research)*. **20** (1): 1–17. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/2104949](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2104949). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2104949](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2104949).

- [Simon, Herbert A.](/source/Herbert_A._Simon) (December 1962). "The architecture of complexity". *[Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society](/source/Proceedings_of_the_American_Philosophical_Society)*. **106** (6): 467–482. [CiteSeerX](/source/CiteSeerX_(identifier)) [10.1.1.110.961](https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.110.961). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [985254](https://www.jstor.org/stable/985254).

- [Bertalanffy, Ludwig von](/source/Ludwig_von_Bertalanffy) (1968). [*General system theory: foundations, development, applications*](https://archive.org/details/generalsystemthe0000bert). New York: G. Braziller. [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [1465](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1465).

- [Bunge, Mario](/source/Mario_Bunge) (1973). ["The metaphysics, epistemology and methodology of levels"](https://books.google.com/books?id=2bUqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA160). *Method, model, and matter*. Synthese library. Dordrecht; Boston: [D. Reidel](/source/D._Reidel). pp. 160–168. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-94-010-2519-5_9](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-010-2519-5_9). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9027702527](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9027702527). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [613670](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/613670).

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- [Greenberg, Gary](/source/Gary_Greenberg_(psychologist)); [Tobach, Ethel](/source/Ethel_Tobach), eds. (1984). [*Behavioral evolution and integrative levels*](https://books.google.com/books?id=4CiiAwAAQBAJ). The [T. C. Schneirla](/source/T._C._Schneirla) conference series. Vol. 1. Hillsdale, NJ: [Lawrence Erlbaum Associates](/source/Lawrence_Erlbaum_Associates). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0898593638](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0898593638). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [10997500](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/10997500).

- O'Neill, Robert V.; Deangelis, Donald Lee; Waide, J. B.; [Allen, Timothy F. H.](/source/Timothy_F._H._Allen) (1986). [*A hierarchical concept of ecosystems*](https://archive.org/details/hierarchicalconc00onei). Monographs in population biology. Vol. 23. Princeton, NJ: [Princeton University Press](/source/Princeton_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [069108436X](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/069108436X). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [13526197](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/13526197).

- [Greenberg, Gary](/source/Gary_Greenberg_(psychologist)); [Tobach, Ethel](/source/Ethel_Tobach), eds. (1987). [*Cognition, language, and consciousness: integrative levels*](https://books.google.com/books?id=FfmGWzzcSooC). The [T. C. Schneirla](/source/T._C._Schneirla) conference series. Vol. 2. Hillsdale, NJ: [Lawrence Erlbaum Associates](/source/Lawrence_Erlbaum_Associates). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0898597226](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0898597226). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [15317589](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/15317589).

- [Blitz, David](/source/David_Blitz) (1992). [*Emergent evolution: qualitative novelty and the levels of reality*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Hm0yBwAAQBAJ). Episteme. Vol. 19. Dordrecht; Boston: [Kluwer Academic Publishers](/source/Kluwer_Academic_Publishers). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-94-015-8042-7](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-015-8042-7). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0792316584](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0792316584). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [25370568](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/25370568).

- Pettersson, Max (1996). [*Complexity and evolution*](https://books.google.com/books?id=7QzDeRm6FK8C). Cambridge, UK; New York: [Cambridge University Press](/source/Cambridge_University_Press). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/CBO9780511565564](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511565564). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [052145400X](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/052145400X). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [34543726](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/34543726). Foreword by [Joseph Needham](/source/Joseph_Needham).

- Poli, Roberto (September 2001). "The basic problem of the theory of levels of reality". *Axiomathes*. **12** (3–4): 261–283. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1023/A:1015845217681](https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1015845217681).

- [Bunge, Mario](/source/Mario_Bunge) (2003). [*Emergence and convergence: qualitative novelty and the unity of knowledge*](https://books.google.com/books?id=3UxhBgAAQBAJ). Toronto studies in philosophy. Toronto: [University of Toronto Press](/source/University_of_Toronto_Press). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3138/9781442674356](https://doi.org/10.3138%2F9781442674356). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0802088600](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0802088600). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [52411064](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/52411064).

- DiFrisco, James (August 2017). "Time scales and levels of organization". *[Erkenntnis](/source/Erkenntnis)*. **82** (4): 795–818. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/s10670-016-9844-4](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10670-016-9844-4).

- Brooks, Daniel Stephen; Eronen, Markus I. (June 2018). ["The significance of levels of organization for scientific research: a heuristic approach"](https://research.rug.nl/files/78646937/63410204_4521941_BrooksEronen2018.pdf) (PDF). *Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences*. 68–69: 34–41. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.shpsc.2018.04.003](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.shpsc.2018.04.003). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [29653763](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29653763).

- Brooks, Daniel Stephen; DiFrisco, James; [Wimsatt, William C.](/source/William_C._Wimsatt), eds. (2021). *Levels of organization in the biological sciences*. Vienna series in theoretical biology. Cambridge, MA: [MIT Press](/source/MIT_Press). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.7551/mitpress/12389.001.0001](https://doi.org/10.7551%2Fmitpress%2F12389.001.0001). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780262045339](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780262045339). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [1184123324](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1184123324).

### Arguments against levels of organization

- Eronen, Markus I.; Brooks, Daniel Stephen (5 February 2018). ["Levels of organization in biology"](https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2018/entries/levels-org-biology/). In [Zalta, Edward N.](/source/Edward_N._Zalta) (ed.). *[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy](/source/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy)* (Spring 2018 ed.). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1095-5054](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1095-5054). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [429049174](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/429049174). See the section: ["2.4 Levels skepticism and deflationary accounts"](https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2018/entries/levels-org-biology/#LeveSkepDeflAcco).

- Eronen, Markus I. (January 2015). ["Levels of organization: a deflationary account"](https://philpapers.org/archive/EROLOO.pdf) (PDF). *[Biology and Philosophy](/source/Biology_and_Philosophy)*. **30** (1): 39–58. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/s10539-014-9461-z](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10539-014-9461-z).

- Eronen, Markus I. (3 August 2015). ["Are there levels out there?"](http://scientiasalon.wordpress.com/2015/08/03/are-there-levels-out-there/). *scientiasalon.wordpress.com*. Retrieved 20 December 2019.

- Eronen, Markus I. (December 2013). ["No levels, no problems: downward causation in neuroscience"](https://research.rug.nl/files/62438349/No_Levels_No_Problems.pdf) (PDF). *[Philosophy of Science](/source/Philosophy_of_Science_(journal))*. **80** (5): 1042–1052. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/673898](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F673898). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [10.1086/673898](https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/673898).

- Guttman, Burton S. (February 1976). "Is 'levels of organization' a useful biological concept?". *[BioScience](/source/BioScience)*. **26** (2): 112–113. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/1297326](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1297326). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [1297326](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1297326).

- Noble, Denis (February 2012). ["A theory of biological relativity: no privileged level of causation"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3262309). *Interface Focus*. **2** (1): 55–64. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1098/rsfs.2011.0067](https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsfs.2011.0067). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [3262309](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3262309). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [23386960](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23386960).

- Potochnik, Angela (2017). ["Levels and fields of science"](https://books.google.com/books?id=FeU3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA161). *Idealization and the aims of science*. Chicago: [University of Chicago Press](/source/University_of_Chicago_Press). pp. 161–197. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.7208/chicago/9780226507194.001.0001](https://doi.org/10.7208%2Fchicago%2F9780226507194.001.0001). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780226507057](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226507057). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [975478843](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/975478843).

- Potochnik, Angela (2021). ["Our world isn't organized into levels"](https://philpapers.org/archive/POTOWI.pdf) (PDF). In Brooks, Daniel S.; DiFrisco, James; Wimsatt, William C. (eds.). *Levels of organization in the biological sciences*. Vienna series in theoretical biology. Cambridge, MA: [MIT Press](/source/MIT_Press). pp. 61–76. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.7551/mitpress/12389.003.0007](https://doi.org/10.7551%2Fmitpress%2F12389.003.0007). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780262045339](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780262045339). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [1184123324](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1184123324).

- Potochnik, Angela; McGill, Brian J. (January 2012). ["The limitations of hierarchical organization"](http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/19012/1/POTTLO-2.1.pdf) (PDF). *[Philosophy of Science](/source/Philosophy_of_Science_(journal))*. **79** (1): 120–140. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/663237](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F663237). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [10.1086/663237](https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/663237).

- Schaffer, Jonathan (September 2003). ["Is there a fundamental level?"](http://www.jonathanschaffer.org/fundamental.pdf) (PDF). *[Noûs](/source/No%C3%BBs)*. **37** (3): 498–517. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/1468-0068.00448](https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1468-0068.00448). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [3506125](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3506125).

- Thalos, Mariam (2013). [*Without hierarchy: the scale freedom of the universe*](https://books.google.com/books?id=EWU-e4uCRMEC). Oxford; New York: [Oxford University Press](/source/Oxford_University_Press). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199917648.001.0001](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780199917648.001.0001). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780199917648](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199917648). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [827008044](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/827008044).

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